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Transfer RNA fragments replace microRNA regulators of the cholinergic post-stroke immune blockade
(2020)
Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability. Recovery depends on a delicate balance between inflammatory responses and immune suppression, tipping the scale between brain protection and susceptibility to infection. Peripheral cholinergic blockade of immune reactions fine-tunes this immune response, but its molecular regulators are unknown. Here, we report a regulatory shift in small RNA types in patient blood sequenced two days after ischemic stroke, comprising massive decreases of microRNA levels and concomitant increases of transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) targeting cholinergic transcripts. Electrophoresis-based size-selection followed by RT-qPCR validated the top 6 upregulated tRFs in a separate cohort of stroke patients, and independent datasets of small and long RNA sequencing pinpointed immune cell subsets pivotal to these responses, implicating CD14+ monocytes in the cholinergic inflammatory reflex. In-depth small RNA targeting analyses revealed the most-perturbed pathways following stroke and implied a structural dichotomy between microRNA and tRF target sets. Furthermore, lipopolysaccharide stimulation of murine RAW 264.7 cells and human CD14+ monocytes upregulated the top 6 stroke-perturbed tRFs, and overexpression of stroke-inducible tRF-22-WE8SPOX52 using an ssRNA mimic induced downregulation of immune regulator Z-DNA binding protein 1 (Zbp1). In summary, we identified a “changing of the guards” between RNA types that may systemically affect homeostasis in post-stroke immune responses, and pinpointed multiple affected pathways, which opens new venues for establishing therapeutics and biomarkers at the protein- and RNA-level.
Significance Statement Ischemic stroke triggers peripheral immunosuppression, increasing the susceptibility to post-stroke pneumonia that is linked with poor survival. The post-stroke brain initiates intensive communication with the immune system, and acetylcholine contributes to these messages; but the responsible molecules are yet unknown. We discovered a “changing of the guards,” where microRNA levels decreased but small transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) increased in post-stroke blood. This molecular switch may re-balance acetylcholine signaling in CD14+ monocytes by regulating their gene expression and modulating post-stroke immunity. Our observations point out to tRFs as molecular regulators of post-stroke immune responses that may be potential therapeutic targets.
Transfer RNA fragments replace microRNA regulators of the cholinergic post-stroke immune blockade
(2020)
Stroke is a leading cause of death and disability. Recovery depends on balance between inflammatory response and immune suppression, which can be CNS-protective but may worsen prognosis by increasing patients’ susceptibility to infections. Peripheral cholinergic blockade of immune reactions fine-tunes this immune response, but its molecular regulators are unknown. Therefore, we sought small RNA balancers of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in peripheral blood from ischemic stroke patients. Using RNA-sequencing and RT-qPCR, we discovered in patients’ blood on day 2 after stroke a “change of guards” reflected in massive decreases in microRNAs (miRs) and increases in transfer RNA fragments (tRFs) targeting cholinergic transcripts. Electrophoresis-based size-selection followed by RT-qPCR validated the top 6 upregulated tRFs in a separate cohort of stroke patients, and independent small RNA-sequencing datasets presented post-stroke enriched tRFs as originating from lymphocytes and monocytes. In these immune compartments, we found CD14+ monocytes to express the highest amounts of cholinergic transcripts. In-depth analysis of CD14+ regulatory circuits revealed minimally overlapping subsets of transcription factors carrying complementary motifs to miRs or tRFs, indicating different roles for the stroke-perturbed members of these small RNA species. Furthermore, LPS-stimulated murine RAW264.7 cells presented dexamethasone-suppressible upregulation of the top 6 tRFs identified in human patients, indicating an evolutionarily conserved and pharmaceutically treatable tRF response to inflammatory cues. Our findings identify tRF/miR subgroups which may co-modulate the homeostatic response to stroke in patients’ blood and open novel venues for establishing RNA-targeted concepts for post-stroke diagnosis and therapeutics.
Fatty acid and polyketide synthases (FASs and PKSs) synthesize physiologically and pharmaceutically important products by condensation of acyl building blocks. The transacylation reaction catalyzed by acyl transferases (ATs) is responsible for the selection of acyl-CoA esters for further processing by FASs and PKSs. In this study, the AT domains of different multidomain (type I) PKS systems are kinetically described in their substrate selectivity, AT−Acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain-domain interaction and enzymatic kinetic properties. We observe that the ATs of modular PKSs, intricate protein complexes occurring in bacteria and responsible for the biosynthesis of bioactive polyketides, are significantly slower than ATs of mammalian FASs, reflecting the respective purpose of the biosynthetic pathways within the organism and their metabolic context. We further perform a mutational study on the kinetics of the AT−ACP interaction in the modular PKS 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS) and find a high plasticity in enzyme properties, which we explain by a high plasticity in AT−ACP recognition. Our study enlarges the understanding of ATs in its molecular properties and is similarly a call for thorough AT-centered PKS engineering strategies.
Multidomain enzymes, such as fatty acid synthases (FASs) or polyketide synthases (PKSs), play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of important natural products. They have a high significance in the development of new pharmaceuticals and various research approaches focus on the engineering of these proteins. For example, human type I FAS is an interesting therapeutic target. Owing to its importance in lipogenesis, upregulation of human type I FAS expression has been observed in numerous cancers. Type I FAS is also regarded as important target in antiobesity treatment. Both multidomain enzyme classes - FASs and PKSs - show high structural and functional similarities. Particularly animal type I FAS is most relevant as evolutionary precursor of the PKS family. Therefore, the well characterized FASs are suitable model proteins for the poorly characterized PKSs, to gain deeper understanding in these megasynthases.
Furthermore, fatty acids are considered to be strategically important platform chemicals accessible through sustainable microbial approaches. The recently acquired structural information on FASs provides an excellent understanding of the molecular basis of fatty acid synthesis. The specific understanding of chain-length control, the characterization of a multitude of substrate-specific thioesterases, and the emerging tools and means for metabolic engineering have fostered targeted approaches for modulating chain length. There is large interest in short-chain fatty acids, since these compounds are biotechnologically valuable platform chemicals and biofuel precursors, and attempts on the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids have been reported during the last years.
Primary focus of this thesis lies on the animal type I FASs, which exhibit large conformational variety, as seen in electron microscopy and high-speed atomic force microscopy. Conformational dynamics facilitate productive protein-protein interactions between catalytic domains within the enzyme and aid acyl carrier protein (ACP)-mediated substrate shuttling during the catalytic cycle of fatty acid biosynthesis. To gain deeper insight into the fundamental processes of ACP-mediated substrate shuttling and the underlying conformational dynamics, spectroscopic methods like Förster resonance energy transfer and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy shall be employed. These spectroscopic methods demand site-specific labeling of proteins with fluorophore or spin labels, which can be accomplished with the amber codon suppression technology. Through amber codon suppression, a non-canonical amino acid (ncAA) with an orthogonal functional group is incorporated site-specifically into the protein sequence, which can be used in chemoselective reactions for protein labeling.
This thesis is at the forefront of employing the technology of amber codon suppression for addressing complex biological questions on megasynthases. The successful production of ncAA-modified FASs is challenging. With the aim of incorporating ncAAs into the multidomain 540 kDa large murine FAS, we by far exceed boundaries of documented application of amber codon suppression. Most of the proteins that are reported by Liu & Schultz in applications of amber codon suppression are in the range of 30kDa - for example the TE domain of human FAS. In the same review, the largest protein amber codon suppression was applied to is a potassium channel with roughly 80 kDa. Thus, to the best of my knowledge no protein exceeding 100 kDa has been used in amber codon suppression so far.
In this thesis a low-complex, well-plate based reporter assay is presented, based on an ACP-GFP fusion protein for fast and efficient screening of ncAA incorporation. Reliability and applicability of the reporter assay is demonstrated by successful upscaling to larger protein constructs and increased expression scale.
As outlined in this thesis, we have carefully set up methods for the modification of murine FAS and made several achievements:
(i) We have created our own toolbox with a multitude of suppressor plasmids and various orthogonal pairs. pACU and pACE plasmids are compatible for fast exchange of cassettes, and cloning procedures are optimized for modification of synthetases by site-directed mutagenesis. (ii) We have organic synthesis of several ncAAs stably running in the lab and synthesis of other ncAAs can be established when required. Therefore, extensive screening at moderate costs is possible. (iii) We have established a reporter assay for screening our own library of vectors for amber codon suppression and for optimizing incorporation of ncAAs. (iv) We successfully incorporated ncAAs into subconstructs and full-length murine FAS, and collected initial promising results for the application of these proteins in spectroscopic methods. Thus, laying the foundation for future studies to address fundamental questions of the ACP-mediated substrate shuttling and other conformational dynamics of these enzymes.
Die vorliegende Arbeit Zeitaufgelöste NMR-spektroskopische Untersuchung konformationeller Dynamiken in DNA G-Quadruplexen befasst sich mit der detaillierten biophysikalischen Untersuchung wichtiger strukturdynamischer Eigenschaften von nicht-kanonischen Nukleinsäure Sekundärstrukturelementen.
Im Genom aller eukaryotischer Lebewesen, insbesondere dem menschlichen Genom finden sich DNA-Sequenzabschnitte, die überdurchschnittlich Guanosin (G)-reich sind. Diese poly-G Abschnitte sind nicht zufällig im Genom verteilt, sondern häufen sich vermehrt in Genabschnitten, die besonders wichtig für die Regulation der Genexpression sind. G-reiche DNA-Sequenzen können unter geeigneten Umständen alternative Sekundärstrukturen ausbilden, die von der doppelsträngigen, kanonischen Watson-Crick Konformation abweichen. In Anwesenheit monovalenter Kationen können sich G-Nukleotide in einer Tetrade über Hoogsteen Interaktionen anlagern. Diese Tetraden können sich stapeln und dadurch sogenannte G-Quadruplexe (G4) ausbilden. Das menschliche cMYC Gen wird typischerweise als proto-Onkogen bezeichnet. Es kodiert für einen unspezifischen Transkriptionsfaktor, der bei einer Vielzahl von systematischen und soliden Tumorerkrankungen stark überexprimiert wird. Die zelluläre Konzentration des Genprodukts kann zu 90% über ein G4 cis-Element in der Promotorregion reguliert werden. Der cMYC G4 hat die Möglichkeit verschiedene Konformationen einzunehmen. Im Falle des cMYC G4 kann man zusätzliche, nicht-konventionelle Formen der konformationellen Isomerie finden. Zum einen gibt es die Möglichkeit, dass bei einem G4, der aus drei Tetraden und vier intramolekularen Strangabschnitten (dreistöckiger G4) besteht, einzelne Strangabschnitte mehr als drei konsekutive G-Nukleotide besitzen. Dadurch können sich Faltungs-Isomere bilden, die sich durch Verschieben des Strangs relativ zum verbleibenden dreistöckigen Tetradengerüst ergeben. Man spricht von G-Register Isomeren. Eine zweite Möglichkeit der Strukturisomerie ergibt sich, wenn in einer Nukleotidsequenz mehr als vier G-reiche Strangabschnitte aufeinander folgen. Jeweils vier dieser Strangabschnitte können in unterschiedlicher Weise kombiniert werden, um ein G4 Isomer auszubilden. In jedem dieser so zustande gekommenen G4 verbleibt ein (oder mehrere) G-reicher Strangabschnitt, der im konkreten Isomer nicht zur Faltung verwendet wird. Diese zusätzlichen G-Stränge werden daher auch Ersatzräder (engl. spare-tires) genannt; man erhält spare-tire Isomere.
Obwohl diese Formen des Polymorphismus, deren biologischer Kontext und die biophysikalischen Konsequenzen in Arbeiten von C. Burrows (2015) und A. Mittermaier (2016) erstmals umfassend beschrieben wurden, gab es bis zum Ausgangspunkt dieser Arbeit keine Kenntnisse über deren strukturelle Dynamik, den Faltungswegen und den zugrundeliegenden molekularen Mechanismen. Zeitaufgelöste Kernspinresonanz (engl. nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR) Spektroskopie ist eine bestens geeignete Methode, um die Dynamik von Biomakromolekülen mit atomarer Auflösung zu studieren. Um solche Experimente durchführen zu können, braucht es geeignete Herangehensweisen für die Präparation eines Nicht-Gleichgewichtszustands. In dieser Arbeit wird eine neu erarbeitete Strategie vorgestellt, die es erlaubt, Einblick in die Faltungs- und Umfaltungskinetiken eines dynamischen Konformations-Ensembles nicht-konventioneller Strukturisomere der cMYC G4 DNA-Sequenz zu erhalten.
Hierzu wurden photolabile Schutzgruppen (engl. Photocages) positionsspezifisch an bestimmten G-Nukleobasen (O6-(R)-NPE) angebracht. Die Schutzgruppen blockieren die Basenpaar-Interaktionen des Nukleotids, wodurch dieses sich nicht mehr an einer Tetradenbildung beteiligen kann. Die Photocages wurden jeweils an den Nukleotiden eingeführt, die nur in jeweils einem der G-Register Isomere an der Tetradenbildung beteiligt sind. Durch diese gezielte Destabilisierung konnten die Isomere getrennt und im gefalteten Zustand isoliert werden. Die so erhaltenen Konformationen wurden umfassend spektroskopisch charakterisiert. Der Ansatz, das konformationelle Gleichgewicht durch Photocages transient zu stören, wurde daraufhin weiterentwickelt. Mehrere Photocages wurden an Nukleobasen in zentraler Position einzelner G-Strangabschnitte angebracht. Dadurch konnte eine ausreichende Destabilisierung erreicht werden, die die Faltung jedweder G4 Strukturen unterbindet. Somit wurde ein ungefalteter Zustand erzeugt, der unter ansonsten frei wählbaren, physiologischen Bedingungen besteht. Durch in situ Photolyse der Schutzgruppen konnte so die Licht-induzierte G4 Faltung unter konstanten Puffer- und Temperaturbedingungen untersucht werden. Dieser Ansatz wurde auf die Untersuchung der Faltungswege, die zu verschiedenen spare-tire Isomeren führen, fokussiert.
Zusammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass es insgesamt erstmalig gelungen ist, die Kinetiken der wesentlichen Faltungs- und Umfaltungswege entlang der konformationellen Energielandschaft des cMYC G4 Elements zu untersuchen. Das komplexe, dynamische Zusammenspiel aller relevanten, nicht-konventionellen isomeren G4 Strukturen konnte entworren und umfassend experimentell beschrieben werden. Der dafür weiterentwickelte Ansatz über konformationelle Selektion mit Hilfe photolabiler Schutzgruppen hat dabei experimentelle Einblicke erlaubt, die bislang nicht zugänglich waren. Die Strukturen und Faltungszustämde, die mit den chemisch modifizierten Oligonukleotiden erhalten und isoliert wurden, sind umfassend spektroskopisch untersucht worden. Die Anwendung verschiedener spektroskopischer Ansätze und deren Kombination mit weiteren biophysikalischen Methoden hat eine Methoden-unabhängige Validierung der erhaltenen kinetischen und thermodynamischen Daten ermöglicht.
Many processes in living cells involve interaction and cooperation of multiple proteins to fulfill a specific function. To understand biological processes in their full complexity, it is not sufficient to only identify the molecules being involved but also to understand the kinetic aspects of a reaction. Mass spectrometry (MS) is a very powerful tool which allows to precisely identify the molecules of a reaction. Usually this is done with tandem-MS experiments for purpose of de-novo peptide sequencing. However, since this involves protein digestion, a statement of the in-vivo constitution of non-covalently bound protein complexes is not possible. In order to detect an intact protein complex it is necessary to analyze the biological system softly and in a near-native environment with native MS. Native MS allows the non-destructive analysis of these non-covalent protein complexes as well as to detect their components. However, up to now native MS does not offer a possibility to resolve the timing of the constitution of protein complexes on a fast time-scale. Therefore, the progress of reactions on fast time-scales is invisible. However, a method which delivers both types of information - identification of the components of a protein complex, as well as time-resolving their interaction - would be of high interest.
A suitable ionization technique for native MS is laser-induced liquid-bead ion desorption (LILBID). LILBID employs well-defined droplets which are irradiated by IR laser pulses to generate gas phase ions. The not-continuous, repetitive nature of ion generation offers itself to the development of a time-resolved (TR) native MS system which is able to investigate protein complexes on a fast time scale. The LILBID-droplets can serve as reaction vessels if they are levitated in an electrodynamic Paul-trap. This new setup would allow sample manipulation and MS analysis on precise and fast reaction time-scales. The first part of this dissertation presents the construction and characterization of a setup for TR-LILBID-MS.
An example for a complex biological system is the self-assembly of beta-amyloid (Aβ). This small peptide is the major component in plaques related to Alzheimer’s disease. Clinically relevant is especially the 42 amino acid peptide Aβ42 which aggregates from monomers to oligomers through to fibrils. The oligomers are the neurotoxic species in this process and thus of high interest. Nevertheless, standard analytical techniques are unable to detect those oligomers which makes MS an optimal tool to study the oligomerization process of Aβ with the focus on disease relevant oligomers. TR-LILBID-MS allows to follow the oligomerization of Aβ enabling to study molecules which influence this kinetic. Combining MS with ion-mobility spectrometry adds an additional dimension - the collision cross section - to the mass-to-charge ratio obtained from MS. Therewith structural alterations induced by ligands can be correlated to differences in the aggregation kinetic. This allows to draw a picture of the aggregation process of Aβ for the development of disease-relevant small oligomers on a molecular level.
Certain electron-rich 1,4-diborabenzene derivatives efficiently activate single, double, and triple bonds and thereby increasingly compete with transition metals in homogeneous catalysis. This review compares the activation of three model substrates (H2, H2C=CH2, CO2) by (i) 9,10-dihydro-9,10-diboraanthracene dianions, (ii) their neutral carbene-stabilized congeners, (iii) 1,3,2,5-diazadiborinines, and (iv) 1,4,2,5-diazadiborinines. Distinct structure-properties relationships become apparent, the most influential factors being (i) the steric demands of the B-bonded substituents, (ii) the charges on the B-doped (hetero)arenes, (iii) charge polarization as a result of additional N-doping, and (iv) the energies and nodal structures of the frontier orbitals. The observed reactions are explained by a transition metal-like activation mechanism. If the two boron atoms are chemically inequivalent, contributions of a B(+I)/B(+III) mixed-valence state determine the observed regioselectivities when polar substrates are added. The lessons learned from the conversions of the model substrates are subsequently used to rationalize the behavior of the B2 heterocycles also toward more sophisticated substrate molecules. Finally, catalytic cycles based on H2- and H−-transfers, hydroboration reactions, and CO2 reductions will be covered.
Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a widely used technique for the characterization of protein-protein and protein-ligand interactions. It provides information on the stoichiometry, affinity, and the thermodynamic driving forces of interactions. This chapter exemplifies the use of ITC to investigate interactions between human autophagy modifiers (LC3/GABARAP proteins) and their interaction partners, the LIR motif containing sequences. The purpose of this report is to present a detailed protocol for the production of LC3/GABARAP-interacting LIR peptides using E. coli expression systems. In addition, we outline the design of ITC experiments using the LC3/GABARAP:peptide interactions as an example. Comprehensive troubleshooting notes are provided to facilitate the adaptation of these protocols to different ligand-receptor systems. The methodology outlined for studying protein-ligand interactions will help to avoid common errors and misinterpretations of experimental results.
Thermally stable and highly conductive SAMs on Ag substrate — the impact of the anchoring group
(2021)
Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on metal substrates are an important part of modern interfacial chemistry and nanotechnology. The robustness of SAMs strongly depends on their thermal stability, which, together with electric conductivity, crucial for their applications in molecular/organic electronics. In this context, using a multidisciplinary approach, the structure, stability, and conductivity properties of conjugated aromatic SAMs featuring the naphthalene backbone and S, Se, or COO group, mediating bonding to the Ag substrate are addressed. Whereas thermal stability of these SAMs exhibits a strong dependence on anchoring group, their conductivity is similar, which is rationalized by tentative model considering redistribution of charge density along the molecular framework. The thermal stability of model naphthalenethiol SAM, emphasized by desorption energy of ≈1.69 eV, is better than that of typical N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) monolayers considered currently as the most stable SAMs on metal substrates. However, in contrast to NHC SAMs, which are highly insulating, the naphtalene-based SAM, with S, Se or COO anchoring groups, are highly conductive, even in comparison with analogous oligophenyl SAMs (by a factor of 10). A unique combination of the ultimate thermal stability and superior conductivity for the naphthalenethiol SAM on Ag makes it highly attractive for applications.
In recent years, the incidence of infected wounds is steadily increasing, and so is the clinical as well as economic interest in effective therapies. These combine reduction of pathogen load in the wound with general wound management to facilitate the healing process. The success of current therapies is challenged by harsh conditions in the wound microenvironment, chronicity, and biofilm formation, thus impeding adequate concentrations of active antimicrobials at the site of infection. Inadequate dosing accuracy of systemically and topically applied antibiotics is prone to promote development of antibiotic resistance, while in the case of antiseptics, cytotoxicity is a major problem. Advanced drug delivery systems have the potential to enable the tailor-made application of antimicrobials to the side of action, resulting in an effective treatment with negligible side effects. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of treatment options for the therapy of infected wounds. In this context, a special focus is set on delivery systems for antimicrobials ranging from semi-solid and liquid formulations over wound dressings to more advanced carriers such as nano-sized particulate systems, vesicular systems, electrospun fibers, and microneedles, which are discussed regarding their potential for effective therapy of wound infections. Further, established and novel models and analytical techniques for preclinical testing are introduced and a future perspective is provided.