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Transfer RNA fragments replace microRNA regulators of the cholinergic post-stroke immune blockade
(2020)
Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability. Recovery depends on a delicate balance between inflammatory responses and immune suppression, tipping the scale between brain protection and susceptibility to infection. Peripheral cholinergic blockade of immune reactions fine-tunes this immune response, but its molecular regulators are unknown. Here, we report a regulatory shift in small RNA types in patient blood sequenced two days after ischemic stroke, comprising massive decreases of microRNA levels and concomitant increases of transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) targeting cholinergic transcripts. Electrophoresis-based size-selection followed by RT-qPCR validated the top 6 upregulated tRFs in a separate cohort of stroke patients, and independent datasets of small and long RNA sequencing pinpointed immune cell subsets pivotal to these responses, implicating CD14+ monocytes in the cholinergic inflammatory reflex. In-depth small RNA targeting analyses revealed the most-perturbed pathways following stroke and implied a structural dichotomy between microRNA and tRF target sets. Furthermore, lipopolysaccharide stimulation of murine RAW 264.7 cells and human CD14+ monocytes upregulated the top 6 stroke-perturbed tRFs, and overexpression of stroke-inducible tRF-22-WE8SPOX52 using an ssRNA mimic induced downregulation of immune regulator Z-DNA binding protein 1 (Zbp1). In summary, we identified a “changing of the guards” between RNA types that may systemically affect homeostasis in post-stroke immune responses, and pinpointed multiple affected pathways, which opens new venues for establishing therapeutics and biomarkers at the protein- and RNA-level.
Significance Statement Ischemic stroke triggers peripheral immunosuppression, increasing the susceptibility to post-stroke pneumonia that is linked with poor survival. The post-stroke brain initiates intensive communication with the immune system, and acetylcholine contributes to these messages; but the responsible molecules are yet unknown. We discovered a “changing of the guards,” where microRNA levels decreased but small transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) increased in post-stroke blood. This molecular switch may re-balance acetylcholine signaling in CD14+ monocytes by regulating their gene expression and modulating post-stroke immunity. Our observations point out to tRFs as molecular regulators of post-stroke immune responses that may be potential therapeutic targets.
Transfer RNA fragments replace microRNA regulators of the cholinergic post-stroke immune blockade
(2020)
Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability. Recovery depends on balance between inflammatory response and immune suppression, which can be CNS-protective but may worsen prognosis by increasing patients’ susceptibility to infections. Peripheral cholinergic blockade of immune reactions fine-tunes this immune response, but its molecular regulators are unknown. Therefore, we sought small RNA balancers of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in peripheral blood from ischemic stroke patients. Using RNA-sequencing and RT-qPCR, we discovered in patients’ blood on day 2 after stroke a “change of guards” reflected in massive decreases in microRNAs (miRs) and increases in transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) targeting cholinergic transcripts. Electrophoresis-based size-selection followed by RT-qPCR validated the top 6 upregulated tRFs in a separate cohort of stroke patients, and independent small RNA-sequencing datasets presented post-stroke enriched tRFs as originating from lymphocytes and monocytes. In these immune compartments, we found CD14+ monocytes to express the highest amounts of cholinergic transcripts. In-depth analysis of CD14+ regulatory circuits revealed minimally overlapping subsets of transcription factors carrying complementary motifs to miRs or tRFs, indicating different roles for the stroke-perturbed members of these small RNA species. Furthermore, LPS-stimulated murine RAW264.7 cells presented dexamethasone-suppressible upregulation of the top 6 tRFs identified in human patients, indicating an evolutionarily conserved and pharmaceutically treatable tRF response to inflammatory cues. Our findings identify tRF/miR subgroups which may co-modulate the homeostatic response to stroke in patients’ blood and open novel venues for establishing RNA-targeted concepts for post-stroke diagnosis and therapeutics.
Fatty acid and polyketide synthases (FASs and PKSs) synthesize physiologically and pharmaceutically important products by condensation of acyl building blocks. The transacylation reaction catalyzed by acyl transferases (ATs) is responsible for the selection of acyl-CoA esters for further processing by FASs and PKSs. In this study, the AT domains of different multidomain (type I) PKS systems are kinetically described in their substrate selectivity, AT−Acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain-domain interaction and enzymatic kinetic properties. We observe that the ATs of modular PKSs, intricate protein complexes occurring in bacteria and responsible for the biosynthesis of bioactive polyketides, are significantly slower than ATs of mammalian FASs, reflecting the respective purpose of the biosynthetic pathways within the organism and their metabolic context. We further perform a mutational study on the kinetics of the AT−ACP interaction in the modular PKS 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS) and find a high plasticity in enzyme properties, which we explain by a high plasticity in AT−ACP recognition. Our study enlarges the understanding of ATs in its molecular properties and is similarly a call for thorough AT-centered PKS engineering strategies.
Multidomain enzymes, such as fatty acid synthases (FASs) or polyketide synthases (PKSs), play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of important natural products. They have a high significance in the development of new pharmaceuticals and various research approaches focus on the engineering of these proteins. For example, human type I FAS is an interesting therapeutic target. Owing to its importance in lipogenesis, upregulation of human type I FAS expression has been observed in numerous cancers. Type I FAS is also regarded as important target in antiobesity treatment. Both multidomain enzyme classes - FASs and PKSs - show high structural and functional similarities. Particularly animal type I FAS is most relevant as evolutionary precursor of the PKS family. Therefore, the well characterized FASs are suitable model proteins for the poorly characterized PKSs, to gain deeper understanding in these megasynthases.
Furthermore, fatty acids are considered to be strategically important platform chemicals accessible through sustainable microbial approaches. The recently acquired structural information on FASs provides an excellent understanding of the molecular basis of fatty acid synthesis. The specific understanding of chain-length control, the characterization of a multitude of substrate-specific thioesterases, and the emerging tools and means for metabolic engineering have fostered targeted approaches for modulating chain length. There is large interest in short-chain fatty acids, since these compounds are biotechnologically valuable platform chemicals and biofuel precursors, and attempts on the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids have been reported during the last years.
Primary focus of this thesis lies on the animal type I FASs, which exhibit large conformational variety, as seen in electron microscopy and high-speed atomic force microscopy. Conformational dynamics facilitate productive protein-protein interactions between catalytic domains within the enzyme and aid acyl carrier protein (ACP)-mediated substrate shuttling during the catalytic cycle of fatty acid biosynthesis. To gain deeper insight into the fundamental processes of ACP-mediated substrate shuttling and the underlying conformational dynamics, spectroscopic methods like Förster resonance energy transfer and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy shall be employed. These spectroscopic methods demand site-specific labeling of proteins with fluorophore or spin labels, which can be accomplished with the amber codon suppression technology. Through amber codon suppression, a non-canonical amino acid (ncAA) with an orthogonal functional group is incorporated site-specifically into the protein sequence, which can be used in chemoselective reactions for protein labeling.
This thesis is at the forefront of employing the technology of amber codon suppression for addressing complex biological questions on megasynthases. The successful production of ncAA-modified FASs is challenging. With the aim of incorporating ncAAs into the multidomain 540 kDa large murine FAS, we by far exceed boundaries of documented application of amber codon suppression. Most of the proteins that are reported by Liu & Schultz in applications of amber codon suppression are in the range of 30kDa - for example the TE domain of human FAS. In the same review, the largest protein amber codon suppression was applied to is a potassium channel with roughly 80 kDa. Thus, to the best of my knowledge no protein exceeding 100 kDa has been used in amber codon suppression so far.
In this thesis a low-complex, well-plate based reporter assay is presented, based on an ACP-GFP fusion protein for fast and efficient screening of ncAA incorporation. Reliability and applicability of the reporter assay is demonstrated by successful upscaling to larger protein constructs and increased expression scale.
As outlined in this thesis, we have carefully set up methods for the modification of murine FAS and made several achievements:
(i) We have created our own toolbox with a multitude of suppressor plasmids and various orthogonal pairs. pACU and pACE plasmids are compatible for fast exchange of cassettes, and cloning procedures are optimized for modification of synthetases by site-directed mutagenesis. (ii) We have organic synthesis of several ncAAs stably running in the lab and synthesis of other ncAAs can be established when required. Therefore, extensive screening at moderate costs is possible. (iii) We have established a reporter assay for screening our own library of vectors for amber codon suppression and for optimizing incorporation of ncAAs. (iv) We successfully incorporated ncAAs into subconstructs and full-length murine FAS, and collected initial promising results for the application of these proteins in spectroscopic methods. Thus, laying the foundation for future studies to address fundamental questions of the ACP-mediated substrate shuttling and other conformational dynamics of these enzymes.
Die vorliegende Arbeit Zeitaufgelöste NMR-spektroskopische Untersuchung konformationeller Dynamiken in DNA G-Quadruplexen befasst sich mit der detaillierten biophysikalischen Untersuchung wichtiger strukturdynamischer Eigenschaften von nicht-kanonischen Nukleinsäure Sekundärstrukturelementen.
Im Genom aller eukaryotischer Lebewesen, insbesondere dem menschlichen Genom finden sich DNA-Sequenzabschnitte, die überdurchschnittlich Guanosin (G)-reich sind. Diese poly-G Abschnitte sind nicht zufällig im Genom verteilt, sondern häufen sich vermehrt in Genabschnitten, die besonders wichtig für die Regulation der Genexpression sind. G-reiche DNA-Sequenzen können unter geeigneten Umständen alternative Sekundärstrukturen ausbilden, die von der doppelsträngigen, kanonischen Watson-Crick Konformation abweichen. In Anwesenheit monovalenter Kationen können sich G-Nukleotide in einer Tetrade über Hoogsteen Interaktionen anlagern. Diese Tetraden können sich stapeln und dadurch sogenannte G-Quadruplexe (G4) ausbilden. Das menschliche cMYC Gen wird typischerweise als proto-Onkogen bezeichnet. Es kodiert für einen unspezifischen Transkriptionsfaktor, der bei einer Vielzahl von systematischen und soliden Tumorerkrankungen stark überexprimiert wird. Die zelluläre Konzentration des Genprodukts kann zu 90% über ein G4 cis-Element in der Promotorregion reguliert werden. Der cMYC G4 hat die Möglichkeit verschiedene Konformationen einzunehmen. Im Falle des cMYC G4 kann man zusätzliche, nicht-konventionelle Formen der konformationellen Isomerie finden. Zum einen gibt es die Möglichkeit, dass bei einem G4, der aus drei Tetraden und vier intramolekularen Strangabschnitten (dreistöckiger G4) besteht, einzelne Strangabschnitte mehr als drei konsekutive G-Nukleotide besitzen. Dadurch können sich Faltungs-Isomere bilden, die sich durch Verschieben des Strangs relativ zum verbleibenden dreistöckigen Tetradengerüst ergeben. Man spricht von G-Register Isomeren. Eine zweite Möglichkeit der Strukturisomerie ergibt sich, wenn in einer Nukleotidsequenz mehr als vier G-reiche Strangabschnitte aufeinander folgen. Jeweils vier dieser Strangabschnitte können in unterschiedlicher Weise kombiniert werden, um ein G4 Isomer auszubilden. In jedem dieser so zustande gekommenen G4 verbleibt ein (oder mehrere) G-reicher Strangabschnitt, der im konkreten Isomer nicht zur Faltung verwendet wird. Diese zusätzlichen G-Stränge werden daher auch Ersatzräder (engl. spare-tires) genannt; man erhält spare-tire Isomere.
Obwohl diese Formen des Polymorphismus, deren biologischer Kontext und die biophysikalischen Konsequenzen in Arbeiten von C. Burrows (2015) und A. Mittermaier (2016) erstmals umfassend beschrieben wurden, gab es bis zum Ausgangspunkt dieser Arbeit keine Kenntnisse über deren strukturelle Dynamik, den Faltungswegen und den zugrundeliegenden molekularen Mechanismen. Zeitaufgelöste Kernspinresonanz (engl. nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR) Spektroskopie ist eine bestens geeignete Methode, um die Dynamik von Biomakromolekülen mit atomarer Auflösung zu studieren. Um solche Experimente durchführen zu können, braucht es geeignete Herangehensweisen für die Präparation eines Nicht-Gleichgewichtszustands. In dieser Arbeit wird eine neu erarbeitete Strategie vorgestellt, die es erlaubt, Einblick in die Faltungs- und Umfaltungskinetiken eines dynamischen Konformations-Ensembles nicht-konventioneller Strukturisomere der cMYC G4 DNA-Sequenz zu erhalten.
Hierzu wurden photolabile Schutzgruppen (engl. Photocages) positionsspezifisch an bestimmten G-Nukleobasen (O6-(R)-NPE) angebracht. Die Schutzgruppen blockieren die Basenpaar-Interaktionen des Nukleotids, wodurch dieses sich nicht mehr an einer Tetradenbildung beteiligen kann. Die Photocages wurden jeweils an den Nukleotiden eingeführt, die nur in jeweils einem der G-Register Isomere an der Tetradenbildung beteiligt sind. Durch diese gezielte Destabilisierung konnten die Isomere getrennt und im gefalteten Zustand isoliert werden. Die so erhaltenen Konformationen wurden umfassend spektroskopisch charakterisiert. Der Ansatz, das konformationelle Gleichgewicht durch Photocages transient zu stören, wurde daraufhin weiterentwickelt. Mehrere Photocages wurden an Nukleobasen in zentraler Position einzelner G-Strangabschnitte angebracht. Dadurch konnte eine ausreichende Destabilisierung erreicht werden, die die Faltung jedweder G4 Strukturen unterbindet. Somit wurde ein ungefalteter Zustand erzeugt, der unter ansonsten frei wählbaren, physiologischen Bedingungen besteht. Durch in situ Photolyse der Schutzgruppen konnte so die Licht-induzierte G4 Faltung unter konstanten Puffer- und Temperaturbedingungen untersucht werden. Dieser Ansatz wurde auf die Untersuchung der Faltungswege, die zu verschiedenen spare-tire Isomeren führen, fokussiert.
Zusammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass es insgesamt erstmalig gelungen ist, die Kinetiken der wesentlichen Faltungs- und Umfaltungswege entlang der konformationellen Energielandschaft des cMYC G4 Elements zu untersuchen. Das komplexe, dynamische Zusammenspiel aller relevanten, nicht-konventionellen isomeren G4 Strukturen konnte entworren und umfassend experimentell beschrieben werden. Der dafür weiterentwickelte Ansatz über konformationelle Selektion mit Hilfe photolabiler Schutzgruppen hat dabei experimentelle Einblicke erlaubt, die bislang nicht zugänglich waren. Die Strukturen und Faltungszustämde, die mit den chemisch modifizierten Oligonukleotiden erhalten und isoliert wurden, sind umfassend spektroskopisch untersucht worden. Die Anwendung verschiedener spektroskopischer Ansätze und deren Kombination mit weiteren biophysikalischen Methoden hat eine Methoden-unabhängige Validierung der erhaltenen kinetischen und thermodynamischen Daten ermöglicht.
Many processes in living cells involve interaction and cooperation of multiple proteins to fulfill a specific function. To understand biological processes in their full complexity, it is not sufficient to only identify the molecules being involved but also to understand the kinetic aspects of a reaction. Mass spectrometry (MS) is a very powerful tool which allows to precisely identify the molecules of a reaction. Usually this is done with tandem-MS experiments for purpose of de-novo peptide sequencing. However, since this involves protein digestion, a statement of the in-vivo constitution of non-covalently bound protein complexes is not possible. In order to detect an intact protein complex it is necessary to analyze the biological system softly and in a near-native environment with native MS. Native MS allows the non-destructive analysis of these non-covalent protein complexes as well as to detect their components. However, up to now native MS does not offer a possibility to resolve the timing of the constitution of protein complexes on a fast time-scale. Therefore, the progress of reactions on fast time-scales is invisible. However, a method which delivers both types of information - identification of the components of a protein complex, as well as time-resolving their interaction - would be of high interest.
A suitable ionization technique for native MS is laser-induced liquid-bead ion desorption (LILBID). LILBID employs well-defined droplets which are irradiated by IR laser pulses to generate gas phase ions. The not-continuous, repetitive nature of ion generation offers itself to the development of a time-resolved (TR) native MS system which is able to investigate protein complexes on a fast time scale. The LILBID-droplets can serve as reaction vessels if they are levitated in an electrodynamic Paul-trap. This new setup would allow sample manipulation and MS analysis on precise and fast reaction time-scales. The first part of this dissertation presents the construction and characterization of a setup for TR-LILBID-MS.
An example for a complex biological system is the self-assembly of beta-amyloid (Aβ). This small peptide is the major component in plaques related to Alzheimer’s disease. Clinically relevant is especially the 42 amino acid peptide Aβ42 which aggregates from monomers to oligomers through to fibrils. The oligomers are the neurotoxic species in this process and thus of high interest. Nevertheless, standard analytical techniques are unable to detect those oligomers which makes MS an optimal tool to study the oligomerization process of Aβ with the focus on disease relevant oligomers. TR-LILBID-MS allows to follow the oligomerization of Aβ enabling to study molecules which influence this kinetic. Combining MS with ion-mobility spectrometry adds an additional dimension - the collision cross section - to the mass-to-charge ratio obtained from MS. Therewith structural alterations induced by ligands can be correlated to differences in the aggregation kinetic. This allows to draw a picture of the aggregation process of Aβ for the development of disease-relevant small oligomers on a molecular level.
Certain electron-rich 1,4-diborabenzene derivatives efficiently activate single, double, and triple bonds and thereby increasingly compete with transition metals in homogeneous catalysis. This review compares the activation of three model substrates (H2, H2C=CH2, CO2) by (i) 9,10-dihydro-9,10-diboraanthracene dianions, (ii) their neutral carbene-stabilized congeners, (iii) 1,3,2,5-diazadiborinines, and (iv) 1,4,2,5-diazadiborinines. Distinct structure-properties relationships become apparent, the most influential factors being (i) the steric demands of the B-bonded substituents, (ii) the charges on the B-doped (hetero)arenes, (iii) charge polarization as a result of additional N-doping, and (iv) the energies and nodal structures of the frontier orbitals. The observed reactions are explained by a transition metal-like activation mechanism. If the two boron atoms are chemically inequivalent, contributions of a B(+I)/B(+III) mixed-valence state determine the observed regioselectivities when polar substrates are added. The lessons learned from the conversions of the model substrates are subsequently used to rationalize the behavior of the B2 heterocycles also toward more sophisticated substrate molecules. Finally, catalytic cycles based on H2- and H−-transfers, hydroboration reactions, and CO2 reductions will be covered.
Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a widely used technique for the characterization of protein-protein and protein-ligand interactions. It provides information on the stoichiometry, affinity, and the thermodynamic driving forces of interactions. This chapter exemplifies the use of ITC to investigate interactions between human autophagy modifiers (LC3/GABARAP proteins) and their interaction partners, the LIR motif containing sequences. The purpose of this report is to present a detailed protocol for the production of LC3/GABARAP-interacting LIR peptides using E. coli expression systems. In addition, we outline the design of ITC experiments using the LC3/GABARAP:peptide interactions as an example. Comprehensive troubleshooting notes are provided to facilitate the adaptation of these protocols to different ligand-receptor systems. The methodology outlined for studying protein-ligand interactions will help to avoid common errors and misinterpretations of experimental results.
Thermally stable and highly conductive SAMs on Ag substrate — the impact of the anchoring group
(2021)
Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on metal substrates are an important part of modern interfacial chemistry and nanotechnology. The robustness of SAMs strongly depends on their thermal stability, which, together with electric conductivity, crucial for their applications in molecular/organic electronics. In this context, using a multidisciplinary approach, the structure, stability, and conductivity properties of conjugated aromatic SAMs featuring the naphthalene backbone and S, Se, or COO group, mediating bonding to the Ag substrate are addressed. Whereas thermal stability of these SAMs exhibits a strong dependence on anchoring group, their conductivity is similar, which is rationalized by tentative model considering redistribution of charge density along the molecular framework. The thermal stability of model naphthalenethiol SAM, emphasized by desorption energy of ≈1.69 eV, is better than that of typical N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) monolayers considered currently as the most stable SAMs on metal substrates. However, in contrast to NHC SAMs, which are highly insulating, the naphtalene-based SAM, with S, Se or COO anchoring groups, are highly conductive, even in comparison with analogous oligophenyl SAMs (by a factor of 10). A unique combination of the ultimate thermal stability and superior conductivity for the naphthalenethiol SAM on Ag makes it highly attractive for applications.
In recent years, the incidence of infected wounds is steadily increasing, and so is the clinical as well as economic interest in effective therapies. These combine reduction of pathogen load in the wound with general wound management to facilitate the healing process. The success of current therapies is challenged by harsh conditions in the wound microenvironment, chronicity, and biofilm formation, thus impeding adequate concentrations of active antimicrobials at the site of infection. Inadequate dosing accuracy of systemically and topically applied antibiotics is prone to promote development of antibiotic resistance, while in the case of antiseptics, cytotoxicity is a major problem. Advanced drug delivery systems have the potential to enable the tailor-made application of antimicrobials to the side of action, resulting in an effective treatment with negligible side effects. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of treatment options for the therapy of infected wounds. In this context, a special focus is set on delivery systems for antimicrobials ranging from semi-solid and liquid formulations over wound dressings to more advanced carriers such as nano-sized particulate systems, vesicular systems, electrospun fibers, and microneedles, which are discussed regarding their potential for effective therapy of wound infections. Further, established and novel models and analytical techniques for preclinical testing are introduced and a future perspective is provided.
Die Wechselwirkungen von flüchtigen organischen Verbindungen (VOCs) mit Eis in der Atmosphäre sind für viele umweltrelevante Aspekte von Interesse, dennoch gibt es bisher erst wenige Untersuchungen zu dieser Thematik.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die Wechselwirkungen verschiedener VOCs mit Eis durch Kraftfeldrechnungen simuliert. Als Substanzen wurden das Keton Aceton, die Kohlenwasserstoffe Isopren und Mesitylen, die Alkohole Ethanol, tert-Butanol, 2-Methyl-3-buten-2-ol (MBO) und Perillylalkohol, die Ether Methyl-tert-butylether und Ethyl-tert-butylether (ETBE) sowie die Aldehyde Nonanal und Methacrolein ausgewählt.
Hierbei wurden sowohl die Adsorption an verschiedenen Oberflächen von hexagonalen Eis (Eis Ih) und von kubischem Eis (Eis Ic) als auch die Absorption in Eiskristallen und an den darin enthaltenen Linien- und Flächendefekten betrachtet. Für jedes VOC wurden die resultierenden Strukturen sowie die dazu gehörigen Enthalpien ermittelt und mittels Boltzmann-Statistik ausgewertet.
Für die Berechnung der Wechselwirkungen von VOC mit Eis wurde ein Kraftfeld entwickelt, das sowohl die Strukturen von Eis Ih und Eis Ic als auch die Strukturen der organischen Moleküle und ebenso die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Eis und organischem Molekül gut wiedergibt. Es basiert auf dem für organische Moleküle verwendeten DREIDING-Kraftfeld und wurde modifiziert mit Parametern für Wasser aus dem TIP5P-E-Kraftfeld. Das Kraftfeld wurde an Ab-initio-Rechnungen und experimentellen Daten validiert.
Die Simulationen erbrachten folgende Ergebnisse:
– Unpolare Kohlenwasserstoffe werden nur in geringem Maße an den Eisoberflächen adsorbiert; eine Absorption in die Eiskristalle ist energetisch noch wesentlich ungünstiger. Für diese Verbindungen ist der Austrag aus der Atmosphäre durch Wechselwirkungen mit der Eisphase daher nicht relevant.
– Sauerstoffhaltige Verbindungen werden an der Eisoberfläche gut adsorbiert. Zwischen dem VOC-Molekül und der Eisoberfläche bilden sich Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen aus. Ihre Anzahl ist abhängig von der Art des Moleküls (Keton, Aldehyd, Ether oder Alkohol). Die Simulationen zeigen, dass die nasse Deposition durch Wechselwirkungen mit der Eisphase für diese Stoffe ein Austragsweg aus der Atmosphäre ist, der nicht vernachlässigt werden darf.
– Bei einem Einbau von VOC-Molekülen in den Eiskristall wird die Eisstruktur teilweise erheblich verzerrt. Je kleiner die VOC-Moleküle sind, desto geeigneter sind sie für einen Einbau in den Eiskristall; bei größeren Molekülen ist der Einbau aufgrund des sterischen Anspruchs behindert. Zunehmende Größe des Moleküls begünstigt andererseits die Adsorption.
Parallel zu den theoretischen Untersuchungen wurde eine Apparatur entwickelt, mit der sich die Ad- und die Absorption von VOCs beim Wachsen der Eiskristalle experimentell untersuchen lässt. Die Eiskristalle entstehen dabei unter kontrollierten Bedingungen und wachsen, wie in der Atmosphäre, durch Anlagerung von Wasserdampf. Gleichzeitig wird dem Wasserdampf eine definierte Menge an VOC zugegeben. Das entstehende Eis wurde mittels GC analysiert. Als alternatives Analyseverfahren zur Bestimmung von VOCs in Wasser wurde ein NMR-Verfahren entwickelt, das quantitative Messungen im dreistelligen ppm-Bereich erlaubt. Erste Untersuchungen an Eiskristallen, die in Gegenwart von ETBE erzeugt wurden, zeigten, dass dieses VOC − wie auch in den Simulationen vorhergesagt − überwiegend an der Oberfläche von Eis adsorbiert, und nicht in den Eiskristall eingebaut wird.
Für ETBE wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit zusätzlich die Kristallstruktur der alpha-Phase aus Röntgenpulverdaten durch Kristallstrukturvorhersage und Realraummethoden bestimmt. ETBE kristallisiert in der für organische Verbindungen sehr seltenen Raumgruppe C 2/m. Die experimentelle Kristallstruktur entspricht der von der Dichte her günstigsten, von der Gitterenergie her zweitgünstigsten vorhergesagten Kristallstruktur. Die Kristallstruktur eines zweiten VOCs, MBO, konnte ebenfalls aus Röntgenpulverdaten bestimmt werden, obwohl die Kristallstruktur drei symmetrieunabhängige Moleküle pro asymmetrischer Einheit enthält. Da sowohl ETBE als auch MBO bei Raumtemperatur flüssig sind, wurden beide für die Messungen bei tiefer Temperatur kristallisiert.
Die Kristallstrukturen dieser beiden VOCs können wiederum zur Simulation von sekundären organischen Aerosolen in der Atmosphäre genutzt werden.
Auch die Kristallstrukturen zweier weiterer Verbindungen konnten aus Röntgenpulverdaten bestimmt werden: zum einen die Strukturen des Trihydrates, des Monohydrates und des Anhydrates von Pigment Red 57:1 (C18H12CaN2O6S), dem wichtigsten industriellen Rotpigment, mit dem weltweit die Mehrheit aller Zeitungen und Zeitschriften gedruckt werden, zum anderen die Struktur des 2-Butanol-Hemisolvats von Methyl-(2R,3R)-2-{3-[amino(imino)methyl]benzyl}-3-{[4-(1-oxido-4-pyridinyl)benzoyl]¬amino}butanoat-hydrochlorid. Mit diesen Arbeiten konnte gezeigt werden, dass Kristallstrukturen organischer Verbindungen aus Röntgenpulverdaten auch dann bestimmt werden können, wenn verschiedene Probleme kombiniert auftreten, z. B. schlecht kristalline Pulver, Textur, Solvate, Hydrate, Fehlordnung, funktionelle Gruppen mit vergleichbarer Streukraft, mehrere symmetrieunabhängige Moleküle, hohe Anzahl von Parametern bei der Strukturlösung etc.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen deutlich, dass die Wechselwirkungen zwischen sauerstoffhaltigen VOC-Molekülen und der Eisphase nicht vernachlässigt werden dürfen. Sie sollten in Simulationen der Atmosphäre berücksichtigt werden, um so Aussagen über Auswirkungen auf das Klima und andere umweltrelevante Aspekte zu verbessern.
Oxidative stress is thought to be a driver for several diseases. However, many data to support this concept were obtained by the addition of extracellular H2O2 to cells. This does not reflect the dynamics of intracellular redox modifications. Cells actively control their redox-state, and increased formation of ROS is a response to cellular stress situations such as chronic inflammation.
In this study, it was shown that different types of ROS lead to different metabolic and transcriptomic responses of HUVECs. While 300 μM extracellular H2O2 led to substantial metabolic and transcriptomic changes, the effects of DAO-derived H2O2 and menadione were low to moderate, indicating that the source and the concentration of ROS are important in eliciting changes in metabolism and gene expression.
Specifically, it was identified that acute increases in ROS transiently inactivate the enzyme ω-amidase/NIT2 of the glutaminase II pathway, which supplies cells with anaplerotic α-ketoglutarate. The pathway has not been studied systematically because, as noted above, the major intermediate, KGM, is not commercially available. In the present study, an internal standard for targeted detection of KGM in cells and blood plasma/serum was used. Deletion of NIT2 by CRISPR/Cas9 significantly reduced α-ketoglutarate levels in HUVECs and elevated KGM levels. It appears that in cell culture conditions, hydrolysis of KGM to α-ketoglutarate is very efficient. Knockout of the glutamine transaminases significantly reduced methionine, suggesting that the glutaminase II pathway is an important source of amino acid replenishment.
Similar to genetic silencing of GLS1 [91,92], HUVECs lacking NIT2 showed reduced proliferation and angiogenic sprouting. Furthermore, our results indicate that, at least in HUVECs, the enzyme also locates in the mitochondria where it interacts with key enzymes of glutamine/glutamate/α-ketoglutarate metabolism.
The data of the present work indicate that the glutaminase II pathway is an underappreciated, redox-sensitive pathway for glutamine utilization in HUVECs. Genetic deletion of NIT2 has considerable physiological effects highlighting the importance of glutamine for ECs.
The new class of microbial rhodopsins, called xenorhodopsins (XeRs),[1] extends the versatility of this family by inward H+ pumps.[2–4] These pumps are an alternative optogenetic tool to the light-gated ion channels (e.g. ChR1,2), because the activation of electrically excitable cells by XeRs is independent from the surrounding physiological conditions. In this work we functionally and spectroscopically characterized XeR from Nanosalina (NsXeR).[1] The photodynamic behavior of NsXeR was investigated on the ps to s time scale elucidating the formation of the J and K and a previously unknown long-lived intermediate. The pH dependent kinetics reveal that alkalization of the surrounding medium accelerates the photocycle and the pump turnover. In patch-clamp experiments the blue-light illumination of NsXeR in the M state shows a potential-dependent vectoriality of the photocurrent transients, suggesting a variable accessibility of reprotonation of the retinal Schiff base. Insights on the kinetically independent switching mechanism could furthermore be obtained by mutational studies on the putative intracellular H+ acceptor D220.
The new class of microbial rhodopsins, called xenorhodopsins (XeRs),[1] extends the versatility of this family by inward H+ pumps.[2–4] These pumps are an alternative optogenetic tool to the light-gated ion channels (e.g. ChR1,2), because the activation of electrically excitable cells by XeRs is independent from the surrounding physiological conditions. In this work we functionally and spectroscopically characterized XeR from Nanosalina (NsXeR).[1] The photodynamic behavior of NsXeR was investigated on the ps to s time scale elucidating the formation of the J and K and a previously unknown long-lived intermediate. The pH dependent kinetics reveal that alkalization of the surrounding medium accelerates the photocycle and the pump turnover. In patch-clamp experiments the blue-light illumination of NsXeR in the M state shows a potential-dependent vectoriality of the photocurrent transients, suggesting a variable accessibility of reprotonation of the retinal Schiff base. Insights on the kinetically independent switching mechanism could furthermore be obtained by mutational studies on the putative intracellular H+ acceptor D220.
The endosteal bone marrow niche and vascular endothelial cells provide sanctuaries to leukemic cells. In murine chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) CD44 on leukemia cells and E-selectin on bone marrow endothelium are essential mediators for the engraftment of leukemic stem cells (LSC). We hypothesized that non-adhesion of CML-initiating cells to E-selectin on the bone marrow endothelium may lead to superior eradication of LSC in CML after treatment with imatinib than imatinib alone. Indeed, here we show that treatment with the E-selectin inhibitor GMI-1271 in combination with imatinib prolongs survival of mice with CML via decreased contact time of leukemia cells with bone marrow endothelium. Non-adhesion of BCR-ABL1+ cells leads to an increase of cell cycle progression and an increase of expression of the hematopoietic transcription factor and protooncogene Scl/Tal1 in leukemia-initiating cells (LIC). We implicate SCL/TAL1 as indirect phosphorylation target of BCR-ABL1 and as a negative transcriptional regulator of CD44 expression. We show that increased SCL/TAL1 expression is associated with improved outcome in human CML. These data demonstrate the BCR-ABL1-specific, cell-intrinsic pathways leading to altered interactions with the vascular niche via the modulation of adhesion molecules - a strategy therapeutically exploitable in future.
Background: Zolpidem is a non-benzodiazepine hypnotic agent which has been shown to be effective in inducing and maintaining sleep in adults and is one of the most frequently prescribed hypnotics in the world. For drugs that are used to treat sleeping disorders, the time to reach the maximum concentration (Tmax) of the drug in plasma is important to achieving a fast onset of action and this must be maintained when switching from one product to another.
Objectives: The main objective of the present work was to create a PBPK/PD model for zolpidem and establish a clinically relevant “safe space” for dissolution of zolpidem from the commercial immediate release (IR) formulation. A second objective was to analyze literature pharmacokinetic data to verify the negative food effect ascribed to zolpidem and consider its ramifications in terms of the “safe space” for dissolution.
Methods: Using dissolution, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data, an integrated PBPK/PD model for immediate release zolpidem tablets was constructed in Simcyp®. This model was used to identify the clinically relevant dissolution specifications necessary to ensure efficacy.
Results: According to the simulations, as long as 85% of the drug is released in 45 minutes or less, the impact on the PK and PD profiles of zolpidem would be minimal. According to the FDA, the drug has to dissolve from the test and reference products at a similar rate and to an extent of 85% in not more than 30 minutes to pass bioequivalence via the BCS-biowaiver test. Thus, the BCS-biowaiver specifications are somewhat more stringent than the “safe space” based on the PBPK/PD model. Published data from fasted and fed state pharmacokinetic studies suggest but do not prove a negative food effect of zolpidem.
Conclusions: A PBPK/PD model indicates that current BCS biowaiver criteria are more restrictive for immediate release zolpidem tablets than they need to be. In view of the close relationship between PK and PD, it remains advisable to avoid taking zolpidem tablets with or immediately after a meal, as indicated by the Stilnox® labeling.
The assembly of a specific polymeric ubiquitin chain on a target protein is a key event in the regulation of numerous cellular processes. Yet, the mechanisms that govern the selective synthesis of particular polyubiquitin signals remain enigmatic. The homologous ubiquitin-conjugating (E2) enzymes Ubc1 (budding yeast) and Ube2K (mammals) exclusively generate polyubiquitin linked through lysine 48 (K48). Uniquely among E2 enzymes, Ubc1 and Ube2K harbor a ubiquitin-binding UBA domain with unknown function. We found that this UBA domain preferentially interacts with ubiquitin chains linked through lysine 63 (K63). Based on structural modeling, in vitro ubiquitination experiments, and NMR studies, we propose that the UBA domain aligns Ubc1 with K63-linked polyubiquitin and facilitates the selective assembly of K48/K63-branched ubiquitin conjugates. Genetic and proteomics experiments link the activity of the UBA domain, and hence the formation of this unusual ubiquitin chain topology, to the maintenance of cellular proteostasis.
Currently, due to the misuse of antibiotics, we are facing a major public health problem. The resistance to antibiotics of certain bacterial strains makes the treatment of infections very complex.
In this context, the present thesis project concerns the study of a bacterial efflux complex capable of transporting antibiotics from the cytoplasm to the outside of the cell. This complex is composed of an inner-membrane Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) transporter (EmrB, E. coli multidrug resistance), a channel of the outer membrane TolC (Tolerance to Colicin E1) and a periplasmic adapter (EmrA, E. coli multidrug resistance). Unlike RND-type efflux systems (such as AcrAB-TolC), little is known about the MFS-type EmrAB-TolC system. It is therefore important to study the entire complex on a structural and functional level, to analyse the marked differences between these two types of transport systems. The goal of my thesis project was to study at least one EmrAB-TolC complex from a structural point of view. For my studies the aim was to isolate the complex directly from bacteria overexpressing the three protein partners. In a first step, 15 homologous EmrAB-TolC systems were identified and their corresponding genes amplified from genomic DNA of different Gram-negative bacteria. Among the genes of the 15 systems, the genes coding for the E. coli and V. cholerae systems were further studied. The expression vectors encoded fluorescent markers for the monitoring of the expression levels of different proteins and for studying the formation of complexes. In a first step, the different protein expression levels (EmrB-mRFP1 and EmrA-sfGFP) were studied for several expression strains of E. coli by measuring the red and green fluorescence levels and by Western blot (anti-His, Myc, and Strep for EmrB, EmrA, and TolC). The E. coli strain C41(DE3) was best suited for co-expression of EmrAB-TolC. In a second step, the FSEC (Fluorescence detection Size Exclusion Chromatography) methodology was used to identify a complex suitable for structural study. Thus this method enabled the observation that the EmrAB-TolC complex of E. coli was produced in higher amount than that of V. cholerae. The final co-purification protocol consists in perfoming a gentle lysis of the bacteria using lysozyme, then after solubilization with DDM, the purification is started by a Ni2+-NTA affinity chromatography step followed by a size exclusion chromatography step. Finally, the fractions containing the three protein partners are used for the detergent-exchange by amphipol A8-35 before the structural study by electron microscopy. Negative stain EM-micrographs displayed elongated objects with a length of 33 nm in side view. An average image of EmrAB-TolC shows similarities to that of the AcrAB-TolC complex observed under similar conditions. Similarities included the characteristic densities of TolC. Whereas differences were found in the lower part of EmrAB which is thinner than the lower part of AcrAB. The densities visible above the amphipol-ring correspond to EmrA, which displays a channel-like structure as in AcrA. The channel however seems to extend further towards the amphipol belt. Since EmrB does not have an extended periplasmic domain as the RND proteins have, these densities are therefore solely assigned to EmrA. EmrA, on the other side, contacts TolC akin to the interaction of AcrA/MexA to their cognate outer membrane channels (TolC/OprM) in a ‘tip-to-tip’ fashion.
The stress-dependent dynamics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae tRNA and rRNA modification profiles
(2021)
RNAs are key players in the cell, and to fulfil their functions, they are enzymatically modified. These modifications have been found to be dynamic and dependent on internal and external factors, such as stress. In this study we used nucleic acid isotope labeling coupled mass spectrometry (NAIL-MS) to address the question of which mechanisms allow the dynamic adaptation of RNA modifications during stress in the model organism S. cerevisiae. We found that both tRNA and rRNA transcription is stalled in yeast exposed to stressors such as H2O2, NaAsO2 or methyl methanesulfonate (MMS). From the absence of new transcripts, we concluded that most RNA modification profile changes observed to date are linked to changes happening on the pre-existing RNAs. We confirmed these changes, and we followed the fate of the pre-existing tRNAs and rRNAs during stress recovery. For MMS, we found previously described damage products in tRNA, and in addition, we found evidence for direct base methylation damage of 2′O-ribose methylated nucleosides in rRNA. While we found no evidence for increased RNA degradation after MMS exposure, we observed rapid loss of all methylation damages in all studied RNAs. With NAIL-MS we further established the modification speed in new tRNA and 18S and 25S rRNA from unstressed S. cerevisiae. During stress exposure, the placement of modifications was delayed overall. Only the tRNA modifications 1-methyladenosine and pseudouridine were incorporated as fast in stressed cells as in control cells. Similarly, 2′-O-methyladenosine in both 18S and 25S rRNA was unaffected by the stressor, but all other rRNA modifications were incorporated after a delay. In summary, we present mechanistic insights into stress-dependent RNA modification profiling in S. cerevisiae tRNA and rRNA.
The role of USP22 in nucleic acid sensing pathways and interferon-induced necroptotic cell death
(2023)
Every day, living organisms are challenged by internal and external factors that threaten to bring imbalance to their tightly regulated systems and disrupt homeostasis, leading to degeneration, and ultimately death. More than ever, we face the challenge of combating diseases such as COVID-19 caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. It is therefore crucial to identify host factors that control antiviral defense mechanisms. In addition, in the fight against cancer, it is becoming increasingly important to identify markers that could be used for targeted therapy to influence cellular processes and determine cell fate.
As a deubiquitylating enzyme, ubiquitin specific peptidase 22 (USP22) mediates the removal of the small molecule ubiquitin, which is post-translationally added to target proteins, thereby regulating several important processes such as protein degradation, activation or localization. Through its deubiquitylating function, USP22 controls several biological processes such as cell cycle regulation, proliferation and cancer immunoresistance by modulating key proteins involved in these pathways. Lately, USP22 was reported to positively regulate TNFα-mediated necroptosis, an inflammatory type of programmed cell death, in various human tumor cell lines by affecting RIPK3 phosphorylation. In addition, USP22 as a part of the Spt-Ada-Gcn5 acetyltransferase (SAGA) transcription complex is known to regulate gene expression by removing ubiquitin from histones H2A and H2B. However, little is known about the role of USP22 in global gene expression.
In this study, we performed a genome-wide screen in the human colon carcinoma cell line HT-29 and identified USP22 as a key negative regulator of basal interferon (IFN) expression. We further demonstrated that the absence of USP22 results in increased STING activity and ubiquitylation, both basally and in response to stimulation with the STING agonist 2'3'-cGAMP, thereby affecting IFNλ1 expression and basal expression of antiviral ISGs. In addition, we were able to establish USP22 as a critical host factor in controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection by regulating infection, replication, and the generation of infectious virus particles, which we attribute in part to its role in regulating STING signaling.
In the second part of the study, we connected the findings of USP22-dependent regulation of IFN signaling and TNFα-induced necroptosis and investigated the role of USP22 during necroptosis induced by the synergistic action of IFN and the Smac mimetic BV6 in caspase-deficient settings. We identified USP22 as a negative regulator of IFN-induced necroptosis, which does not depend on STING expression, but relies on a yet unknown mechanism.
In summary, we identify USP22 as an important regulator of IFN signaling with important implications for the defense against viral infections and regulation of the necroptotic pathway that could be exploited for devising targeted therapeutic strategies against viral infections and related diseases like COVID-19, and advancing precision medicine in cancer treatment.