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Early dietary Islamic law
(1986)
Since the study of economic development began in earnest at the close of the Second World War, academics and policymakers have debated the appropriate role of public policy in developing economies. East Asia has a remarkable record of high and sustained economic growth. From 1965 to 1990 its 23 economies grew faster than those of all other regions. Most of this achievement is attributable to seemingly miraculous growth in just eight high performing Asian economies (HPAEs)-Japan; the "four tigers": Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan; and the three newly industrializing economies (NIEs) of Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. The East Asian economies provide a range of policy frameworks-extending from Hong Kong's nearly complete laissez faire to the highly selective policy regimes of Japan and Korea. The coexistence of activist public policies and rapid growth in some of the East Asian economies-especially Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan-has raised complex and controversial questions concerning the relationship between government, the private sector, and the market. This essay looks at four public policy lessons of the East Asian miracle. Section 1 argues that the eight HPAEs can be grouped together and distinguished from other low- and middle-income countries on the basis of their rapid, sustained, and shared growth. Section 2 examines the controversy over the sources of growth in the HP AEs and presents evidence on the relative roles of accumulation and total factor productivity (TFP) change. Section 3 discusses two aspects of public policy in East Asia that conform to the conventional wisdom concerning good development policy-macroeconomic management and broad-based educational policies. Section 4 examines two more controversial issues -the significance of the HPAEs' export push strategies and industrial policies for TFP change. It concludes that export orientation rather than selective intervention played the dominant role in increasing economywide TFP growth rates.
The results of the pre:lent investigation may be summarized as follows: (1) The heat content of carbon steels at high temperatures was determined by the mixture method, while the oxidation of the specimen was prevented by passing a purified hydrogen gas through the furnace. The specimens were twelve kinds of steels with different carbon contents from 0.09 % to 2.84 % and the range of temperature was 23~250°C. (2) According to A. Meuthen, the specific heat is constant below the A1 point, but the present writer showed that the specific heat is only constant above the A3 point, and that below this point, it increases with the rise of temperature. (3) The quantity of heat for the dissolution of pearlite in iron was determined by measuring the heat content above and below the A1 point. This heat increases proportionally with the content of carbon, reaches a maximum at 0.9 percent and ends at 6.7 percent. For the dissolution of I gr. of carbon in iron, a heat of 1760 calories is required, while, 16.1 calories are necessary for the dissolution of 1 gr. of pearlite in iron. (4) From the heat content-concentration curve, it was found that, the mean specific heat of cementite increases with the rise of temperature; it is 0.149 at 150°C and 02.20 at 850°C. (5) It was observed that the specific heat of the carbon poles with 98 %C increases almost linearly up to 700°C, and afterwards its rate of increase gradually diminishes. (6) It is confirmed by experiments that the A1 transformation is a function of temperature and time, but that the A2 transformation is a definite function of temperature only. (7) From the heat content-concentration curves, the heat of transformation from martensite to pearlite was obtained and found to be proportional to the carbon content. (8) The heat of transformation from austenite to martensite, or that from martensite to pearlite, increases proportionally with the content of eutectoid carbon. The heat of transformation from austenite to martensite for a eutectoid steel amOlmts to 5.9 calories.
Der Staat Moskau stand im 17. Jahrhundert außerhalb des europäischen Stnatslebens. Es war eine seltene Ausnahme, daß russische Gesandte in Westeuropa erschienen. Sie machten mit ihrer asiatischen Tracht, bei ihrer völligen Unkenntnis der Sprachen und Sitten der vorgeschrittenen Völker denselben Eindruck, welchen heutzutage chinesische Diplomaten hervorzubringen pflegen. Kamen westeuropäische Gesandte nach Moskau, so hatten sie, nach Hause heimkehrend, von ähnlichen Erlebnissen und Reiseeindrücken zu berichten, wie etwa gegenwärtig eine Reise naoh Persien oder Japan dieselben darzubieten pflegt. Ein ständiger diplomatischer Verkehr zwischen Rufsland und Westeuropa war das Resultat der großen Wandlung, welche sich in dem moskowitischen Staate im Zeitalter Peters des Großen vollzog. Die folgende Darstellung der Reise eines russischen Gesandten nach Florenz und Venedig um die Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts mag diese Verhältnisse veranschaulichen. Es hatte sich im Jahre 1655 ereignet, daß die Republik Venedig einen diplomatischen Agenten - es war ein Geistlicher, Alberto Vimina - nach Rußland gesandt hatte, um den Zaren Alexei zur Teilnahme an einer von den westeuropäischen Staaten gegen die Türkei zu unternehmenden militärischen Aktion zu veranlassen. Der Zar Alexei war indessen, gerade als der venetianisohe Diplomat nach Rußland kam, mit dem Kriege gegen Polen beschäftigt; auch konnte man einen Bruch zwischen Schweden und Rußland erwarten. So lagen denn die orientalische Frage und andere politischen Interessen der russischenen Regierung ferne. ...
The Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 was one of the most dramatic economic events of recent times, which raised many questions regarding the appropriate policy response to financial crises. This paper reviews the experience of this crisis, focusing on the overall strategy of crisis management and the way that strategy was implemented including, with regard to official and private financing, structural reforms, and monetary and fiscal policies.
Beiträge zur Analysis situs : III. Mittheilung ; Sitzung am 7. März 1887 (vorgelegt von A. Mayer)
(1887)
Beiträge zur Analysis situs : I. Mittheilung ; Sitzung am 6. Juli 1885 (vorgelegt von F. Klein)
(1885)
This article examines the type of economic analyses of capitalism presented by leading exponents of the neoclassical, marxian, Austrian and institutionalist schools of economic thought. Although each school has something to offer, it is argued that all except the institutionalist school are largely insensitive to different types of structure within capitalism and are blind to the cultures and institutions which characterize different kinds of capitalism. This conclusion is reached by addressing three issues: the problem of universal and specific assumptions in economic analysis; the question of "necessary impurities" in an economic system; and the relationship between actor and structure. It is concluded that institutional economics is most sensitive to the immense actual and potential variety within capitalism itself, and recognizes that the development of different capitalist systems can be divergent rather than convergent.
1. Die Gesetze der Koagulationskinetik lassen sich nicht aus dem Studium einer einzigen, indirekt durch Koagulation beeinflussten Größe (Zähigkeit u. dergl.) ableiten, da es ein eindeutiges Koagulationsmass nicht gibt. Relativ einfache Gesetze sind nur für die zeitliche Veränderlichkeit der Anzahlen der Teilchen (oder Aggregate verschiedener Kategorien) zu erwarten. II. Als Grundlage einer mathematischen Koagulationstheorie wird angenommen, dass nach Versetzung einer kolloiden Lösung mit einem Elektrolyten gewisse, die Teilchen umgebende Anziehungsbereiche in Wirkung treten, dass aber die Brownsche Bewegung eines jeden Teilchens unverändert vor sich geht, solange dasselbe sich nicht im Anziehungsbereich eines anderen befindet. Die Art und Grösse jener Anziehungsbereiehe hängt in einer erst näher festzustellenden Weise mit der Elektrolytkonzentration und der dadurch bewirkten Änderung der elektrischen Doppelschicht zusammen. III. Für den Grenzfall "rascher" Koagulation, infolge relativ grossen Elektrolytzusatzes, kann· man annehmen, dass ein jedes Teilchen, sobald sein Mittelpunkt in den Anziehungsbereich eines anderen tritt, für immer mit demselben vereinigt bleibt. Unter Voraussetzung kugelförmiger Anziehungsbereiche und gewisser die Rechnung vereinfachender Annahmen lassen sich damit für die Anzahlen der Teilchenkomplexe bestimmter Art, welche sich aus einem ursprünglich gleichförmigen Kolloid in der Zeit t gebildet haben, Formeln (23) und (24) ableiten, welche das einfachste Schema eines idealen Koagulationsverlaufes darstellen. Dieselben entsprechen in bezug auf die Abhitngigkeit vom Kolloidgehalt der bimolekularen Reaktionskinetik. IV. Diese Formeln stehen mit vorläufigen, von Zsigmondy an koagulierenden Goldlösungen ausgeführten Teilchenzählnngen in genügender Übereinstimmung; es folgt aus ihnen, dass die Grössenordnung der Änziehungssphäre in jenen Fällen ungefähr dem Teilchendurchmesser entspricht, d. h. dass die Teilchen sich beinahe berühren müssen, damit merkliche Anziehung eintrete. V. Durch Einführung der Annahme, dass von den Zusammenstössen der Teilchen nur ein gewisser konstanter Bruchteil eta zur Vereinigung führt, lässt sich obige Koagulationstheorie erweitern, so dass sie auch als einfachstes Schema der langsamen, bei geringem Elektrolytzusatz stattfindenden Koagulation dienen kann. VI. Von diesem Standpunkt aus lassen sich sowohl die Messungen H. Paines, wie auch jene, welche J. Gann bei Verwendung einwertiger anorganischer Koagulatoren angestellt hat, in vollkommen befriedigender Weise interpretieren. Insbesondere erweisen sich die beiden, auf die Abhängigkeit von der Konzentration des Kolloids und des Koagulators bezüglichen Ähnlichkeitsgesetze als gültig. Die bei Verwendung mehrwertiger oder anorganischer Ionen auftretenden Anomalien dürften entweder auf einer Abhängigkeit des eta von der Teilchengrösse oder auf der Veränderung der Konzentration in folge Adsorption des Koagulators beruhen. VII. "Rasche" Koagulation und chemische Reaktionsprozesse bilden entgegengesetzte Extremfälle. Erstere ist ein reines Diffusionsphänomen, bei letzleren bewirkt eine noch unbekannte, mit der Wertigkeit zusammenhängende Ursache, dass nur ein ganz minimaler Teil der Molekularstösse zu chemischer Vereinigung führt.
An attempt has been made in this article to critically survey the field of low Reynolds number flows, with particular regard to the hydrodynamic resistance of particles in this regime. A remarkable burgeoning of interest in such problems has occurred wlthin the past decade. Significant advances have been recorded on both the theoretical and experimental sides, with the former gains far outdlstancing the latter m scope. Problems which would have been impossible to solve rigorously before the advent of singular perturbation techniques are now being regularly solved, though hardly in a routine fashion; insight, intuition, inspiration, and ingenuity are still the order of the day. For those interested in direct engineering applications of the material covered by this review, the perspective from which many of the more general results set forth here should be viewed is, perhaps, best illustrated by an example: The resistance of any solid particle to translational and rotational motions in Stokes flow may be completely calculated from knowledge of a set of 21 scalar coefficients (Section II,C,l). While it seems highly improbable to expect that all these coefficients could be experimentally measured in practice, except perhaps in the trivial case of highly symmetrical bodies for which many of the coefficients vanish identically, this does not detract from the conceptual advantages of knowing exactly how much one does not know. Having an ideal goal against which the extent of present knowledge can be gaged permits a rational decision as to how to optimize one's investment of time, effort, and money in the pursuit of additional data. Furthermore, with the development of high-speed digital computers it may soon be possible to calculate all these coefficients for any given body (O 1 b). The general theory provides a rigorous framework into which such knowledge may be embedded. Use of symbolic" drag coefficients" (Section II,C,2) and symbolic heat- and mass-transfer" coefficients" (Section IV,A) furnishes a unique method for describing the intrinsic, interphase transport properties of particles for a wide variety of boundary conditions. Here, the particle resistance is characterized by a partial differential operator that represents its intrinsic resistance to vector or scalar transfer, independently of the physical properties of the fluid, the state of motion of the particle, or of the unperturbed velocity or temperature fields at infinity. Though restricted as yet in applicability, the general ideas underlying the existence of these operators appear capable of extension in a variety of ways. A recurrent theme arising throughout the analysis pertains to the screwlike properties of particles and of their intrinsic right- and left-handedness (Sections II,C, 1; II,C,2; III,C and IV,B). Such properties reflect an inseparable coupling between the translational and rotational motions of the particle. Helicoidally isotropic particles furnish the simplest examples of bodies manifesting screw-like behavior. These particles are isotropic, in that their properties are the same in all directions. Yet they possess a sense, and spin as they settle in a fluid. These id eas are likely to be of interest to microbiologists, biophysicists, geneticists, and others in the life sciences for whom handedness and life are intimately intertwined. The microscopic dimensions of the objects of interest to them insures ipso Jacto that the motion takes place at very small Reynolds numbers. Readers interested in an elementary but broad survey of sense in the physical and biological sciences are referred to Gardner's delightful book "The Ambidextrous Universe" (01). First-order corrections to the Stokes force on a particle, arising from wallor inertial-effects, can be directly expressed in terms of the Stokes force on the body in the absence of such effects. Thus, with regard to wall-effects in the Stokes regime, Eq. (135) expresses the force experienced by a particle falling in, say, a circular cylinder, in terms of the comparable force experienced by the particle when falling with the same velocity and orientation in the unbounded fluid. Equation (139) expresses a similar relationship for the torque on a rotating particle in a circular cylinder, as does Eq. (166) for the first-order interaction between two particles in an unbounded fluid in terms of the properties of the individual particles. Analogously, Eq. (234) expresses the inertial correction to the Stokes drag force in terms of the Stokes force itself. A comparable relationship exists (Section IV, A) between the heat-transfer coefficient at small, nonzero Peelet numbers and the heat-transfer coefficient at zero Peelet number-that is, the coefficient for conduction heat transfer. Finally, Eqs. (78)-(79) (or their symbolic operator counterparts) permit direct calculation of the Stokes force and torque experienced by a particle in an arbitrary field of flow solely from knowledge of the elementary solutions of Stokes equations for translation and rotation of the particle in a fluid at rest at infinity. The utility of already available knowledge is thus greatly extended by the existence of such relations. It permits one whose interests lie entirely in the macroscopic manifestation of the motion, e.g., the force and torque on the body, to bypass the oftentimes difficult problem of obtaining a detailed solution of the equations of motion, and to proceed directly to the computation of the force and torque on the body from the prescribed boundary conditions alone. The calculation is thereby reduced to a quadrature. The contents of this review may be read simultaneously from two different points of view. First and foremost it may be regarded as a compendium of recent advances in low Reynolds number flows. Secondly, from a pedagogic viewpoint it may be profitably used to illustrate the direct application of invariant techniques, that is, vector-polyadic and tensor methods, to a class of physical problems. Because of the relative simplicity and rich variety of physical problems associated with low Reynolds number motions, intuitive arguments may be employed to gain insight into the nature of polyadics and tensors; the role played by the concept of direction as a primitive entity is brought out here to a degree not usually found in standard works on tensor analysis.
Zum Andenken an A. Fick
(1902)
Für die Matrixkomponenten der Koordinaten x, y, z sind von P. Epstein für das Wasserstoffatom hei Separation in Polar- und parabolischen Koordinaten (Zeeman- und Starkeffekt) allgemeine Formeln aufgestellt worden, die im folgenden auf einfache Weise (auch bei Berücksichtigung des kontinuierlichen Spektrums) abgeleitet werden sollen.
Die gute alte Zeit
(1893)
Topologische Betrachtungen
(1892)
Human mimicry
(2009)
Human mimicry is ubiquitous, and often occurs without the awareness of the person mimicking or the person being mimicked. First, we briefly describe some of the major types of nonconscious mimicry -verbal, facial, emotional, and behavioral- and review the evidence for their automaticity. Next, we argue for the broad impact of mimicry and summarize the literature documenting its influence on the mimicry dyad and beyond. This review highlights the moderators of mimicry as well, including the social, motivational, and emotional conditions that foster or inhibit automatic mimicry. We interpret these findings in light of current theories of mimicry. First, we evaluate the evidence for and against mimicry as a communication tool. Second, we review neuropsychological research that sheds light on the question of how we mimic. What is the cognitive architecture that enables us to do what we perceive others do? We discuss a proposed system, the perception-behavior link, and the neurological evidence (Le., the mirror system) supporting it. We will then review the debate on whether mimicry is innate and inevitable. We propose that the architecture enabling mimicry is innate, but that the behavioral mimicry response may actually be (partly) a product of learning or associations. Finally. we speculate on what the behavioral data on mimicry may imply for the evolution of mimicry.
We analyzed the possibility of introducing a single stochastic scaling parameter a to describe the spatial variability of soil hydraulic properties, using the soil hydraulic properties of the Hamra field (Russo and Bresler 1981) and the Panache field (Nielsen, Biggar, and Erh 1973). In the traditional approach (Peck, Luxmoore, and Stolzy 1977; Russo and Bresler 1980; Warrick, Mullen, and Nielsen 1977), sets of scaling factors are estimated from the h(s) and K(s) functions. For "perfectly similar media," the two sets of a should be identical. Even though the sets of a in these studies were found to be correlated (table 2), they possessed different statistical properties, and were not identical. Results of structural analyses of the sets of a from the two fields suggested that the spatial structures of the two a-sets are quite distinct, reflecting the different spadal behavior of the h(θ) and the K(θ) functions. Moreover, there was poor correlation between the uncorrelated residuals of the a-sets, indicating that part of the high correlation between the a-sets found in earlier work must stem from the presence of an undetected drift and from correlation between nearby measurements. Under field conditions, the saturated hydraulic conductivity is controlled by the flow of water through large structural voids (macropores), which drain at very small negative values of water pressure. Because of this, we tried eliminating Ks by using relative hydraulic properties instead of the hydraulic properties themselves to estimate the scaling factor sets. For the Hamra field, for which we assumed that the hydraulic properties could be described by the model of Brooks and Corey (1964), we found the resultant sets of scaling factors to be highly correlated (R2 = 0.996) with the same spatial structure, but with slightly different variance. By examining the relationships between the two a-sets implied by the Brooks and Corey (1964) model we saw that (1) in general, both sets will be functions of the range of water saturation values used to estimate them, (2) the correlation between the two sets can be improved for media with broad pore-size distributions, and (3) the two sets will be identical if and only if the relative hydraulic conductivity function K,.(hr) is described by the deterministic function Kr(hr) = hy -2 ("strictly similar media"). This analysis suggests that, for media that are not well described by Kr = hr -2, a scaling factor would be required in addition to a in order to achieve agreement between scaled values of hr(θ) and Kr(θ) at all points. A general model Kr = hr -η was proposed, with η as a second stochastic scaling factor for media that do not obey the restrictive assumptions of macroscopic Miller similitude. In the Hamra field, this modified scaling procedure produced perfect agreement between the scaling hydraulic properties. In the Panache field, with values of η determined from linear regression analysis of the logarithmic transformations of Kr and h,., agreement was improved considerably between the scaled hydraulic properties as compared to the more restrictive scaling procedure. In contrast to the Hamra field, however, there remained some significant differences between the scaled properties. These differences may have been artifacts of the different methods used to estimate the hIs) and the K(s) functions for the Panache field. The results of our analysis suggest that in any transient transport problem involving both K(s) and h(s), the description of their spatial variability requires the use of at least three stochastic variates-Ks , α, and η-not a alone.
Amidi ed imidi tartariche
(1917)