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The acetogenic model bacterium Acetobacterium woodii is well-known to produce acetate by homoacetogenesis from sugars, but under certain conditions minor amounts of ethanol are produced in addition. Here, we have aimed to identify physiological conditions that increase electron and carbon flow towards ethanol production. Ethanol was only produced from fructose but not from H2 + CO2, formate, pyruvate, lactate or alanine. In the absence of Na+, the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway (WLP) of acetate formation is not functional. Therefore, the ethanol yield increased to 0.42 mol/mol (ethanol/fructose) with an ethanol/acetate ratio of 0.28 mol/mol. The presence of bicarbonate/CO2 stimulated electron and carbon flow through the WLP and led to less ethanol produced. Of the 11 potential alcohol dehydrogenase genes, the most upregulated during ethanologenesis was adh4. A deletion of adh4 led to an increase in ethanol production by 100% to a yield of 0.79 mol/mol (ethanol/fructose); this correlated with an increase in transcript abundance of adh6. In sum, our studies revealed low Na+ and bicarbonate/CO2 as factors that trigger ethanol formation and that a deletion of adh4 drastically increased ethanol formation in A. woodii.
Invasive alien species are a well-known and pervasive threat to global biodiversity and human well-being. Despite substantial impacts of invasive alien species, quantitative syntheses of monetary costs incurred from invasions in national economies are often missing. As a consequence, adequate resource allocation for management responses to invasions has been inhibited, because cost-benefit analysis of management actions cannot be derived. To determine the economic cost of invasions in Germany, a Central European country with the 4th largest GDP in the world, we analysed published data collected from the first global assessment of economic costs of invasive alien species. Overall, economic costs were estimated at US$ 9.8 billion between 1960 and 2020, including US$ 8.9 billion in potential costs. The potential costs were mostly linked to extrapolated costs of the American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus, the black cherry Prunus serotina and two mammals: the muskrat Ondatra zibethicus and the American mink Neovison vison. Observed costs were driven by a broad range of taxa and mostly associated with control-related spending and resource damages or losses. We identified a considerable increase in costs relative to previous estimates and through time. Importantly, of the 2,249 alien and 181 invasive species reported in Germany, only 28 species had recorded economic costs. Therefore, total quantifications of invasive species costs here should be seen as very conservative. Our findings highlight a distinct lack of information in the openly-accessible literature and governmental sources on invasion costs at the national level, masking the highly-probable existence of much greater costs of invasions in Germany. In addition, given that invasion rates are increasing, economic costs are expected to further increase. The evaluation and reporting of economic costs need to be improved in order to deliver a basis for effective mitigation and management of invasions on national and international economies.
Traditional beekeeping has been playing important socio-economic roles in Ethiopia for millennia. The country is situated in northeast Africa, where ranges of major evolutionary lineages of Apis mellifera adjoin. However, studies on the classification and distribution of subspecies and lineages of honey bees in the country are partly inconsistent, either proposing multiple subspecies and lineages or a unique A. m. simensis. This study was conducted with the aim of elucidating Ethiopian honey bees in reference to African subspecies and major global lineages using wing geometric morphometrics and COI-COII mitochondrial DNA analyses. For this purpose, 660 worker bees were collected from 66 colonies representing highland, midland, and lowland zones in different locations. Both methods indicated that the samples from this study form a distinct cluster together with A. m. simensis reference. In addition, forewing venation patterns showed that most of the Ethiopian samples are separate from all reference subspecies, except A. m. simensis. Analysis of COI-COII sequences revealed five DraI haplotypes (Y2, Y1, A1, and O5’), of which one was new denoted as Y3. Moreover, centroid size strongly associated with elevation. In conclusion, the results supported that Ethiopian honey bees are distinct both at lineage and subspecies levels; however, there is an indication of lineage O in the north.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifarious clinical presentation. Even though many genetic risk factors have been identified and studied in mouse models, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the autistic phenotype are still unclear. Based on the high rates of comorbidity with epilepsy, it was hypothesized that the balance between excitation and inhibition in neural circuits may be disrupted in autistic individuals.
In this dissertation, synaptic and network activity was measured in three different genetically modified mouse models that exhibit the characteristic behavioral abnormalities of the disorder: the Neurobeachin (Nbea) haploinsufficient mouse, the Neuroligin-3 (Nlgn3) knockout (KO) mouse, and the Neuroligin-4 (Nlgn4) KO mouse. Each of the affected proteins is involved in the formation and/or function of synapses in the central nervous system. Therefore, it was posited that the reduction or deletion of these proteins might alter the balance of excitatory to inhibitory synaptic transmission in individual neurons and in neural circuits. Extracellular recordings in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of anesthetized mice revealed that the excitation-inhibition (E-I) balance was reduced in Nbea haploinsufficient and Nlgn4 KO mice, but unchanged in Nlgn3 KO mice despite a reduction in excitatory synaptic transmission to dentate granule cells. Unexpectedly, the intrinsic excitability of dentate granule cells was altered in all three mouse models. These results imply that a homeostatic increase in the intrinsic excitability is able to compensate for the decreased excitatory transmission in Nlgn3 KO mice, whereas the decreased intrinsic excitability in the Nbea haploinsufficient and Nlgn4 KO mice leads to a reduction in the E-I balance. Taken together, these findings suggest that the influence of genetic factors on the E-I balance might be a potential common mechanism underlying the development of ASD.
The methylene-tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is a key enzyme in acetogenic CO2 fixation. The MetVF-type enzyme has been purified from four different species and the physiological electron donor was hypothesized to be reduced ferredoxin. We have purified the MTHFR from Clostridium ljungdahlii to apparent homogeneity. It is a dimer consisting of two of MetVF heterodimers, has 14.9 ± 0.2 mol iron per mol enzyme, 16.2 ± 1.0 mol acid-labile sulfur per mol enzyme, and contains 1.87 mol FMN per mol dimeric heterodimer. NADH and NADPH were not used as electron donor, but reduced ferredoxin was. Based on the published electron carrier specificities for Clostridium formicoaceticum, Thermoanaerobacter kivui, Eubacterium callanderi, and Clostridium aceticum, we provide evidence using metabolic models that reduced ferredoxin cannot be the physiological electron donor in vivo, since growth by acetogenesis from H2 + CO2 has a negative ATP yield. We discuss the possible basis for the discrepancy between in vitro and in vivo functions and present a model how the MetVF-type MTHFR can be incorporated into the metabolism, leading to a positive ATP yield. This model is also applicable to acetogenesis from other substrates and proves to be feasible also to the Ech-containing acetogen T. kivui as well as to methanol metabolism in E. callanderi.
The SARS-CoV-2 virus is the cause of the respiratory disease COVID-19. As of today, therapeutic interventions in severe COVID-19 cases are still not available as no effective therapeutics have been developed so far. Despite the ongoing development of a number of effective vaccines, therapeutics to fight the disease once it has been contracted will still be required. Promising targets for the development of antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2 can be found in the viral RNA genome. The 5′- and 3′-genomic ends of the 30 kb SCoV-2 genome are highly conserved among Betacoronaviruses and contain structured RNA elements involved in the translation and replication of the viral genome. The 40 nucleotides (nt) long highly conserved stem-loop 4 (5_SL4) is located within the 5′-untranslated region (5′-UTR) important for viral replication. 5_SL4 features an extended stem structure disrupted by several pyrimidine mismatches and is capped by a pentaloop. Here, we report extensive 1H, 13C, 15N and 31P resonance assignments of 5_SL4 as the basis for in-depth structural and ligand screening studies by solution NMR spectroscopy.
Accurate determination of the evolutionary relationships between genes is a foundational challenge in biology. Homology—evolutionary relatedness—is in many cases readily determined based on sequence similarity analysis. By contrast, whether or not two genes directly descended from a common ancestor by a speciation event (orthologs) or duplication event (paralogs) is more challenging, yet provides critical information on the history of a gene. Since 2009, this task has been the focus of the Quest for Orthologs (QFO) Consortium. The sixth QFO meeting took place in Okazaki, Japan in conjunction with the 67th National Institute for Basic Biology conference. Here, we report recent advances, applications, and oncoming challenges that were discussed during the conference. Steady progress has been made toward standardization and scalability of new and existing tools. A feature of the conference was the presentation of a panel of accessible tools for phylogenetic profiling and several developments to bring orthology beyond the gene unit—from domains to networks. This meeting brought into light several challenges to come: leveraging orthology computations to get the most of the incoming avalanche of genomic data, integrating orthology from domain to biological network levels, building better gene models, and adapting orthology approaches to the broad evolutionary and genomic diversity recognized in different forms of life and viruses.
Peronospora belbahrii is one of the most destructive downy mildew diseases that has emerged throughout the past two decades. Due to the lack of quarantine regulations and its possible seed-borne nature, it has spread globally and is now present in most areas in which basil is produced. While most obligate biotrophic, plant parasitic oomycetes are highly host-specific, there are a few that have a wider host range, e.g. Albugo candida, Bremia tulasnei, and Pseudoperonospora cubensis. Recently, it was shown that Peronospora belbahrii is able to infect Rosmarinus, Nepetia, and Micromeria in Israel in cross-infection trials, hinting an extended host range for also this pathogen. In this study, a newly occurring downy mildew pathogen on lavender was investigated with respect to its morphology and phylogeny, and it is shown that it belongs to Peronospora belbahrii as well. Thus, it seems that Peronospora belbahrii is currently extending its host range to additional members of the tribe Mentheae and Ocimeae. Therefore, it seems advisable to scrutinise all commonly used members of these tribes in order to avoid further spread of virulent genotypes.
In Zeiten der globalen Klimaerwärmung und des Klimawandels werden Strategien zur Vermeidung, Reduzierung oder Wiederverwertung von CO2-Emissionen sowie die Abkehr von fossilen Energieträgern immer wichtiger. Aus diesem Grund finden Technologien zur Bindung, Speicherung und Wiederverwertung von CO2 immer größere Aufmerksamkeit und diverse chemische als auch biologische Ansätze werden verfolgt. Eine dieser Möglichkeiten umfasst die Reduktion von CO2 mit Hilfe von molekularem Wasserstoff. Im Prozess der direkten Hydrogenierung von CO2 zu Ameisensäure bzw. Formiat wird nicht nur CO2 gebunden, sondern ebenfalls H2 in flüssiger Form gespeichert. Die Ameisensäure weist gegenüber dem hochflüchtigen Wasserstoffgas verschiedene Vorteile auf und zählt zu der Gruppe der flüssigen, organischen Wasserstoffspeicherverbindungen. Daneben ist das Einsatzgebiet von Ameisensäure als Ausgangstoff für Chemikalien oder als mikrobielle Kohlenstoffquelle sehr vielseitig und die Verbindung erfreut sich zunehmenden Interesses.
Die Natur hält biologische Katalysatoren (Enzyme) für die Reduktion von CO2 bereit. Die Gruppe der obligat anaeroben, acetogenen Bakterien verwendet so genannte Formiatdehydrogenasen als CO2-Reduktasen, um CO2 im Wood-Ljungdahl-Weg (WLP) der Bakterien fixieren zu können. Diese Enzyme katalysieren die reversible 2-Elektronen Reduktion von CO2 zu Ameisensäure. Kürzlich konnte aus den beiden Vertretern A. woodii (mesophil) und T. kivui (thermophil) ein neuartiger, cytoplasmatischer Enzymkomplex isoliert werden. Dieser Enzymkomplex koppelt die Reduktion von CO2 direkt an die Oxidation von H2 und wird deshalb als Wasserstoff-abhängige CO2-Reduktase bezeichnet (engl. hydrogen-dependent CO2 reductase, HDCR). Die HDCR katalysiert dabei die reversible Hydrogenierung von CO2 zu Formiat mit annähernd gleicher Kinetik und gleichen Umsatzraten. Die bei der CO2 Reduktion erreichten Umsatzraten übertrafen dabei bisherige chemische als auch biologische Katalysatoren um mehre Größenordnungen.
Im Hinblick auf die besonderen katalytischen Eigenschaften der HDCRs wurde in dieser Arbeit die biotechnologische Anwendbarkeit der Enzyme als Biokatalysatoren zur Speicherung und Sequestrierung von H2 und CO2 in Form von Ameisensäure untersucht. Im Speziellen wurde ein HDCR-basiertes Ganz-Zell-System für das thermophile Bakterium T. kivui entwickelt. Um eine Ganz-Zell basierte Umwandlung von H2 und CO2 zu Formiat zu gewährleisten, wurde zuvor die Weiterverwertung des Formiats zu Acetat im WLP gestoppt. Durch eine Reduktion des zellulären ATP-Gehalts konnte eine weitere Prozessierung des aus der HDCR-Reaktion gebildeten Formiats im Zellstoffwechsel des Bakteriums unterbunden werden. Die Formiatbildung aus H2 und CO2 wurde in Zellsuspensionen von T. kivui untersucht und charakterisiert. Hier zeigten T. kivui Zellen die höchste spezifische Formiatbildungsrate, die bis dato in der Literatur genannt wurde. Ebenfalls wurde in dieser Arbeit die Umwandlung von Synthesegas (H2 + CO2 und CO) und CO zu Formiat geprüft. Bioenergetisch entkoppelte und auf CO-adaptierte T. kivui Zellen konnten in der Tat Synthesegas exklusiv zu Formiat umsetzen. Um die CO-Verwertung zu Acetat und Formiat im Stoffwechsel der Rnf- (A. woodii) und Ech-Acetogenen (T. kivui) verstehen zu können, wurden Mutanten von Δhdcr, ΔcooS, ΔhydBA, Δrnf and Δech2 von A. woodii und T. kivui zur Hilfe genommen. In beiden Organismen war die CO-basierte Formiatbildung vom Vorhandensein eines funktionalen HDCR-Enzymkomplexes abhängig.
Für eine mögliche biotechnologische Anwendung wurde die Maßstabsvergrößerung des Ganz-Zell-Systems angestrebt und hin zum Bioreaktormaßstab mit kontrollierten Prozessbedingungen skaliert. Diese Arbeit demonstriert die effiziente Umwandlung von H2 und CO2 zu Formiat und vice versa unter Verwendung eines Rührkesselreaktors. Der Prozess zeigte eine Effizienz von 100% für die Umwandlung von CO2 zu Formiat und spezifische Raten von 48.3 mmol g-1 h-1 wurden von A. woodii Zellen erreicht. Die spezifische H2-Produktionsrate (qH2) aus der Ameisensäureoxidation betrug 27.6 mmol g-1 h-1 und mehr als 2.12 M Ameisensäure konnte über einen Zeitraum von 195 h oxidiert werden. Wichtige Parameter der Enzymkatalyse wie Wechselzahl (engl. turnover frequency, TOF) und katalytische Produktivität (engl. turnover number, TON) wurden ebenfalls im Versuch bestimmt. Basierend auf dem generierten Prozessverständnis und der effizienten Reversibilität der katalysierten Reaktionen wurde abschließend ein Ganz-Zell-basierter Bioreaktoraufbau gewählt, der die vielfache Speicherung und Freisetzung von H2 in einem einzigen Rührkesselreaktor und unter Verwendung des gleichen Katalysators ermöglicht. Über eine Prozesszeit von 2 Wochen und 15 CO2 Reduktions-/Formiat Oxidations-Zyklen konnte so im Mittel 330 mM Formiat produziert und oxidiert werden.
Zusammenfassend thematisiert diese Arbeit die biotechnologische Anwendbarkeit eines Ganz-Zell-Systems zur Speicherung und Sequestrierung von H2 und CO2 in Form von Formiat und vice versa. Die katalytische Aktivität der betrachteten Organismen fußt dabei auf der Aktivität eines neuartigen Enzymkomplexes, der erstmals in der Gruppe der acetogenen Bakterien entdeckt wurde. Der als Wasserstoff-abhängige CO2-Reduktase bezeichnete Enzymkomplex könnte die zukünftige Konzipierung Enzym-inspirierter und effizienter chemischer Katalysatoren vorantreiben. Auch der Einsatz des Enzyms/der Zellen in so genannten Hydrogelen oder die Etablierung elektrochemischer Prozesse sind vorstellbar. Diese Arbeit stellt somit eine Basis für mögliche zukünftige Anwendungen des etablierten Ganz-Zell-Systems von A. woodii und T. kivui im Bereich der Wasserstoffökonomie dar.