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Succinate:quinone oxidoreductases (SQORs) are integral membrane protein complexes, which couple the two-electron oxidation of succinate to fumarate (succinate → fumarate + 2H+ + 2e-) to the two-electron reduction of quinone to quinol (quinone + 2H+ + 2e- → quinol) as well as catalyzing the opposite reaction, the reduction of fumarate by quinol. In mitochondria and some aerobic bacteria, succinate:ubiquinone reductase, also known as complex II of the aerobic respiratory chain or as succinate dehydrogenase from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle, catalyzes the oxidation of succinate by ubiquinone, which is mildly exergonic under standart conditions and not directly associated with energy storage in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical proton potential (Δp). Gram-positive bacteria do not contain ubiquinone but rather menaquinone, a quinone with significantly lower oxidation-reduction (“redox”) midpoint potential. In these cases, the catalyzed oxidation of succinate by quinone is endergonic under standard conditions. Consequently, these bacteria face a thermodynamic problem in supporting the catalysis of this reaction in vivo. Based on experimental evidence obtained on whole cells and purified membranes, it had previously been proposed that the SQR from Gram-positive bacteria supports this reaction at the expense of the protonmotive force, Δp. Nonetheless, it has been argued that the observed Δp dependence is not associated specifically with the activity of SQR because the occurrence of artifacts in experiments with bacterial membranes and whole cells can not be fully excluded. Clearly, definitive insight into the mechanism of catalysis of this intriguing reaction required a corresponding functional characterization of an isolated, membranebound SQR from a Gram-positive bacterium. The first aim of the present work addresses the question if the general feasibility of the energetically uphill electron transfer from succinate to menaquinone is associated specifically to a single enzyme complex, the SQR. The prerequisite to achieve this goal was stable preparation of this enzyme.
In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden Antikörperfragmente, um sie zu oligomerisieren, an alpha-Helixbündel rekombinant fusioniert und die Fusionsproteine sowie deren Produktion untersucht. Dabei wurde durch Fusion eines Fv-Antikörperfragmentes an das trimere alpha-Helixbündel "Coil-Ser" das Fusionsprotein "Fv7E2-CS" entwickelt. Wegen der Fusion an Coil-Ser liegt das Ev-Fragment selbst in trimerem Zustand vor und kann auch sein Antigen, eine Cytochrom-c-Oxidase aus Paracoccus denitri/icans, binden und dadurch trimersieren. Antikörper gehören zur Immunabwehr der Wirbeltiere und sind Proteine, die in den Organismus eingedrungene, fremde Moleküle als "Antigene" spezifisch binden. Im momentan stark expandierenden Forschungsgebiet des "Antikörper-Designs" werden Antikörper und ihre Fragmente modifiziert, was besonders für die Entwicklung medizinischer Diagnostiken und Therapien vielversprechend ist. Eines der vielen Ziele ist die Steigerung der Bindungsaffinitäten, was unter anderem über die Vervielfältigung der natürlichen Bindestellen innerhalb eines künstlichen Antikörpermoleküls erreicht werden kann. Weiterhin möchte man Bindestellen gegen unterschiedliche Antigene in einem einzigen Antikörpermolekül vereinen, um dem Antikörper komplexere Funktionsfähigkeiten zu verleihen. Beide Ziele können durch Oligomerisierung der bindenden Antikörperfragmente verwirklicht werden. Zur künstlichen Oligomerisierung von Antikörperfragmenten wurde, neben anderen Strategien, die rekombinante Fusion an alpha-Helixbündel bereits einige Male erfolgreich angewandt. alpha-Helixbündel bestehen aus zwei bis etwa acht alpha-helikalen, längsseitig miteinander oligomerisierenden Peptidketten und können auch in natürlichen Proteinen als Oligomerisierungseinheiten fungieren. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden drei Fv-Antikörperfragmente und ein SchwerkettenAntikörperfragment mit drei verschiedenen alpha-Helixbündeln in unterschiedlichen Kombinationen rekombinant fusioniert und anschließend ihre Produktion und Funktion untersucht. Als Helixbündel zum Einsatz kamen das heterotetramere alpha-Helixbündel des neuronalen "SNARE"-Komplexes, die homo- als auch mit "Fos" heterodimerisierende Helix des AP-1-Transkriptionsfaktors ".Jun" und das synthetische, antiparallel homotrimerisierende Peptid "Coil-Ser". Die Expressionsprodukte vieler Fusionen konnten in Zellaufschlüssen mit Western Blots gefunden werden, nur einige aber ließen sich mit Affinitäts-Chromatographie in geringen Mengen (<0,1 mg/L Kultur) anreichern. Andere Produkte, bzw. bei einigen Fv-Fragmenten die Untereinheiten mit Peptid, waren durch die Fusion in ihrer Produktion deutlich gestört bis gar nicht vorhanden. Alle drei an Coil-Ser fusionierten Ev-Fragmente ließen sich in Mengen bis 0,5 mg/L Kultur anreichern. In der Gelfiltration zeigten sie sich mit vollständig assoziierten Untereinheiten, als auch mit vergrößerter, apparenter Molmasse im Vergleich zu den Fv-Fragmenten ohne fusioniertes Peptid. Von zweien der Coil-Ser-Fv-Fragmente konnte Antigenbindung beobachtet werden und davon bei Fv7E2-CS die Entstehung eines Fv-Antigen-Komplexes mit einer gegenüber dem ursprünglichen Antigen-Komplex sehr stark vergrößerten apparenten Molmasse. Mit analytischer Ultrazentrifugation wurde die Oligomerisierungsfähigkeit von Fv7E2-CS näher untersucht und für das ungebundene Fv-Fragment sowie für seinen Antigen-Komplex eine Massenkomponente mit im Vergleich zum jeweiligen Monomer dreifacher Molmasse gefunden. Für die Probe des Fv7E2-CS alleine wurde dabei ein Anteil an Komponenten trimerer Größenordnung von gut 95% ermittelt, also nahezu Homogenität, und in der Probe des Antigen-Komplexes zu 35 - 50 % Komponenten trimerer, sonst monomerer Größenordnung. Die Ursache für den niedrigeren Anteil an trimeren Komponenten in der Probe des Komplexes könnte hauptsächlich das hier vorhandene Detergenz sein, welches für das als Antigen fungierende Membranprotein Cytochrom-c-Oxidase nötig ist. Denn schon für das Fv7E2-CS alleine wurde in Kontrollen mit Detergenz eine Verringerung des Anteils an trimerer Komponente bzw. seiner mittleren Molmasse festgestellt. Das Fv-Fragment Fv7E2 ohne Peptid als auch dessen Antigen-Komplex zeigten in der Ultrazentrifuge keine bzw. nur unbedeutende Anteile an trimeren Massenkomponenten. Die Experimente deuten somit daraufhin, daß durch die Fusion des trimerisierenden Peptides Coil-Ser an Fv7E2 sowohl die Trimerisierung des Fv-Fragmentes, als auch bei Bindung des Antigens dessen Trimerisierung bewirkt wird. Das alpha-Helixbündel Coil-Ser ist folglich potentiell in der Lage, als Oligomerisierungseinheit für Fv-Antikörperfragmente eingesetzt zu werden. Wegen der aus Röntgenstrukturanalysen bekannten und für in Lösung prognostizierten Antiparallelität der Peptide im Coil-Ser-Bündel werden für die drei Fv-Fragmente bzw. die drei Bindestellen im Coil-Ser-Fusionsprotein einander entgegen-gesetzte Orientierungen vermutet, was für spätere Anwendungen von Bedeutung ist.
An der chemischen Synapse des Nervensystems führt ein präsynaptisches Aktionspotential zur Freisetzung eines Neurotransmitters, der über den synaptischen Spalt diffundiert und an die Rezeptoren der postsynaptischen Membran bindet. Die ionotropen Rezeptoren sind an dieser Membran zu Clustern aggregiert. Entstehung und Dynamik dieser Rezeptoraggregate sind für Funktion und Plastizität der Synapse essentiell. Für die Aggregation der inhibitorischen Glyzin- und der meisten Subtypen der GABAA-Rezeptoren ist das periphere Membranprotein Gephyrin notwendig. Es ist ein Schlüsselfaktor für die Genese und Aufrechterhaltung der glyzinergen postsynaptischen Membran. Dabei bindet es direkt an den GlyR und verbindet diesen über die Bindung von Mikrotubulie an das Zytoskelett. Auch andere Bindungspartner wurden nachgewiesen. Gephyrin ist in einer zweiten Funktion in die Synthese des Molybdän-Cofaktors involviert und weist Sequnezhomologien zu Proteinen anderer Spezies auf, die in diesen Syntheseweg eingebunden sind. Gephyrin ist ubiquitär exprimiert und wird alternativ gespleißt. Möglicherweise existieren verschiedene Varianten mit unterschiedlichen Funktionen. Die Untersuchung der Domänen und Bindungseigenschaften Gephyrins ist daher für das weitere Verständnis über Aufbau und Funktion der Synapse unerlässlich. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein Testsystem etabliert, mit dem sowohl heterolog exprimiertes als auch natives Gephyrin über die hoch-affine Bindung an den GlyR aufgereinigt werden konnte. Mit diesem System konnten erstmals unterschiedliche Varianten Gephyrins nachgewiesen werden. In verschiedenen Organen der adulten Ratte wurden dabei Gephyrinmoleküle mit Molekulargewichten zwischen 52 und den bekannten 93 kDA identifiziert. Auch Bestandteile des GlyR-Komplexes lassen sich mit dieser Methode anreichern. So wurde gezeigt, daß Gephyrin und Collybistin in einem trimeren Komplex mit dem GlyR vorliegen können. Hiermit ist es künftig möglich, in einem proteomischen Ansatz weitere aus dem GlyR-Konmplex anzureichern und zu identifizieren. Mit dem gleichen System wurde auch die Bindungsregion Gephyrins für den GlyR gefunden. Diese diskontinuierliche Bindungsstelle wird aus einer a-Helix der Aminosäuren 164 bis 184, sowie aus hydrophoben Resten gebildet, die von Aminosäure 15 bis 163 unregelmäßig über den gesamten N-Terminus Gephyrins verteilt sind. Zur Bindung an den GlyR werden beide Elemente benötigt. Das kleinste GlyR-bindende Gephyrinfragment erstreckt sich somit über die Aminosäuren 1-184. Mit einem Kosedimentationsassay wurde die Bindung Gephyrins an Mikrotubuli untersucht. Es stellte sich heraus, daß die vermutete Bindungsstelle nicht zur Bindung an Mikrotubuli benötigt wird. Vielmehr ist der C-terminale Abschnitt Gephyrins hierzu ausreichend. Um Regionen Gephyrins zu finden, die die Autoaggregation vermitteln, wurden Bindungsstudien mit dem Zwei-Hybrid-System und ein heterologes Expressionssystem in Zellkulturen durchgeführt. Es wurde gezeigt, daß sowohl die N- als auch der C-terminal gelegene Bereich in der Lage sind, mit Gephyrin zu aggregieren. Im C-Terminus wurde die Domäne auf 62 Aminosäuren eingegrenzt. Zur Erfüllung der verschiedenen Funktionen Gephyrins sind die hierfür notwendigen Domänen offensichtlich in modularer Art organisiert. So lässt sich durch alternatives Spleißen eine Variante exprimieren, die den speziellen Erfordernissen der Zelle gerecht wird. In dieser Arbeit wurden mehrere Domänen und Regionen Gephyrins eingegrenzt, deren Aufgaben von der GlyR-Bindung über die Autoaggregation zur Bildung glyzinerger Proteinkomplexe und der Verknüpfung mit dem Zytoskelett reichen. Somit konnte ein Beitrag zum weiteren Verständnis über die glyzinerge Synapse geleistet werden.
The light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b protein complex (LHC-II) is the major collector of solar energy in all plants and it binds about half of the chlorophyll in green plants. LHCII is a trimer in the photosynthetic membrane; each monomer consists of 232 amino acids, binds and orients a minimum of 12 chlorophyll molecules and three caroteinoids (two luteins and one neoxanthin) for light-harvesting and energy transfer. Although, the structure of LHC-II has been determined at 3.4 Å resolution by electron microscopy of two-dimensional crystals (Kühlbrandt et al., 1994), this is not sufficient to allow a complete understanding of the mechanism of energy transfer from LHC-II to the reaction centre, since the effective resolution in the z dimension is 4.9 Å. In fact, the chemical difference between Chl a and Chl b, which has a formyl group instead of the methyl group at the 7-position in the chlorin ring, is too small to be detected at this level of resolution. In addition, the orientation of the chlorophyll tetrapyrroles have not been determined unambiguously. This information is essential for a detailed understanding of the energy transfer within the complex and to the reaction centres of photosystem II and I (PSII and PSI). X-ray crystallography of three dimensional (3D) crystals may yield a more complete structure at high resolution. 3D crystals have been grown from LHC-II isolated from pea leaves using a standard purification procedure (Burke et al., 1978). The thylakoid membranes are solubilised in Triton X-100 and further purified by sucrose gradient ultra centrifugation. The LHC-II fraction is salt precipitated and pellets resuspended at the chlorophyll a/b ratio 2.8 mg/ml in 0.9 % Nonyl-glucoside. Crystals are currently obtained by vapour diffusion in hanging drops. These crystals are thin hexagonal plates, have a fairly large unit cell and diffract quite weakly. The high level of the background is due both to the detergent, necessary for protein solubilisation, and lipids, required for the trimer and crystals formation. However, three data sets, each from one single crystal have been collected up to 3.2 Å resolution over a rotation range of 135°. The crystals were exposed to a very highly collimated and brilliant beam (ID-14 EH1 at ESRF, Grenoble, France) and were kept under a stream of cold nitrogen to prevent radiation damage. Data were successfully integrated using the program XDS by Kabsch (1993). The crystals were found to belong to the space group P6 22 3 and have unit cell dimensions of a=128.45, b=128.45, c=135.32, a= ß=90º, ?=120. The solution of the phase problem was tackled by molecular replacement using, as a search model, the LHC-II structure solved by electron cryo-microscopy studies of twodimensional crystals (Kühlbrandt et al. 1994). Three different programs were tested: the most used AMoRe (Navaza et al., 1994) and the brute force based program Brute (Fujinaga
P2X receptors represent the third superfamily of ligand gated ion channels with ATP as their natural ligand. Most of the mammalian P2X receptors are non-selective cation channels, which upon activation, mediate membrane depolarization and have physiological roles ranging from fast excitatory synaptic transmission, modulation of pain-sensation, LTP to apoptosis etc. In spite of them being an attractive drug target, their potential as a drug target is limited by the lack of basic understanding of the structure-function relationship of these receptors. In my thesis, I have investigated the behavior of homomeric P2X receptor subunits with the help of photolabeling and fluorescence techniques coupled to electrophysiological measurements using Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologous expression system. Concurrent photolabeling by BzATP and current recordings from the same set of receptors in real time has revealed that the gating process in homomeric P2X receptors is contributed individually by each subunit in an additive manner. Our study for the first time describes the agonist potency of Alexa-ATP (a fluorescent ATP analog) on P2X1 receptors. The use of Alexa-ATP in our experiments elucidated that receptor subunits are not independent but interacting with each other in a cooperative manner. The type of cooperativity, however, depended on the type and concentrations of allosteric/competing ligands. Based on our results, in my thesis we propose an allosteric model for ligand-receptor interactions in P2X receptors. When simulated, the model could replicate our experimental findings thus, further validating our model. Further, correlation between occupancy of P2X1 receptors (determined using binding curve for Alexa-ATP) with the steady-state desensitization suggests that binding of three agonist molecules per receptor are required to desensitize P2X1 receptors. We further extended the approach of fluorescence with electrophysiological measurement to assign the role for different domains in P2X1 receptors with the help of environmental sensitive, cysteine reactive fluorophore (TMRM). Cysteine rich domain-1 of P2X1 receptors (C117-C165) was found to be involved in structural rearrangements after agonist and antagonist binding. In contrast to the present understanding, that the binding of an antagonist cannot induce desensitization in P2X1 receptors and the receptors need to open first before undergoing desensitization, we propose based on our results that a competitive antagonist can also induce desensitization in P2X1 receptors by bypassing the open state. We have attempted to answer few intriguing questions in the field of P2X receptor research and we think that our answers provide many avenues to the basic understanding of functioning of P2X receptors.
Lentiviral vectors mediate gene transfer into dividing and most non-dividing cells. Thereby, they stably integrate the transgene into the host cell genome. For this reason, lentiviral vectors are a promising tool for gene therapy. However, safety and efficiency of lentiviral mediated gene transfer still needs to be optimised. Ideally, cell entry should be restricted to the cell population relevant for a particular therapeutic application. Furthermore, lentiviral vectors able to transduce quiescent lymphocytes are desirable. Although many approaches were followed to engineer retroviral envelope proteins, an effective and universally applicable system for retargeting of lentiviral cell entry is still not available. Just before the experimental work of this thesis was started, retargeting of measles virus (MV) cell entry was achieved. This virus has two types of envelope glycoproteins, the hemagglutinin (H) protein responsible for receptor recognition and the fusion (F) protein mediating membrane fusion. For retargeting, the H protein was mutated in its interaction sites for the native MV receptors and a ligand or a single-chain antibody (scAb) was fused to its ectodomain. It was hypothesised that the retargeting system of MV can be transferred to lentiviral vectors by pseudotyping human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) derived vector particles with the MV glycoproteins. As the unmodified MV glycoproteins did not pseudotype HIV vectors, two F and 15 H protein variants carrying stepwise truncations or amino acid (aa) exchanges in their cytoplasmic tails were screened for their ability to form MV-HIV pseudotypes. The combinations Hcd18/Fcd30, Hcd19/Fcd30 and Hcd24+4A/Fcd30 led to most efficient pseudotype formation with titers above 10exp6 transducing units /ml, using concentrated particles. The F cytoplasmic tail was truncated by 30 aa and the H cytoplasmic tail was truncated by 18, 19 or 24 residues with four added alanines after the start methionine in the latter case. Western blot analysis indicated that particle incorporation of the MV glycoproteins was enhanced upon truncation of their cytoplasmic tails. With the MV-HIV vectors high titers on different cell lines expressing one or both MV receptors were obtained, whereas MV receptor-negative cells remained untransduced. Titers were enhanced using an optimal H to F plasmid ratio (1:7) during vector particle production. Based on the described pseudotyping with the MV glycoprotein variants, HIV vectors retargeted to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or the B cell surface marker CD20 were generated. For the production of the retargeted vectors MVaEGFR-HIV and MVaCD20-HIV, Fcd30 together with a native receptor blind Hcd18 protein, displaying at its ectodomain either the ligand EGF or a scAb directed against CD20 were used. With these vectors, gene transfer into target receptor-positive cells was several orders of magnitude more efficient than into control cells. The almost complete absence of background transduction of non-target cells was e.g. demonstrated in mixed cell populations, where the CD20-targeting vector selectively eliminated CD20-positive cells upon suicide gene transfer. Remarkably, transduction of activated primary human CD20-positive B cells was much more efficient with the MVaCD20-HIV vector than with the standard pseudotype vector VSV-G-HIV. Even more surprisingly, MVaCD20-HIV vectors were able to transduce quiescent primary human B cells, which until then had been resistant towards lentiviral gene transfer. The most critical step during the production of MV-HIV pseudotypes was the identification of H cytoplasmic tail mutants that allowed pseudotyping while retaining the fusion helper function. In contrast to previously inefficient targeting strategies, the reason for the success of this novel targeting system must be based on the separation of the receptor recognition and fusion functions onto two different proteins. Furthermore, with the CD20-targeting vector transduction of quiescent B cells was demonstrated for the first time. Own data and literature data suggest that CD20 binding and hyper-cross-linking by the vector particles results in calcium influx and thus activation of quiescent B cells. Alternatively this feature may be based on a residual binding activity of the MV glycoproteins to the native MV receptors that is insufficient for entry but induces cytoskeleton rearrangements dissolving the post-entry block of HIV vectors. Hence, in this thesis efficient retargeting of lentiviral vectors and transduction of quiescent cells was combined. This novel targeting strategy should be easily adaptable to many other target molecules by extending the modified MV H protein with appropriate specific domains or scAbs. It should now be possible to tailor lentiviral vectors for highly selective gene transfer into any desired target cell population with an unprecedented degree of efficiency.
Presentation of intracellular processed antigens by major histocompatibility (MHC) class I molecules to CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes is mediated by the macromolecular peptide loading complex (PLC). In particular accessory proteins, including the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) and tapasin, play a pivotal role in the MHC class I mediated antigen presentation pathway. TAP belongs to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily and consists of TAP1 (ABCB2) and TAP2 (ABCB3), each of which possesses a transmembrane and a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). The ER-resident glycoprotein tapasin promotes the optimal folding and assembly of MHC-peptide complexes, and independently stabilizes the steady state expression level of TAP. In the present thesis recombinant Fv, scFv and Fab antibody fragments to human TAP from a hybridoma cell line expressing the TAP1-specific monoclonal antibody mAb148.3, were generated. The epitope of the mAb148.3 was mapped to the very last five C-terminal amino acid residues of TAP1 on solid-supported peptide arrays. The recombinant antibody fragments were heterologously expressed in E. coli and insect cells, and purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography. The monoclonal and recombinant antibodies display nanomolar affinity to the last five C-terminal amino acid residues of TAP1 as demonstrated by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Surprisingly, the recombinant antibody fragments confer thermal stability to the heterodimeric TAP complex in insect cells when incubated at elevated temperature. At the same time, TAP is arrested in a peptide transport incompetent conformation, although ATP and peptide binding to TAP are not affected. Furthermore, the recombinant antibodies were successfully used in the purification of the PLC from a human B-lymphoblastoid cell line and a novel factor, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), was identified by matrix assisted laser desorption/ionisation-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). In the second part of this thesis the tapasin-MHC class I interaction was investigated. It is for this reason, that an in vitro assay had been established for direct measuring tapasin-MHC class I interactions. First, soluble single chain MHC class I molecules were engineered, choosing two MHC class I alleles: HLA-B4402 representing a highly tapasin-dependent allele and with HLA-B4405, a tapasin-independent allele was chosen. Tapasin as well as the two single chain MHC class I constructs, scB4402-b2m and scB4405-b2m, were expressed in insect cells and purified from insect cell supernatants by affinity chromatography. In contrast to the HLA-B4405 allele, which was expressed and secreted at moderate yield, the HLA-B4402 allele was expressed and trapped inside the insect cells instead of secreted into the medium. Peptide-binding and anisotropy measurements with fluorescein-labeled peptides verified the functionality of the scB4405-b2m. For further investigation of the tapasin-MHC class I interaction an in vitro assay was established using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. Due to the transient nature of the interaction including the decreased affinity of both interaction partners, kinetic data acquisition was difficult to evaluate. Furthermore, interaction of the scB4405-b2m with the sensor surface itself contributed to the measured interaction. Additionally, to investigate tapasin editing function, tapasin as well as the scB4405-b2m-peptide complex were tethered on fluid chelator lipid bilayers and monitored by reflectance interference (RIf) and total internal reflection fluorescence spectroscopy (TIRFS). Stable immobilization of scB4405-b2m-peptide complex as well as of tapasin was observed, unfortunately no changes in peptide dissociation kinetics monitored in the TIRFS channel were detected. Presumably, the tapasin-independent HLA-B4405 already loaded with a high affinity peptide is not influenced by the peptide-editing function of tapasin. Here, for the first time an in vitro assay was established for direct probing interactions within the various proteins of the PLC.
Three-dimensional structure of the glycine-betaine transporter BetP by cryo electron crystallography
(2008)
The soil bacterium Corynebacterium glutamicum has five secondary transporters for compatible solutes allowing it to cope with osmotic stress. The most abundant of them, the transporter BetP, performs a high affinity uptake of glycine-betain when encountering hyperosmotic stress. BetP belongs to the betaine/carnitine/choline/transporter (BCCT) family, and is predicted to have twelve transmembrane helices with both termini facing the cytoplasm. The goal of this thesis is to facilitate understanding of BetP function by determining a three dimensional (3D) model of its structure. Two-dimensional (2D) crystallization of wild-type (WT) BetP has been successfully performed by reconstitution into a mixture of E. coli lipids and bovine cardiolipin, which resulted in vesicular crystals diffracting to 7.5 Å resolution (Ziegler, Morbach et al. 2004). Diffraction patterns of these crystals however showed unfocused spots, generally due to high mosaicity. Better results were obtained by using the constitutively active mutant BetPdeltaC45 in which the first 45 amino acids of the positively charged C-terminus were removed. BetPdeltaC45 crystals obtained under the same conditions for BetP WT were concluded to be pseudo crystals, based on the inconsistence of symmetry. These crystals had BetPdeltaC45 molecules randomly up/downwards inserted into membrane crystals, and cannot be used for structure determination, even though they diffracted up to 7 Å. The problem of pseudo crystal formation could be solved by changing the lipids used for 2D crystallization to a native lipid extract from C. glutamicum cells. This change of lipids improved the crystals to well-ordered packing with exclusive p121_b symmetry. To understand the role of lipids in crystal packing and order, lipids were extracted at different stages during crystallization, and identified by using multiple precursor ion scanning mass spectrometry. The results show that phosphatidyl glycerol (PG) 16:0-18:1 is the most dominant lipid species in C. glutamicum membranes, and that BetP has a preference for the fatty acid moieties 16:0-18:1. Crystallization with synthetic PG 16:0-18:1 proved that an excess of this lipid prevents pseudo crystal formation, but these crystals did not reach the quality as previously achieved by using the C. glutamicum lipids. Apart from the effect of lipids in crystallinity, the concentration and type of salts influenced crystal growth and morphology. High salt conditions (>400 mM LiCl or KCl) yielded tubular crystals, whereas low salt conditions (<300 mM LiCl, NaCl or KCl) led to formation of up to 10 µm large sheet-like crystals. The intermediate concentration gave a mixture of sheet-like and tubular crystals. In terms of resolution, sheets diffracted better than tubes. The sheet-like crystals used for 3D map reconstruction were obtained from a dialysis buffer containing 200 mM NaCl combined with using C. glutamicum lipids. Electron microscopic images were taken from frozen-hydrated crystals using a helium-cooled JEOL 300 SFF microscope or a liquid nitrogen-cooled FEI Tecnai G2 microscope at 300 kV, which allowed optimal data collection and minimized radiation damage to the sample. More than 1000 images of tilt angles up to 50° were taken and evaluated using optical diffraction of a laser beam. The best 200 images were processed with the MRC image processing software package, and 79 images from different tilt angles were merged to the final data set used for calculation of a 3D map at a planar resolution of 8 Å. The structure shows BetPdeltaC45 as a trimer with each monomer consisting of 12 transmembrane alpha-helices. Protein termini and loop regions could not be determined due to the limited resolution of the map. Six of the twelve helices line a central cavity forming a potential substrate-binding chamber. Each monomer shows a central cavity in different sizes and shapes. Thus, the constitutively active BetPdeltaC45 thus forms an unusual asymmetric homotrimer. BetP most likely reflects three different conformational states of secondary transporters: the cytoplasmically open (C), the occluded (O), and the periplasmically open (P) states. The C and O states are similar to BetP WT projection structure, while the P state is discrepant and highly flexible due to the shape and size of the central cavity as well as the lowest intensity of the density. The observation of the P state corresponds well to the constitutively active property of BetPdeltaC45. For the high resolution structure of the C and O states are available, this work presents the first structural information of the P state of a secondary transporter.
The nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide (NADH):ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) from the strictly aerobic yeast Y. lipolytica contains at least 26 “accessory” subunits however the significance of most of them remains unknown. The aim of this study was to characterize the role of three accessory subunits of complex I, recently identified: two mitochondrial acyl carrier proteins, ACPM1 and ACPM2 and a sulfurtransferase (st1) subunit. ACPMs are small (approx. 10 kDa) acidic proteins that are homologous to the corresponding central components of prokaryotic fatty acid synthase complexes. Genomic deletions of the two genes ACPM1 and ACPM2 resulted in strains that were not viable or retained only trace amounts of assembled mitochondrial complex I, respectively, as assessed using two-dimensional blue native/sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN/SDS) PAGE. This suggested different functions for the two proteins that despite high similarity could not be complemented by the respective other homolog still expressed in the deletion strains. To test whether complex I was affected by deletion of the ACPM2 gene, its activities in mitochondrial membranes were measured. Consequently, specific inhibitor sensitive dNADH: decylubiquinone (DBQ) oxidoreductase activity was lost completely and a strong decrease in dNADH: hexa-ammine-ruthenium (HAR) oxidoreductase activity was measured. Remarkably, the same phenotypes were observed if just the conserved serine carrying the phosphopantethein moiety was exchanged with alanine. Although this suggested a functional link to the lipid metabolism of mitochondria, using HPLC chromatography no changes in the lipid composition of the organelles were found. Proteomic analysis revealed that both ACPMs were tightly bound to purified mitochondrial complex I. Western blot analysis revealed that the affinity tagged ACPM1 and ACPM2 proteins were exclusively detectable in mitochondrial membranes but not in the mitochondrial matrix as reported for other organisms. Hence it has been concluded that the ACPMs can serve all their possible functions in mitochondrial lipid metabolism and complex I assembly and stabilization as subunits bound to complex I. A protein exhibiting rhodanese (thiosulfate:cyanide sulfurtransferase) activity was found to be associated with homogenous preparation of complex I. From a rhodanese deletion strain, functional complex I that lacked the additional protein but was fully assembled and displayed no functional defects or changes in EPR signature was purified. In contrast to previous suggestions, this indicated that the sulfurtransferase associated with Y. lipolytica complex I is not required for assembly of its iron–sulfur clusters.
Das Bakterium Thermus thermophilus hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einem Modell für thermophile Organismen entwickelt. Die maximale Wachstumstemperatur liegt bei bis zu 85°C, so dass auch Proteine und die gesamte Zellstruktur an diese hohen Temperaturen adaptiert sein müssen. Aufgrund der allgemein erhöhten Stabilität werden diese Proteine zunehmend für biotechnologische Prozesse und zur Strukturbestimmung verwendet. Im Energiehaushalt der Zelle ist der Elektronentransfer von NADH zu molekularem Sauerstoff ein wesentlicher Bestandteil und wird durch transmembrane Enzymkomplexe vermittelt. In dieser Arbeit konnten vier direkt aufeinanderfolgende Gene (fbcC, fbcX, fbcF, fbcB) identifiziert werden, die in einem 3,1 kb großen Operon mit einem GC-Gehalt von 69% organisiert sind und für die Untereinheiten eines putativen Thermus bc-Komplexes kodieren. Die in silico translatierte DNA-Information konnte für ausführliche Sequenzvergleiche und eine erste Charakterisierung der bc-Untereinheiten genutzt werden. Während Cytochrom b und das Rieske-Protein typische Eigenschaften zu anderen prokaryotischen Untereinheiten aufweisen, unterscheidet sich die Cytochrom c-Untereinheit hinsichtlich Topologie und Verwandtschaft von klassischen c1-Komponenten. Darüber hinaus wurde eine zusätzliche Untereinheit FbcX identifiziert, die keine Entsprechung in bisher bekannten bc-Komplexen hat. Das gesamte Operon mit vorangestellter d70 Promotorregion wurde amplifiziert, in einen Thermus/E.coli-Shuttlevektor mit hitzeoptimierter Kanamycinresistenz eingefügt und so plasmidkodiert für die Überexpression in T. thermophilus HB27 genutzt. Der membranständige Gesamtkomplex wurde nach Solubilisierung mit ß-D-Decyl-Maltosid stabil in Lösung gebracht und anschließend über eine Metallaffinitätssäule stöchiometrisch als vier-Untereinheiten Komplex aufgereinigt. Der Gesamtkomplex sowie seine Einzelkomponenten und deren Cofaktoren waren somit für eine nähere Charakterisierung verfügbar. Alle vier Genprodukte konnten als Untereinheiten des bc-Komplexes in T. thermophilus über N-terminale Sequenzierung und MALDI-MS/MS eindeutig identifiziert werden. Der in vitro Aktivitätstest zeigte keine Hemmbarkeit des aufgereinigten Thermus Komplexes durch klassische bc-Inhibitoren, was auf eine deutlich abweichende Substratbindung dieses Menachinol-oxidierenden Komplexes hinweist. Durch Optimierung des Thermus/E.coli-Shuttlevektors wurde auch die homologe Überexpression weiterer Thermus-Membranproteine ermöglicht. Dazu gehört neben der ba3-Oxidase auch ein MDL-ähnlicher ABC-Transporter. Weiterhin wurde gezeigt, dass die thermostabilen Eigenschaften sowohl des bc-Komplexes als auch des ABC-Transporters in Detergenzumgebung erhalten bleiben. Dieser Nachweis konnte darüber hinaus auch für den heterolog exprimierten und aus E. coli aufgereinigten ABC-Transporter erbracht werden, der im isolierten Zustand die gleiche Aktivität wie das aus Thermus aufgereinigte Äquivalent aufweist. Neben dem bc-Gesamtkomplex, der ba3-Oxidase und Cytochrom c552 wurden in dieser Arbeit weitere Komponenten der thermophilen Atmungskette in löslicher Form oder mit Membrananker, zum Teil auch heterolog in E. coli exprimiert und unter Erhalt der Redox-Cofaktoren aufgereinigt. Mit der Identifizierung und Charakterisierung eines intakten Cytochrom bc-Komplexes konnte die Lücke im Verständnis der thermophilen Atmungskette von T. thermophilus geschlossen und die Grundlage für weitere Struktur- und Funktionsanalysen dieses membranintegralen Enzymkomplexes geschaffen werden.