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Im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit wurden modifizierte Nukleoside synthetisiert, um ihren Einfluss auf die Stabilität von RNA-Duplexen zu untersuchen. Bei den fluorierten Benzimidazol-Nukleosidanaloga handelt es sich um universelle Basen, die bei der Basenpaarung nicht zwischen den vier natürlichen Nukleosiden unterscheiden können. Die dabei auftretende Destabilisierung der RNA-Duplexe sollte durch die Änderung physikalisch-chemischer Eigenschaften vermindert werden. Durch die Synthese der fluorierten Indol-Nukleosidanaloga mit denselben Fluoratompositionen sollte nachgewiesen werden, welche Rolle ein ausfallendes Stickstoffatom im Fünfring-System spielt. Weitere Untersuchungen wurden so entwickelt, dass die zwei spC-F in 4,6DFBI wie auch in 4,6DFI mit Stickstoffatomen getauscht wurden. So wurde noch eine neue Serie Nukleosidanaloga synthetisiert (Abbildung 9.2). Schließlich wurde noch 1-Desoxy-D-ribofuranose AS als absischer Baustein synthetisiert. Die Synthese der Indol- und 9-Deazapurin-Nukleosidanaloga wurde über eine Glycsilierungsreaktion mit geeignet geschützter Deoxyribose durchgeführt. Dies wurde über vier Stufen, ohne Aufreinigung, aus Deoxyribose synthetisiert. Die entsprechenden Deoxy-nukleoside wurden danach in fünf Schritten zu Ribo-nukleosiden transformiert. Nach der Entschützung von Toluoyl-Gruppen wurden die 5´- und 3´-OH Gruppen sukzessiv geschützt. Nach simultaner 5´-OH Entschützung und 3´-OMs Eliminierung, wurden die gewünschten Ribonukleoside durch katalytische Dihydroxilierung erhalten. Die Darstellung der Verbindung 7NP erfolgte über die Silyl-Hilbert-Johnson-Reaktion. Der abasische Baustein AS wurde ausgehend von 2,3,5-Tri-O-benzyl-ribofuranose durch Dehydroxylierung und anschließende Entschützung erreicht. Von allen Nukleosiden gelang es Kristalle aus Wasser oder Methanol zu erhalten und röntgenkristallographisch zu untersuchen. Die Kristallpackungen zeigten eine sehr interessante Anordnung der Moleküle. Alle Fluorindol-Nukleoside mit Ausnahme von 7-N-Purin-Nukleosid 7NP zeigten nicht die für aromatische Systeme normale Fischgräten-Struktur, sondern eine Anordnung, in der die Moleküle gegenüberliegen. Die Kristallpackung besteht abwechselnd aus hydrophilen und lipophilen Schichten. Die hydrophilen Schichten bestehen aus den Zuckeruntereinheiten und die lipophilen aus den Fluoraromaten. Die Zucker sind durch Wasserstoffbrücken miteinander verbunden. Für die Orientierung der Moleküle zueinander sind aber die Fluoratome verantwortlich. In der Kristallpackung von 7-Fluorindol-Nukleosid 7FI kann ein Fluor-Wasserstoff-Abstand von nur 230 pm detektiert werden. Dies ist deutlich kürzer als die Summe der van-der-Waals Radien von Fluor und Wasserstoff von 2,55 Å. Der Abstand wird zwischen dem Fluor des einen Nukleosids und einem Wasserstoff eines gegenüberliegenden Nukleosids gemessen. Der Abstand von 2,30 Å ist einer der kürzesten jemals in Kristallen gemessenen F-H Abstände des Typs Csp²-F...H-Csp². Bedingt durch diesen kurzen Abstand kann von einer F...H Wasserstoffbrücke gesprochen werden. Auf der anderen Seite in der Kristallstruktur von 4-Fluorindol-Nukleosid 4FI konnte ein F-H Abstand von 2,69 Å nachgewiesen werden, welcher deutlich länger als die Summe der van-der-Waals Radien von Fluor und Wasserstoff ist. Die Nukleoside wurden auf ihre Lipophilie hin untersucht. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Octanol-Wasser Verteilungskoeffizienten der Nukleoside gemessen. Die fluorierten Nukleoside zeigten im Gegensatz zu den nichtfluorierten Nukleosiden eine deutlich größere Lipophilie. Nach Umsetzung der Nukleoside zu den Phosphoramiditen konnten diese kupplungsfähigen Monomere in den RNA-Festphasensynthesen eingesetzt und in RNA 12mere eingebaut werden. Um den Einfluss der aromatischen Fluorosubstitutionen auf die thermodynamische Stabilität von RNA-Duplexen zu untersuchen, wurden UV/VIS- und CD- spektroskopische Messungen an monomodifizierten RNA 12meren durchgeführt. Aus den erhaltenen Schmelzkurven wurden die Schmelzpunkte bestimmt (Abbildung 9.3) und die thermodynamischen Daten ausgerechnet. Die Anwendung hydrophober, Fluorsubstituierter Nukleobasen führte im Fall der fluorierten Indol-Nukleoside zu Destabilisierung im Vergleich mit natürlichen Basenpaaren. Aus den folgenden Resultaten lässt sich zusammenfassen: 1. Position der Fluoratom in fluorierten Indole spielt eine wesentliche Rolle für die Stabilität des RNA-Duplex 2. 6FI bildet die stabilste Basenpaaren mit natürlichen Basen. 3. Basenpaarung von 4FI trägt eine deutlich höhere Destabilisierung. Für diese Modifikation wurden auch die längsten Abstandwerte zwischen C-F…H in der Kristallpackung gemessen. (Die Vermutung liegt nahe, dass diese Base sich außerhalb des Duplex befindet). 4. Alle Fluorindol-Basenanaloga zeigen die Tendenz zur Paarung mit Adenosin. 5. Bei 4,6DFI handelt sich um universelle Base. Um noch weniger destabilisierende universelle Basen zu finden, wurde das Forschungsfeld mit Methoden aus dem Bereich der strukturellen Bioinformatik, Molekül-dynamiksimulationen und freie Energie-Rechnungen ausgeweitet. Resultierende Simulationen führten zu zwei neuen Basen: 7NP als Analogon zu 4,6DFBI und 9DP als Analogon zu 4,6DFI (siehe Kapitel 8). Theoretische Rechnungen ließen sich bestätigen durch experimentelle Ergebnisse Die so entstandene Serie von Purin-Basenanaloga hat uns gezeigt, dass der Austausch von Fluoratomen durch Stickstoffatome stabilisierende Effekte bringt. Die chemischen Änderungen beeinflussen die physikalischen Eigenschaften, welche dadurch Stabilisierung oder Destabilisierung des RNA-Duuplex dirigieren. In Abbildung 9.5 befinden sich ausgerechnete Dipolmomente. Somit können wir für diese Serie folgendes resümieren: * 4,6FI als universelles Base Analogon zu 4,6DFBI zeigt geringere destabilisierende Effekte auf den 12mer RNA-Duplex. * Umtausch von Fluoratomen in den beiden Basen (4,6DFI und 4,6DFBI) resultiert in deutlich besserer Basenpaarung. * Auserrechnete thermodynamische Parametern (von gemessenen Tm-Werten) wurde ersichtlicht, dass höhere Tm-Werte durch geringere Destabilisierung aus Solvatation resultieren, nicht aus erhöhten Stacking Effekten des RNA-Duplex.
Structural analysis of the enzyme N-formylmethanofuran:tetrahydromethanopterin formyltransferase
(2008)
Archaea represent a third domain of life and some archaea exhibit a high degree of tolerance to extreme environmental conditions. Several members are methanogens and present in many anaerobic environments. Most methanogens are able to maintain growth simply on H2 and CO2 via the enzymatically catalyzed reaction 4H2 + CO2 > CH4 + 2 H2O. The archaeon Methanopyrus kandleri grows optimally at temperatures of 84°C to 110°C, pH values of 5.5 to 7.0 and NaCl concentrations 0.2% to 4%. The enzyme N-formylmethanofuran tetrahydromethanopterin formyltransferase (MkFTR) catalyzes the transfer of a formyl group from the cofactor N-formylmethanofuran (FMF) to the cofactor tetrahydromethanopterin (H4MPT), the second step of the above reaction. X-ray crystallographic analysis yielded insights into the structure and function of MkFTR, (1) the MkFTR monomer exhibits a pseudo-two fold structure suggestive of an evolutionary gene duplication. (2) The structure is a D2 homo-tetramer with prominent cleft-like surface features. Analysis of the interface contacts showed that the tetramer is best described as a dimer of dimers. The clefts were associated with the monomer:monomer interface and were weakly occupied by extra electron density which might be attributed to the H4MPT analog folate. (3) This suggested that the clefts are active sites and their association with oligomer interfaces suggested a basis for the dependence of activity on oligomerization. (4) The thermal stability of MkFTR most likely arises from the greater number of H- and ionic-bonds within the monomer and between monomers with respect to mesophilic protein structures. (5) The structure showed a large number of surface exposed negatively charged, glutamate and aspartate residues. These residues explain the salt dependent oligomerization, as only at high enough salt concentration is the electrostatic charge compensated by cation binding and neutralized allowing oligomerization. (6) These residues also improve the solubility of MkFTR at high salt concentration by increased charge repulsion. (7) Comparison of MkFTR structures from low and hight salt conditions showed that surface glutamate residues bind slightly more water molecules at high salt conditions further contributing to MkFTR solubility at high salt concentration.
The Na+,K+-ATPase was discovered more than 50 years ago, but even today the pumpcycle and its partial reactions are still not completely understood. In this thesis, Voltage Clamp Fluorometry was used to monitor the conformational changes that are associated with several electrogenic partial reactions of the Na+,K+-ATPase. The conformational dynamics of the ion pump were analyzed at different concentrations of internal Na+ or of external K+ and the influences on the conformational equilibrium were determined. To probe the effect of the internal Na+ concentration on the Na+ branch of the ion pump, oocytes were first depleted of internal Na+ and then loaded with Na+ using the epithelial sodium channel which can be blocked by amiloride. The conformational dynamics of the K+ branch were studied using different external K+ concentrations in the presence and in the absence of external Na+ to yield additional information on the apparent affinity of K+. The results of our Voltage Clamp Fluorometry experiments demonstrate that lowering the intracellular concentration of Na+ has a comparable effect on the conformational equilibrium as increasing the amount of K+ in the external solution. Both of these changes shift the equilibrium towards the E1/E1(P) conformation. Furthermore, it can be shown that the ratio between external Na+ and K+ ions is also a determinant for the position of the conformational equilibrium: in the absence of external Na+, the K+ dependent shift of the equilibrium towards E1 was observed at a much lower K+ concentration than in the presence of Na+. In addition, indications were found that both external K+ and internal Na+ bind within an ion well. Finally, the crucial role of negatively charged glutamate residues in the 2nd extracellular loop for the control of ion-access to the binding sites could be verified.
RNA interference (RNAi) is triggered by recognition of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and elicits the silencing of gene(s) complementary to the dsRNA sequence. RNAi is thought to have emerged as a way of safeguarding the genome against mobile genetic elements and viral infection, thus maintaining genomic integrity. dsRNA is first processed into small interfering RNAs (siRNA) by the enzyme Dicer. siRNAs are ~21 to 25 -nt long, and contain a signature 5’ phosphate group and a two nucleotide long 3’ overhang (Bernstein et al., 2001). The siRNA is then loaded into the RNA-induced si-lencing complex (RISC), of which Argonaute is the primary catalytic component (Liu et al., 2004). Energetic asymmetry of the siRNA ends allows for its directional loading into RISC (Khvorova et al., 2003; Schwarz et al., 2003). Argonaute cleaves the passen-ger strand of the siRNA, leaving the guide strand of the siRNA bound to RISC (Gregory et al., 2005; Matranga et al., 2005; Rand et al., 2005). This single-stranded guide strand siRNA bound to Argonaute is able to recognize target mRNA in a sequence-specific manner, and cleaves the mRNA. Argonaute 2 in complex with single-stranded siRNA is sufficient for mRNA recognition and cleavage, thus forming a minimal RISC (Rivas et al., 2005). miRNAs, endogenously expressed small RNA genes which typically contain mismatches and non-Watson-Crick base pairing, are processed by this general pathway, although typically modulate gene expression by translational repression as opposed to cleavage of their target mRNA. The number of Argonaute genes is highly variable between species, ranging from one in S. pombe to twenty-seven in C. elegans. Earlier crystal structures of Argonaute apoen-zymes show the architecture of Argonaute to be a multidomain protein composed of N terminal, PAZ, MID, and PIWI domains (Song et al., 2004; Yuan et al., 2005). These multi-domain proteins are present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. The role of Argonaute proteins in prokaryotes is still unknown, but based similarity to eu-karyotic Argonautes, they may also be involved in nucleic acid-directed regulatory pathways. These proteins have served as excellent models for learning about the struc-ture and function of this family of proteins. RNAi has found a widespread application for the simple yet effective knockdown of genes of interest. The catalytic cycle of RISC requires the binding of a number of different nucleotide structures to Argonaute, and we expect Argonaute to undergo a number of conforma-tional changes during the cycle of mRNA recognition by RISC (Filipowicz, 2005; Tom-ari and Zamore, 2005). Nevertheless, it remains unclear how the multi-domain ar-rangement of Argonaute recognizes and distinguishes between single-stranded and dou-ble-stranded oligonucleotides, which correspond to the Dicer-processed siRNA product, guide strand siRNA, and the guide strand / mRNA duplex. The Argonaute protein from Aquifex aeolicus was cloned, expressed, crystallized and solved by molecular replacement. Relative to earlier Argonaute structures, a 24° reorientation of the PAZ domain in this structure opens a basic cleft between the N-terminal and PAZ domains, exposing the guide strand binding pocket of PAZ. A 5.5-ns molecular dynamics simulation of Argonaute showed a strong tendency of the PAZ and N-terminal domains to be mobile. Binding of single-stranded DNA to Argonaute was monitored by total internal reflection fluorescence spectroscopy (TIRFS). The experi-ments showed biphasic kinetics indicative of large conformational changes, and re-vealed a hotspot of binding energy corresponding to the first 9 nucleotides, the so-called “seed region” most crucial for sequence-specific target recognition. As RNAi may have evolved as a way of safeguarding the genome viral infection, it is not surprising that viruses have evolved different strategies to suppress the host RNAi response in the form of viral suppressor protein. (Hock and Meister, 2008; Lecellier and Voinnet, 2004; Rashid et al., 2007; Song et al., 2004; Vastenhouw and Plasterk, 2004). These viral suppressors are widespread, having been identified in a number of different viral families. Not surprisingly, they generally share little sequence homology with one another, although they appear to exist as oligomers built upon a ~ 100-200 amino acid protomer. Tomato aspermy virus, a member of the Cucumoviruses, encodes for protein 2B (TAV 2B, 95 a.a., ~11.3 kDa) that acts as an RNAi suppressor. Intriguingly, a similar genomic arrangement is seen in RNAi suppressors in the Nodaviruses, a family of viruses that can infect both plants and animals, such as Flock house virus b2 (FHV b2). The 2B and b2 proteins are both derived from a frameshifted ORF within the RNA polymerase gene (Chao et al., 2005). In spite of this genomic similarity, the 2B and b2 proteins share little sequence identity, and it is not well understood how the Cucumovirus 2B proteins suppress RNAi. To address how TAV 2B suppresses RNAi, the oligonucleotide-binding properties of TAV 2B were studied. TAV 2B shows a preference for double-stranded RNA oligonucleotides corresponding to siRNAs and miRNAs, and also binds to single-stranded RNA oligonucleotides. A stretch of positively charged residues between amino acids 20-30 are critical for RNA binding. Binding to RNA oligomerizes and induces a conformational change in TAV 2B into a primarily helical structure. These studies sug-gest that suppression of RNAi by TAV 2B may occur by targeting different stages of the RNAi pathway. TAV 2B falls under the category of more general RNAi suppres-sors, with potentially multiple targets for suppression.
The title compound, C16H14N2O2, was derived from 1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,3-dione. The molecule is essentially planar (r.m.s. deviation for all non-H atoms = 0.089 Å). Two intramolecular hydrogen bonds stabilize the molecular conformation and one N-H...O hydrogen bond stabilizes the crystal structure. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.003 Å; R factor = 0.035; wR factor = 0.091; data-to-parameter ratio = 9.3.
The title compound, [Fe2(C5H5)2(C24H22BP2)(CO)4][FeCl4]·CHCl3, is an oxidation product of CpFe(CO)2PPh2BH3. One pair of phenyl rings attached to the two different P atoms are almost parallel, as are the other pair [dihedral angles = 8.7 (5) and 8.9 (5)°]. The planes of the two cyclopentadienyl rings are inclined by 26.8 (7)° with respect to each other. The carbonyl groups at each Fe atom are almost perpendicular [C-Fe-C = 92.6 (6) and 94.3 (5)°]. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.019 Å; R factor = 0.112; wR factor = 0.177; data-to-parameter ratio = 16.8.
Geometric parameters of the title compound, C24H20N2O2S, are in the usual ranges. The central heterocycle makes dihedral angles of 41.29 (4) and 72.94 (5)° with the phenyl ring and the methoxyphenyl ring, respectively. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; R factor = 0.038; wR factor = 0.103; data-to-parameter ratio = 14.1.
The title compound, [Re2(OH)(C10H8N2)2(CO)6][ReO4], is a mixed-valence rhenium compound containing discrete anions and cations. The ReI atoms are in a slightly distorted octahedral environment, whereas the ReVII atoms show the typical tetrahedral coordination mode. The dihedral angle between the two bipyridine groups is 34.3 (7)°. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.044 Å; R factor = 0.093; wR factor = 0.262; data-to-parameter ratio = 13.9.
In the title compound, C14H12N2O3, the dihedral angle between the two aromatic rings is 41.48 (5)°. The nitro group is twisted by 24.7 (3)° out of the plane of the aromatic ring to which it is attached. The molecules are connected by N-H...O hydrogen bonds into chains running along the alpha axis. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 273 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.003 Å; R factor = 0.031; wR factor = 0.078; data-to-parameter ratio = 7.7.
Geometric parameters of the title compound, C14H12N2O4, are in the usual ranges. The dihedral angle between the two aromatic rings is 28.9 (1)°. The nitro group is twisted by 40.2 (1)° out of the plane of the aromatic ring to which it is attached. The crystal structure is stabilized by an N-H...O hydrogen bond. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.004 Å; R factor = 0.045; wR factor = 0.111; data-to-parameter ratio = 7.3.