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"A team", definitely
(2004)
Most scholars nowadays reconstruct a static root present with an alternation between lengthened grade in the active singular and full grade in the active plural and in the middle. I am unhappy about this traditional methodology of loosely postulating long vowels for the proto-language. What we need is a powerful theory which explains why clear instances of original lengthened grade are so very few and restrains our reconstructions accordingly. Such a theory has been available for over a hundred years now: it was put forward by Wackernagel in his Old Indic grammar (1896: 66-68). The crucial element of his theory which is relevant in the present context is that he assumed lengthening in monosyllabic word forms, such as the 2nd and 3rd sg. active forms of the sigmatic aorist injunctive.
The origin of the Goths
(2004)
Witold Ma´nczak has argued that Gothic is closer to Upper German than to Middle German, closer to High German than to Low German, closer to German than to Scandinavian, closer to Danish than to Swedish, and that the original homeland of the Goths must therefore be located in the southernmost part of the Germanic territories, not in Scandinavia (1982, 1984, 1987a, 1987b, 1992). I think that his argument is correct and that it is time to abandon Iordanes’ classic view that the Goths came from Scandinavia. We must therefore reconsider the grounds for adopting the latter position and the reasons why it always has remained popular.
In the following study we present the results of three acoustic experiments with native speakers of German and Polish which support implications (a) and (b). In our experiments we measured the friction phase after the /t d/ release before the onset of the following high front vocoid for four speakers of German and Polish. We found that the friction phase for /tj/ was significantly longer than that of /ti/, and that the friction phase of /t/ in the assibilation context is significantly longer than that of /d/.
This paper evaluates trills [r] and their palatalized counterparts [rj] from the point of view of markedness. It is argued that [r]s are unmarked sounds in comparison to [rj]s which follows from the examination of the following parameters: (a) frequency of occurrence, (b) articulatory and aerodynamic characteristics, (c) perceptual features, (d) emergence in the process of language acquisition, (e) stability from a diachronic point of view, (f) phonotactic distribution, and (g) implications. Several markedness aspects of [r]s and [rj] are analyzed on the basis of Slavic languages which offer excellent material for the evaluation of trills. Their phonetic characteristics incorporated into phonetically grounded constraints are employed for a phonological OT-analysis of r-palatalization in two selected languages: Polish and Czech.
This article develops a Gricean account for the computation of scalar implicatures in cases where one scalar term is in the scope of another. It shows that a cross-product of two quantitative scales yields the appropriate scale for many such cases. One exception is cases involving disjunction. For these, I propose an analysis that makes use of a novel, partially ordered quantitative scale for disjunction and capitalizes on the idea that implicatures may have different epistemic status.
Since 1973 I have been advocating the view that the Balto-Slavic acute tone was in fact glottalic and has been preserved unchanged in originally stressed and unstressed syllables in Žemaitian and Latvian, respectively (e.g. 1975, 1977, 1985, 1998). Jay Jasanoff has now (2004) adopted the gist of my view, but with-out mentioning my name. It may therefore be useful to sketch the background of our differences and to point out the remaining discrepancies.
The interpretation of traces
(2004)
This paper argues that parts of the lexical content of an A-bar moved phrase must be interpreted in the base position of movement. The argument is based on a study of deletion of a phrase that contains the base position of movement. I show that deletion licensing is sensitive to the content of the moved phrase. In this way, I corroborate and extend conclusions based on Condition C reconstruction by N. Chomsky and D. Fox. My result provides semantic evidence for the existence of traces and gives semantic content to the A/A-bar distinction.
Dialektologie des Schweizerdeutschen : Vorwort des Herausgebers zu Linguistik online 20, 3/04
(2004)
Dialektologie ist in der deutschsprachigen Schweiz die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit der aktuellen Sprache der Mehrheit der SchweizerInnen, denn in der diglossischen Situation der deutschsprachigen Schweiz nimmt die Mundart die Stellung der Alltagssprache ein. Eine Schichtung von Substandardvarietäten zwischen der Hochsprache und den Dialekten, wie sie in Deutschland und in Österreich vorkommt, existiert in der Schweiz kaum. Eine Ausnahme stellt das Dusselns dar, der Subsidiärdialekt der Deutschwalliser (K. Schnidrig 1986), der offenbar auch in Bosco Gurin vorkommt (C. V. J. Russ in diesem Band). Die schweizerische Alltags- oder Umgangssprache deckt sich also weitestgehend mit dem Dialekt. Dieser stellt dabei aber nicht eine Museumsvarietät der NORMs (non-mobile, old, rural men) dar, sondern ist als lebendige Varietät aller sozialen Schichten in kleinen Weilern und in den großen Städten offen für Einflüsse aus Nachbar- und Kultursprachen. Dementsprechend gibt es auch eine situative und soziolinguistische Variation innerhalb der Mundart. Das wird besonders im offenen System des Wortschatzes deutlich, wo Anglizismen genauso Einzug in die Mundart halten wie in die deutsche Standardsprache: Die hard disk existiert im Schweizerdeutschen ebenso wie in der Standardsprache, und die entsprechende deutsche Lehnbildung Festplatte findet sich in mundartlicher Lautung Feschtplatte auch im Schweizerdeutschen. Dagegen sind Morphologie und Lautung relativ stabil. Sie ermöglichen, wie H. Christen (1998) gezeigt hat, immer noch eine genaue geographische Zuordnung der meisten SprecherInnen des Schweizerdeutschen.
This paper deals with metaphorical transference of technical concepts to our everyday way of speaking. At the focus of the investigation there will be the question why one finds specifically in German, in comparison with Portuguese, for instance, frequently, tecnological metaphors related to other metaphorical concepts. On the basis of some examples extracted from the comparative survey "Brasilianische und deutsche Wirklichkeiten – eine vergleichende Fallstudie zu kommunikativ erzeugten Sinnwelten " [Brazilian and German realities – a comparative case study of communicatively created universes of meanings], we will discuss what traces of the German language and of historical-cultural development of the German nation contribute to such dynamics of everyday metaphors.
Noch nie haben vom Aussterben bedrohte Sprachen so sehr im Mittelpunkt linguistischer Forschung gestanden wie in den vergangenen zehn bis 15 Jahren. Seitdem sich die UNESCO das Thema zu Eigen gemacht hat, sind in Europa und Übersee verschiedene Förderprogramme ins Leben gerufen worden, die sich zum Ziel setzen, Bestandsaufnahmen, linguistische Dokumentationen und Initiativen zu unterstützen, um »endangered languages« zu bewahren oder sogar wiederzubeleben. Überall in der Welt sind seither Dutzende von Forscherteams unterwegs, um mit Computern, Tonbandgeräten und Video-Kameras Aufnahmen von Sprachen zu machen, von denen zu erwarten ist, dass sie das Ende dieses Jahrhunderts nicht »überleben« werden. Auch an der Universität Frankfurt stehen bedrohte Sprachen im Fokus linguistischer Forschung, wobei so unterschiedliche Weltgegenden wie der Kaukasus, Afrika, Sibirien und Südostasien im Mittelpunkt stehen.
Wer im Netz deutschsprachige Seiten besucht, erwartet nicht, dass er Mundart findet, sondern die Schriftsprache, Standardsprache. Schließlich ist das die überregionale Sprachform und sie stellt auch in der Schweiz die unmarkierte Variante dar. Doch in diesem Bereich finden sich eine ganze Menge Web-Seiten, deren Gestalter sich der Welt in Mundart kundtun, wie in Tabelle 1 dargestellt. Neben rund 12'100 Seiten aus der Schweiz,1 die sowohl gehabt als auch gewesen als Hinweis auf standard-deutsche Seiten aufweisen, finden sich auch rund 3400, die mit verschiedenen Kombinationen der Schreibvarianten von ghaa und gsy erscheinen. Sie können damit als Seiten in einer schweizerdeutschen Mundart verstanden werden. Der Anteil mundartlicher Seiten auf dem .ch-Domain kann also auf rund 22 % geschätzt werden.
Glide formation, a process whereby an underlying high front vowel is realized as a palatal glide, is shown to occur only in unstressed prevocalic position in German, and to be blocked by specific surface restrictions such as *ji and *“j. Traditional descriptions of glide formation (including derivational as well as Optimality theoretic approaches) refer to the syllable in order to capture its conditions. The present study illustrates that glide formation (plus the distribution of long and short tense /i/) in German can better be captured in a Functional Phonology account (Boersma 1998) which makes reference to stress instead of the syllable and thus overcomes problems of former approaches.
In this article I reanalyze sibilant inventories of Slavic languages by taking into consideration acoustic, perceptive and phonological evidence. The main goal of this study is to show that perception is an important factor which determines the shape of sibilant inventories. The improvement of perceptual contrast essentially contributes to creating new sibilant inventories by (i) changing the place of articulation of the existing phonemes (ii) merging sibilants that are perceptually very close or (iii) deleting them. It has also been shown that the symbol š traditionally used in Slavic linguistics corresponds to two sounds in the IPA systemsystem: it stands for a postalveolar sibilant (ʃ) in some Slavic languages, as e.g. Bulgarian, Czech, Slovak, some Serbian and Croatian dialects, whereas in others like Polish, Russian, Lower Sorbian it functions as a retroflex (s). This discrepancy is motivated by the fact that ʃ is not optimal in terms of maintaining sufficient perceptual contrast to other sibilants such as s and ç. If ʃ occurs together with s and sj there is a considerable perceptual distance between them but if it occurs with ç in an inventory, the distance is much smaller. Therefore, the strategy most languages follow is the change from a postalveolar to a retroflex sibilant.
In this article we propose that there are two universal properties for phonological stop assibilations, namely (i) assibilations cannot be triggered by /i/ unless they are also triggered by /j/, and (ii) voiced stops cannot undergo assibilations unless voiceless ones do. The article presents typological evidence from assibilations in 45 languages supporting both (i) and (ii). It is argued that assibilations are to be captured in the Optimality Theoretic framework by ranking markedness constraints grounded in perception which penalize sequences like [ti] ahead of a faith constraint which militates against the change from /t/ to some sibilant sound. The occurring language types predicted by (i) and (ii) will be shown to involve permutations of the rankings between several different markedness constraints and the one faith constraint. The article demonstrates that there exist several logically possible assibilation types which are ruled out because they would involve illicit rankings.
In this paper we provide an account of the historical development of Polish and Russian sibilants. The arguments provided here are of theoretical interest because they show that (i) certain allophonic rules are driven by the need to keep contrasts perceptually distinct, (ii) (unconditioned) sound changes result from needs of perceptual distinctiveness, and (iii) perceptual distinctiveness can be extended to a dass of consonants, i.e. the sibilants. The analysis is cast within Dispersion Theory by providing phonetic and typological data supporting the perceptual distinctiveness claims we make.
The large majority of the isoglosses which can be established in the South Slavic dialectal area date from the time of the disintegration of Common Slavic and from more recent periods (e.g., Ivi´c 1958: 25ff). The isoglosses have often shifted in the course of the centuries, so that their original position cannot always be determined. In this study I shall concentrate upon the dialectal differences which originated before the 10th century. At that time, Slavic was still a largely uniform language, though it was certainly not completely homogeneous.
How far can language-specific structures influence conceptualisation? After a period of time where the discussion of any ‘Whorfian’ effects tended to be considered of little scientific merit, the recent decade has seen a renewed interest in this question. In particular, studies have aimed to tease apart ‘thinking for speaking’ from general cognition (cf. Slobin 1996, Stutterheim & Nüse 2002) and have shown that language-specific differences can often be observed in verbalisation as well as in the preverbal preparation phase of speech production, rather than in non-linguistic tasks.
In her discussion of the Japanese adversative passive, Anna Wierzbicka writes (1988: 260): “The problem is extremely interesting and important both for intrinsic reasons and because of its wider methodological implications. It can be formulated like this: if one form can be used in a number of different ways, are we entitled to postulate for it a number of different meanings or should we rather search for one semantic common denominator (regarded as the MEANING of the form in question) and attribute the variety of uses to the interaction between this meaning and the linguistic or extralinguistic context?” Though it “may seem obvious” that the second stand is “methodologically preferable” (261), she takes the first position and concludes that “the Japanese passive has to be recognized as multiply ambiguous” (286). In the following I intend to show that this view is both wrong and fruitful.
Low tone spreading in Buli
(2003)
In Buli, tone indicates lexical information as well as grammatical information. The changing of tone patterns regularly observed on lexemes is covered best by an autosegmental approach with autonomous tonal and segmental tiers. It reveals considerable deviations between underlying and surfacing tones at several morpho- yntactic points. Realization of tone is sometimes oppressed or delayed. Cause for such disturbances is in all cases a low tone which spreads to the right and affects following high tones with different results. The aim of this paper is to show how L spreading acts and how it is integrated in the system of tonal contrast.
S.R. Ramsey writes (1979: 162): "The patterning of tone marks in Old Kyoto texts divides the vocabulary into virtually the same classes as those arrived at by comparing the accent distinctions found in the modern dialects. This means that the Old Kyoto dialect had a pitch system similar to that of proto-Japanese. The standard language of the Heian period may not actually be the ancestor of all the dialects of Japan, but at least as far as the accent system is concerned, it is close enough to the proto system to be used as a working model. The significance of this fact is important: It means that each of the dialects included in the comparison has as much to tell, at least potentially, as any other dialect about Old Kyoto accent."
The earliest known extensive texts in Gullah (and perhaps African American Vernacular English as well) to appear in print were published in The Riverside Magazine for Young People in November, 1868, under the title "Negro Fables" (p. 505-507). These are four animal stories, which the editor of the magazine, Horace Elisha Scudder, described in his column only as having been "taken down from the lips of an old negro, in the vicinity of Charleston" (see Appendix for the editor´s comments and the full text of the stories).2 The Story-Teller was evidently a genuine "man of words" (Abrahams, 1983), a true raconteur who could artistically embellish a simple traditional account (perhaps further embellished by the transcriber) in a variety of ways. That he commanded a certain range of Gullah is evident from particular signature features in the texts, but the absence of other typical Gullah features and the presence of shared Gullah/African American Vernacular English usages, together with the periodic appearance of standard English forms, demonstrate that these texts provide perhaps the earliest actual documentation (apart from early tertiary comments, cited e.g. in Feagin, 1997, p. 128-129) of register variation or style/code-switching among Gullah speakers. ...
In this paper we propose a compositional semantics for lexicalized tree-adjoining grammar (LTAG). Tree-local multicomponent derivations allow separation of the semantic contribution of a lexical item into one component contributing to the predicate argument structure and a second component contributing to scope semantics. Based on this idea a syntax-semantics interface is presented where the compositional semantics depends only on the derivation structure. It is shown that the derivation structure (and indirectly the locality of derivations) allows an appropriate amount of underspecification. This is illustrated by investigating underspecified representations for quantifier scope ambiguities and related phenomena such as adjunct scope and island constraints.
This short overview reviews, in the first part, some of the most important fields of investigation where studies on Galician have contributed to variational linguistics, including macro- and micro-sociolinguistic studies (sections 1-3). The second part (sections 4-7) postulates some possible theoretical and empirical areas which we recommend to be included in future research. We propose a critical application of new models of linguistic variation, including recent frameworks such as studies on grammaticalisation, OT, intonational phonology, etc., but also call for the inclusion of established insights into language variation common in the European tradition. The high concentration of research institutions and the strongly dynamic situation of contemporary Galician could serve as an empirical touchstone for these theoretical frameworks, and Galician linguistics should apply them in a critical, flexible and creative way. This means that research on Galician will not only learn from theory but also contribute to it. We also briefly mention some of the areas where the studies of Galician have already contributed some important results to an overall perspective on linguistic variation.
Trotz einer allmählichen Hinwendung zu mehrsprachigen und multikulturellen Kontexten in den letzten Jahren gilt nach wie vor, dass den Paradigmen, Terminologien, Beschreibungsansätzen und Instrumentarien der Linguistik der meist unreflektierte Blickwinkel einsprachig und monokulturell sozialisierter Sprecher zugrunde liegt. So wurden z.B. die Sprachnormen bislang allenfalls aus der Sicht der Einsprachigkeit definiert, beschrieben und interpretiert. Die Perspektive bi- bzw. multilingualer Sprecher – einschließlich aller kulturellen Implikationen – wird in der Regel von den sprachwissenschaftlichen Auseinandersetzungen mit der Normen-Thematik ausgeschlossen. So hat auch Juhász, der bekannte ungarische Sprachgermanist, den bilingualen Diskursmodus zweisprachiger Personen als „einen Sprachgebrauch“ bezeichnet, „der sich nicht klassifizieren und noch weniger bewerten lässt“ (1986: 200). Meine Untersuchung beabsichtigt jedoch, die „prototypische“ Sprechweise und den kommunikativen Habitus4 bi- bzw. multilingualer Sprecher unter den Bedingungen gesellschaftlicher Zwei- bzw. Mehrsprachigkeit – ausgehend von der der Ingroup-Kommunikation bei Spontangesprächen unter Gruppenmitgliedern in verschiedenen Alltagssituationen – unter dem Gesichtspunkt der (sprachlichen und kommunikativen) Normen-Problematik zu beschreiben und zu hinterfragen sowie Aspekte ihrer Bewertung zu diskutieren. Damit soll ein Beitrag zur Modellierung bi- bzw. multilingualer und bi- bzw. transkultureller Sprachverhaltenssysteme – im Hinblick auf ihre Struktur, Hierarchie und Dynamik – geleistet werden. Als Exemplifikationsbereich dienen Belege aus dem sprachkommunikativen Verhalten von Ungarndeutschen.
Vorliegender Beitrag geht davon aus, dass das Kulturphänomen "Deutsche Sprache" in Form und Gebrauch eine weitgehend regionale (areale) Inhomogenität aufweist. Im Argumentationsrahmen einer variationslinguistischen Dialektologie wird versucht, die diatopische Variationsbreite der deutschen Sprache zu umreißen und vor diesem Hintergrund eine spezifische bilinguale dialektale Kontaktvarietät des Deutschen (nämlich das sog. ,,Kontaktdeutsch") in ihrer synchron wie auch diachron überaus dynamischen Ausprägungsstruktur zu beschreiben und in das gegenwärtige Varietätenspektrum des Deutschen - sowohl hinsichtlich seiner Vetonung als auch seiner Dignität - einzuordnen. Somit soll auch zur Erforschung der inneren Dynamik der Varietätenvielfalt beigetragent werden.
In this study we give a survey on bibliographic references on Judeo-Spanish Ianguage in the Orient, focusing mainly on the varieties of this Ianguage spoken in Sephardi communities of former Yugoslavia and on publications and articles that may offer the linguistic Corpora for further investigations on Judeo-Spanish language of these territories. The paper contains references on corpus-based descriptive studies and dictionaries of Judeo-Spanish language. Aspecial emphasis is uttached to the studies on Judeo-Spanish language on the territories of former Yugoslavia, which are classified geographically. The studies on the language of Sephardi Jews deal with this Romance Ianguage from different linguistic(s) perspectives. First of all, we presented the Hispanic studies on Judeo-Spanish that examine it as one of the modern Hispanicvarieties, consider it to be one of the sources of knowledge about the history of Spanish language or look at it from the sociolinguistic point of view. On the other hand, we had in mind works that try to examine Judeo-Spanish from the perspective of Jewish languages such a Yiddish and Judeo-Arab. In that sence it was necessary to draw atention to the studies that examine Ladino, written variefy of Judeo-Spanish based on literal translations of Biblical texts from Hebrew and Aramaic to Judeo-Spanish, We also incorporated references on works dedicated tovarious systems of transcription of Judeo-Spanish language. The actual Situation of Judeo-Spanish is presented with a short account of today's magazines and institutions dedicated to the preservation of Sephardi language and culture. Being the language an intrinsic part of fhe culture in which it arises and lives, we presented also the works dedicated to Sephardi culture and history of the communities in the Orient. Regarding the linguistic corpora in Judeo-Spanish, we presented the data on books published in Hebrew alphabet, collections of Songs, stories and sayings from Sephardi oral tradition, among which a Special importance has the Sephardi Romansero. We took into occount the periodical publications, which are very important as a source of linguistic and various cultural, sociological and historic corpora. The creation and development of periodical publications in Sephardi communities of former Yugoslavia (Belgrade, Sarajevo, and also IaterVriac and Zagreb) from the end of XIX until thefirst half of the XX century are described. The data on these publications are presented in the tables. Special attention was paid to ariicles written in Judeo-Spanish and published in periodical publications and monographies. The list of the most important articles consists of two parts: thefirst part is devoted to the articles published in Hebrew alphabet, and the second to the articles in Judeo-Spanish and Serbian published in Latin alphabet. The latter are organized thematically.
Old masters and new frameworks : a pilot analysis of selected semantic changes in the field economy
(2003)
Wenn wir die Situation des Fremdsprachenunterrichts in der Türkei betrachten, können wir sagen, dass drei westliche Sprachen, d.h. Englisch, Französisch und Deutsch, bis 1997 erst ab der Sekundarstufe I und II als Pflichtfach unterrichtet wurden. Im Jahre 1997 wurden mit der Verabschiedung eines neuen Gesetzes grundlegende Reformen im türkischen Schulwesen eingeleitet. Durch das neue Schulgesetz wurde die Pflichtschulzeit von fünf auf acht Jahre erhöht und dadurch auch eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den Anschluss an die EU-Standards geschaffen. Mit Beginn des Schuljahres 1997/98 trat eine weitere Neuregelung in Kraft. Seitdem beginnt der Fremdsprachenunterricht bereits in der 4. Jahrgangsstufe als Pflichtfach mit 2-4 Wochenstunden, in der 6. Klasse kommt eine zweite Fremdsprache als Wahlfach hinzu. Das Bildungsministerium hat für den Pflichtschulbereich Englisch als verbindliche erste Fremdsprache festgelegt. [...] Die türkischen Schulen sollten [...] den Schülern als zukünftige EU-Bürger wenigstens zwei europäische Fremdsprachen anbieten. Dann hätte die deutsche Sprache in der Türkei die Möglichkeit, sich neben dem Englischen als zweite Fremdsprache zu etablieren, weil sie im schulischen Bereich als zweite Fremdsprache eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Die Förderung der Mehrsprachigkeit schließt also immer auch die Förderung der deutschen Sprache ein. Aufgrund der intensiven Kontakte zwischen Deutschen und Türken, die vor etwa 700 Jahren begannen, besitzt die deutsche Sprache ein historisches Prestige in der Türkei. Im Folgenden möchten wir kurz auf die geschichtliche Entwicklung dieser Beziehung eingehen, um zu erklären, warum die deutsche Sprache in der Türkei eine besondere Stellung hat.
"Back to basics" : a cognitive analysis of conversion de-adjectival nominalisation in English
(2003)
Qiang
(2003)
In der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts hat sich die Inselgruppe der Malediven im Indischen Ozean in rasantem Tempo von einem geografisch isolierten und deshalb nahezu unbekannten Flecken am Rande der Welt zum Geheimtipp für Tiefseetaucher und weiter zum modernen, internationalen Touristikzentrum entwickelt. Von den zirka 1250 Inseln, die dem Inselstaat angehören, sind heute fast 100 als "tourist resorts" ausgebaut , die über einen internationalen Flughafen und mit Wasserflugzeugen bequem erreichbar sind. Nur die wenigsten Besucher werden dabei bemerken, dass die Bewohner des zwischen Afrika und Asien gelegenen Archipels zu einer alten Kulturnation gehören. Tatsächlich können die Malediver auf eine schriftliche Tradition zurückblicken, die der des Deutschen in ihrer zeitlichen Erstreckung nicht nachsteht; sie ist zudem durch den durchgreifenden Wechsel der Staatsreligion vom Buddhismus zum Islam und einen mehrfachen Wandel der Schrift geprägt.
Sprache ist der Grundstein in der Bildung und im Zusammenhalt soziokultureller Gruppen. Jedoch wird sie auch so von der Gruppe beeinflusst, dass sich verschiedene soziokulturelle Konventionen unbewusst in den sprachlichen Beiträgen von Mitgliedern solcher Gruppen widerspiegeln. Bei Interaktionen zwischen Sprechern verschiedener Kulturen können Unstimmigkeiten der Erwartungen in Bezug auf den Konversationsstil zu Missverständnissen führen, sowie zu Konflikten und sogar zur Bildung bzw. Verstärkung von Stereotypen. Ziel dieses Aufsatzes ist, einige Beispiele und Überlegungen bezüglich der Beziehung zwischen Konversationsstil und Interkulturalität in Anlehnung an den Ausdruck von Dissens zu präsentieren.
The present article analyzes the development of the system of spatial prepositions in the acquisition of German as a foreign language by Brazilian learners. The study is based on a corpus of written language data produced by students in the undergraduate course in Letras, collected from 1996 to 1998. The theoretical bases of the study are theories of second language acquisition, cognitive processing of space, and the linguistic encoding of spatial relations through prepositions. The main section of the analysis begins with the quantitative evaluation of the occurrences of spatial prepositions found in the data. Subsequently, each preposition found in the corpus is individually discussed in relation to its correct and incorrect uses. The main results are a steady increase in the number of spatial prepositions used by the subjects from the first year to the fourth year of the course, an increase in the variation of the use of these prepositions, and a constant reduction of the percentage of incorrect uses. In the first phase, acquisition can be seen in the increasing specificity of the semantic oppositions involved in neutralizations, whereas in the second phase, a quantitative reduction of errors can be found.
This paper presents a definition of phraseology, and based on this definition it establishes the different types of phraseological units. Then it tries to characterize the idiomatic expression as a metaphoric expression within the scope of phraseologisms, and presents a morpho-syntactic classification of these idioms. The next step consists of a comparison between verbal idiomatic expressions in German and Brazilian Portuguese in order to establish a typology of equivalences between the two languages. It also compares same type of. restrictions which occur in idiomatic expressions of both languages, and emphasizes the importance of register in some of the expressions.
Das ausgehende 19. und beginnende 20. Jahrhundert setzt sich von den erkenntnistheoretischen Konzepten der vorangegangenen Zeit deutlich ab:Während – stark vereinfacht – die Philosophie bis dahin die Möglichkeit der Erkenntnis entweder in der subjektiven oder objektiven Dimension zu finden glaubte,wobei die Funktion der Sprache im Erkenntnisprozess kaum hinterfragt wurde, wird zur Jahrhundertwende eine Tendenz deutlich, die einerseits die Adäquatheit der sprachlichen Vermittlung entweder in Frage stellt oder zumindest thematisiert, andererseits die tradierten Erkenntnismodi neu reflektiert oder ihnen sogar den Rücken kehrt.