Journal of religious culture = Journal für Religionskultur
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76
In der reformatorischen Tradition steht die zweckfreie Liebe zum Nächsten im Zentrum. Sie hat ihren Grund darin, dass Gott sich den Menschen barmherzig zugewandt und ihr gestörtes Verhältnis zu ihm in Ordnung gebracht hat, was sie von sich aus nicht vermochten. Leben und Sterben Jesu Christi sind der Ausdruck der Barmherzigkeit Gottes. Zweckfreie Liebe zum Mitmenschen. Weil Christen das Himmelreich nach dem Willen Gottes bereits erlangt haben und ihr Verhältnis zu ihm nicht aus eigener Kraft in Ordnung zu bringen vermögen, können sie durch Hilfe für ihre Mitmenschen nichts zu ihrem Heil beitragen. Sie setzten sich für andere ein, weil der barmherzige Gott sie reich beschenkt hat. Darüber hinaus ist weder ein bestimmtes religiöses Bewusstseins, noch rituelle Reinheit, noch der Zugehörigkeit zu einer bestimmten Gruppe, noch eine Missionsabsicht von Nöten.
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A fresh look at the understanding of charity : with special reference to the present Indian practice
(2005)
The discussion of this paper is divided in two parts: Present understanding of Charity and a fresh look at the understanding of Charity particularly with a reference to the present Indian practice. As the major religious and theological perspectives specially from the Christian and the Islamic point of views are being dealt by other presentations in this seminar, therefore, the discussion here is limited only first, to the dictionary based linguistic meaning of Charity as understood in three main English speaking contexts and then (second), the Charity as practised in the Indian context. The new and revised deluxe edition of the Webster’s Encyclopaedic Unbridged Dictionary of the English Language has given the following meanings of Charity: 1)charitable actions, as almsgiving or performing other benevolent actions of any sort for the needy with no expectation of material reward: to devote ones life to charity, 2)something given to a person or persons in need; aims: she asked for work not charity, 3) a charitable act or work 4) a charitable fund, foundation, or institution: He left his estate to one of his charities, 5) benevolent feeling, esp. towards those in need or in disfavour: she looked so poor that we fed her out of charity, and 6) Christian love; agape 1 Cor. 13. The Chamber English Dictionary, the meanings of Charity gives as: universal love (N.T.): the disposition to think favourably of others, and do them good almsgiving: a usu. non profit-making foundation, institution, or cause, devoted to caring for those in need of help etc. According to Concise Oxford Dictionary Charity means: an organisation set up to provide help and raise money for those in need, the voluntary giving of money those in need, tolerance in judging others and love of humankind, typically in Christian context. These three set of meanings of Charity, represent the three English regions or contexts: American (Webster), Scottish (Chamber) and English (Oxford). The common important element in all for these three is, the Christian understanding of Charity, because all the three directly have referred to the Biblical usages of Charity in some forms. Here for the discussion of this paper, one can also add that even these usages are limited to the contextual understanding of the English world. Because language is also considered as an vehicle of a culture. But it is true that even the English speaking persons from the non-English world particularly of the Southern countries, (where English rulers have ruled in the past), understand the meaning of Charity more or less in the above sense only. ...
74
Im Kopftuchstreit wird von konservativer Seite als Argument ins Feld geführt, daß christliche Symbole Vorrang vor denen anderer Religionen haben sollen, weil sich unsere Gesellschaftskultur weltanschaulich vom Christentum herleite. Immerhin wird damit zwar politisch, wenn auch auf negative Weise, anerkannt, daß wir eine multireligiöse Gesellschaft seien, aber dennoch soll die Mehrheitsreligion besondere Privilegien genießen. In vielen Staaten, in denen die Muslime die Mehrheit der Bevölkerung ausmachen, wird übrigens ähnlich gedacht und auch verfahren. Warum tut sich aber unser Staatswesen, das sich doch als Vorreiter der Menschenrechte versteht, immer noch so schwer, alle gesetzestreuen Religionen völlig gleich zu behandeln und allen gesetzestreuen Bürgern das gleiche Recht auf Gestaltung einer individuellen Religionskultur zuzugestehen? Ein Rückgriff auf die christliche Religionsgeschichte soll helfen, dies besser zu verstehen.
73
Die Heilige Schrift der Gemeinde der Sikh ist Adi Sri Guru Grantha Sahibaji oder „der am Anfang stehende Guru in Gestalt des Buches". Guru Govind Singh (1675-1708) setzte kurz vor seinem Tod eine erweiterte Fassung des Adi Grantha als seinen Nachfolger im Guruamt ein. Der Adi Grantha ist ein poetisches Werk, das keinerlei Prosa enthält. Autoren der verschiedenen Teile der Schrift gehörten nur zum Teil der Sikh-Gemeinde an: Guru Nanak, der Gründer der Religion der Sikh, sowie seine Nachfolger Angad, Amar Das, Ram Das, Arun, Teg Bahadur und Govind Singh. Aus anderen Religionen stammen die sogenannten Bhagats (Fromme) wie der islamische Sufi Kabir, ein Weber von Beruf, oder der hochberühmte Krishnadichter Sur Das. Schließlich zählen noch einige Bhatts oder Barden wie Haribans oder Ganga zu den Mitverfassern. Zu dieser multireligösen Verfasserschaft tritt als weitere Besonderheit dieser Heiligen Schrift ihre Vielsprachigkeit. Der Urtext des Adi Grantha ist in seinen verschiedenen Teilen in unterschiedlichen Sprachen und Dialekten abgefaßt (Hindi Sanskrit, Marathi, Persisch, Arabisch usw.). Zwar waren Guru Nanak und seine Nachfolger Panjabi; dennoch sprachen sie ein Idiom, das nach E. Trumpp eine Mischung aus Hindi und Panjabi war. Guru Govind Singh jedoch schrieb in reinem Hindi. Das Alphabet des Adi Grantha ist das Gurmukhi, eine Schrift, die Guru Nanak für die Abfassung seines Schriftteils entwickelt haben soll. Der Adi Grantha setzt sich aus liturgischen Gebrauchstexten, aus Psalmen und Preisgesängen zusammen.
72
The Dalai Lama, in exile since 1959 in Hindu majority India, has continuously been taking a firm stand on giving importance to an inter-religious dialogue and interaction. He has made it absolutely clear that Buddhism represents just one of the many religious ways open for mankind. Nonetheless, he has always referred to the bond shared between Buddhism and Hinduism as a very special one and has experienced it as a religious tie. Both these religious streams belong to what is known as Bharatiya or Indo-genous Dharma. The Dalai Lama does not restrict his care for nurturing this common bond to a mere academic talk. In fact he has been taking active part in promoting this kind of inter-religious dialogue and has been showing a fiery political commitment as well. He thus took active part in the second World Hindu Congress organized by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad held in Prayag-Allahabad in the year 1979. According to official reports, the organizers in their welcome speech for the Dalai Lama were frank enough to admit that 2500 years ago, the Kashi Pandits (Kashi also known as Varanasi) had stopped Siddharta Gautama Buddha from entering the Vishwanath temple. It was also mentioned that for all these years, there has never been any letup in the conflict between Sanatani Hindus and Bauddhas, despite the fact that later on Shakya Muni was rewarded the status of avatara by Hindus. The fact that these very Kashi Pandits had invite one of the highest religious authorities of Buddhism - the Dalai Lama- to this congress should be seen as "a positive step towards reconciliation." The Dalai Lama was thus pleasantly surprised to see that the highest rung of the religious body of Hindus publicly acknowledged the divine status of Siddharta Gautama Buddha and recognized the presence of the Dalai Lama as a valuable contribution towards the reconciliation between the two religious streams. ...
71
Dialogue has become a fashionable word in the theological circles for quite some time now. However, there is a need to review what has been achieved so far. If it is significant, we should then review how much religious tension has been reduced so far. If it is not much, why has there been no progress. In this note I will deal with the issues relating to Hindu-Christian dialogue. I am using Christianity only as a reference point, and the issues raised do have a wider context as well. As far as Hindu-Christian dialogue is concerned, I am of the opinion that there has been hardly any progress all these years. Many academics and theologians have been involved in the exercise so far. The whole literature, over a long period of time, seems to follow a familiar pattern – a discussion on the theory of the dialogue, what should be included in a dialogue, who should and should not be involved in a dialogue, and ends with a lament that there is so very little progress. The problem, according to me, is that the dialogue does not even consider a need to discuss what is the basic difference between Hinduism and Christianity, and an inquiry into whether these come in the way of communal harmony. A dialogue is really not necessary if we are to discuss only what is similar between the two systems. ...
70
Untouchability and inter-caste relations in rural India : the case of southern Tamil villages
(2004)
Justice and equality are the two subjects often talked about by most of the nationalists and leaders of various political and ideological streams across the world including India. India was at the fore-front in condemning racial discrimination particularly apartheid and also the influence of super powers) on the internal affairs of independent nations. Her commitment to secure its citizens' freedom, justice, equality and fraternity is reflected in the very preamble of the Indian Constitution. Towards achieving these challenging goals, special provisions have also been made in the Constitution to protect and promote the interests of the most oppressed section of Indian society - traditionally known as Untouchables and Constitutionally as the Scheduled Castes. These provisions are expected to alter the given unjust distribution of power (political and economic) and status (social) among different sections of people and thereby transform India into an egalitarian society. Given India's unequivocal commitment to secure its citizens these noble ideals - particularly the most exploited and pilloried section of India -, we shall attempt here to understand Indian villages, which host over 80 per cent of the Indian population, from the point of view of whether or not these villages patronise the institution of caste which is in contravention of these ideals or whether there are these little republics ideal for realising the said goals and thus to be preserved as they are as claimed by many social reformers including Mahatma Gandhi. In the process, we shall also address the question of how caste has remained unchanged, how it controls social interaction between higher and lower caste groups and accordingly perpetuates unequal control over power and status. And most importantly we shall also understand whether all the Scheduled Castes (lower castes) treat their members as equals or there is hierarchy, discrimination and practice of untouchability even among them.
69
Religious Anthropology studies the origins, evolution and functions of religions. The discipline researching religious beliefs and rituals comparatively with cross-cultural perspectives tries to enlighten the belief world of the mankind. Religion, as a term, can be defined as "believing as well as worshipping to the supernatural powers and/or beings by the individual who are emotionally or consciously devoted to them" (Örnek 1988: 127). There have been a number of theories so far which try to bring an explanation to the origins and the evolution of religion. In these theories, Fetishism, cults of nature, animism, Totemism, dynamism, Manism, magic, polytheism, monotheism as well as certain physiological phenomena have been particularized as evolutionary stages and forms of belief (Evans-Pritchard 1998: 124). All of these theories have the perspective of so called "progressive" and / or "unilinear" that maintain a religion which has reached ongoing stages and that communities which have developed from primitiveness to civilization. They argue that there has only been one single line of progress, and all of the communities are bound to go through the same evolutionary stages.
68
As for the relation between Islam and pluralism, it seems a little bit complicated. There are some verses in The Koran for pluralism and at the same time we have some verses against. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad like the some Koranic verses, we came across with something good and bad for non-Muslims in special contexts. By another saying, we find both positive and negative statements for Jews and Christians in different circumstances. Muslim scholars the complexity still exists. We find both positive and negative stances. So it is difficult to see a standard or official view on this issue. However, we should point out that Islam recognizes all the sacred (Semitic) books and their messages. It accepts all prophets of that traditions. It defines itself as the last and perfect religion of Semitic tradition and states that no other religion will be accepted from anybody else other then itself. It criticizes both the Jews and Christians especially about their failure to uphold the Oneness of God, tawhid, and to preserve the authenticity of their scripture from interventions. This exclusivist aspect of Islam as many conservative scholars formed with putting together some evidences from the Koran is generally accepted by Muslims.
67
Aus der bedingungslosen Mutterliebe Allahs gegenüber seinen Geschöpfen resultiert die bedingungslose Mutterliebe der Menschen gegenüber dem Nächsten, insb. dem Bedürftigen. Diese folgt als logische Notwendigkeit aus dem Glauben an Allahs unbedingte Gnade. Diakonie ist daher nach der Gnadenbotschaft Mohammeds kein sündentilgendes Werk, sondern ein Handeln aus dem Glauben an Allahs Werk, seiner freien Sündenvergebung. So wie Allah seine Sündenvergebung nicht an das Werk des Menschen bindet, so bindet der glaubende Mensch sein Werk der Barmherzigkeit nicht an das vergeltende Handeln des Bedürftigen. Er schenkt, weil er beschenkt worden ist. Diakonie wie Nächstenliebe allgemein wird somit zum Spiel, einer Handlung, die sich in sich selbst erschöpft und sich an sich selbst erfreut. Denn Allahs Handeln, seine jede Gerechtigkeit mit Füßen tretende Gnade, ist nichts als ein Gottesspiel. Indem die Menschen auf Allahs Spiel der Sündenvergebung vertrauen, werden sie zu Mitspie-lern Gottes.