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In this study, I investigate the crustal and upper mantle velocity structure beneath the Rwenzori Mountains in western Uganda. This mountain range is situated within the western branch of the East African Rift and reaches altitudes of more than 5000 m. I use four different approaches that belong to the travel-time tomography method. The first approach is based on the isotropic tomographic inversion of local data, which contain information about 2053 earthquakes recorded by a network of up to 35 stations covering an area of 140×90 km2. The LOTOS-09 algorithm described here is used to realize this approach. The second approach is based on the anisotropic tomographic inversion of the same local dataset. This method employs the tomographic code ANITA, developed with my participation, which provides 3D anisotropic P and isotropic S velocity distributions based on P and S travel-times from local seismicity. For the P anisotropic model, four parameters for each parameterization cell are determined. This represents an orthorhombic anisotropy with one vertically-oriented predefined direction. Three of the parameters describe slowness variations along three horizontal orientations with azimuths of 0°, 60° and 120°, and one is a perturbation along the vertical axis. The third approach is based on tomographic inversion of the teleseismic data, which contain information about the traveltimes of P-waves coming from 284 teleseismic events recorded by the seismic network stations. The TELELOTOS code, which is my own modification of the LOTOS-09 algorithm, is used in this approach. The TELELOTOS code is designed to iteratively invert the local and/or teleseismic datasets. Finally, I present the results of the new tomographic approach, which is based on the simultaneous inversion of the joint local and teleseismic data. The simultaneous use of these datasets for the tomographic inversion has several advantages. In this case, the velocity structure in the study area can be resolved as deep as in the teleseismic approach. At the same time, in the upper part of the study volume, the resolution of the obtained models is as good as in the local tomography. The TELELOTOS algorithm is used to perform the joint tomographic inversion. Special attention is paid in this work to synthetic testing. A number of different synthetic and real data tests are performed to estimate the resolution ability and robustness of the obtained models. In particular, synthetic tests have shown that the results of the anisotropic tomographic inversion of the local data have to be considered as unsatisfactory. For all approaches used in this study, I present synthetic models that reproduce the same pattern of anomalies as that obtained by inverting the real data. These models are used to interpret the results and estimate the real amplitudes of the obtained anomalies. The obtained models exhibit a relatively strong negative P anomaly (up to -10%) beneath the Rwenzori Mountains. Low velocities are found in the northeastern part of the array at shallower depths and are most likely related to sedimentary deposits, while higher velocities are found beneath the eastern rift shoulder and are thought to be related to old cratonic crust. The presence of low velocities in the northwestern part of the array may be caused by a magmatic intrusion beneath the Buranga hot springs. Relatively low velocities were observed within the lower crust and upper mantle in the western and southern parts of the study area (beneath the rift valley and the entire length of the Rwenzori range). The higher amplitude of the low-velocity anomaly in the south can be related to the thinner lithosphere in the southern part of the Albertine rift. In the center of the study area, a small negative anomaly is observed, with the intensity increasing with depth. This anomaly is presumably related to a fluids rising up from a plume branch in the deeper part of the mantle. According to the interpretation of the local earthquake distribution, the Rwenzori Mountains are located between two rift valleys with flanks marked by normal faults. The Rwenzori block is bounded by thrust faults that are probably due to compression.
Delthyridoid spiriferids are characterized by a global abundance and fast evolution during Silurian and Devonian, and, therefore, are used as important biostratigraphical and palaeobiogeographical tools. In this work, delthyridoid brachiopod faunas from different regions of today’s world, resp., of different palaeobiogeographical units, are compared side-by-side to investigate their phylogenetic relationships and to improve, in a second step, the palaeobiogeography from Late Silurian to Early Eifelian time. A new systematics of Delthyridoidae is established which is more complicated than hitherto assumed. The results of this study are mainly based on direct comparison of articulated and isolated brachiopod shells, external and internal moulds, as well as latex casts and serial sections. The computer supported cladistic analyses have turned out not to be useful due to different kinds of preservation resulting in an incomplete matrix which is insufficient for reliable cladograms. A further problem in terms of cladistical analyses are various convergences during the evolution of spiriferids. Many characters evolved independently from each other at different times in each lineage so that autapomorphies are hardly or not at all recognizable. As a result, families and genera are only definable by a combination of characters rather than by a single or a few autapomorphies. As a new method, 3D reconstruction from serial sections is introduced which made it possible for the first time to compare directly mouldic and shelly material. Preliminary results are presented herein. Statistical analyses of measurements taken from new taxa are made but regarded as a descriptive argument rather than a deciding factor for taxonmy due to incomplete preservation and/or tectonic deformation. Brachiopods, especially type material, from collections of different institutions and museums are studied as well as personal material, whenever possible collected from topotype outcrops. Emended diagnoses, if necessary, from family to species level are given. During this work several new taxa have been erected: 7 new families: Australospiriferidae, Murchisonispiriferidae, Orientospiriferidae, Otospiriferidae, Patriaspiriferidae, Rostrospiriferidae, and Trigonospiriferidae; 6 new genera, 1 of these in open nomenclature: Cyclopterospirifer, Hallispirifer, Parlinispirifer, Murchisonispirifer, Shujiapingensispirifer, and gen. nov. B; and 3 new species: Patriaspirifer merriami, Patriaspirifer johnsoni, and Murchisonispirifer feldmani; 1 taxon is defined as nomen novum: Orientospirifer nakaolingensis wani. In the framework of this project, 2 families: Filispiriferidae and Multispiriferidae; 1 subfamily: Multiplicatispiriferinae, 6 genera, 1 of them in open nomenclature: Frequentispirifer, Leonispirifer, Multiplicatispirifer, Ovetensispirifer, Turcispirifer, and Gen. A; and 9 new species, 3 of them in open nomenclature: Filispirifer hamadae, Leonispirifer leonensis, Multiplicatispirifer foumzguidensis, Oventensispirifer novascotianus, Quiringites arensentiae, Turcispirifer turciae, Multiplicatispirifer cf. foumzguidensis, Quiringites cf. arensentiae, and ?Turcispirifer sp. A which have already been established are also described in this work. The brachiopod faunas studied consist of externally very similar spiriferids which have been identified as same genera, species, or even subspecies in earlier times. These forms are considered as 6 distinct morphotypes Howellella-, Arduspirifer-, Acrospirifer-, Euryspirifer-, Paraspirifer-, and Multiplicatispirifer-like morphotypes, which are briefly introduced. The new systematics is characterized by different clades, the European/North African delthyridoid spiriferid clade, the North American delthyridoid spiriferid clade, the Asian delthyridoid spiriferid clade, the Malvinokaffric delthyridoid spiriferid clade, and the delthyridoid multiplicated spiriferid clade. Each of them is described in a cladistic and in a phylogenetic way. Their phylogenetic relationship sheds new light on palaeobiogeographical interpretations for the different stages from Late Silurian to early Middle Devonian time. A tendency for increasing endemicity is seen until the end of the Early Emsian, which is interrupted by short term regional faunal exchange within a province or within a realm, followed by a loss of endemicity resulting in global distribution of brachiopod genera until the end of Givetian time. The Old World Realm is re-defined due to the lack of phylogenetic relationship between its faunas and subdivided into the European Realm, consisting of the Gondwanan and Avalonian provinces, and the Asian Realm, consisting of the Siberian, Sino, and Mongolian provinces. A reconstruction of Lower Devonian palaeobiographical map is introduced.
NASAs Stardust Mission ist die erste Mission, die - nach den Apollo Missionen zum Mond - Material von einem extraterrestrischen Körper erfolgreich für die Untersuchung auf der Erde, zurückgebracht hat. Desweiteren konnten erfolgreich Proben von einem Interstellaren Partikelstrom aufgesammelt werden, der das Sonnensystem derzeit passiert. Die Mission erlaubt einen Einblick in die Beschaffenheit der Kometenpartikel, die Rolle von Kometen im Sonnensystem sowie den Eintrag von Staub in die Zodiakalwolke. Desweiteren erlaubt die Analyse der Kometenpartikel den direkten Vergleich zu bereits untersuchten Meteoriten und Interplanetaren Staub Partikeln (IDPs) die auf der Erde bzw. deren Stratosphäre gesammelt wurden. Stardust ist die vierte ”Discovery” Mission und wurde am 7. Februar 1999 gestartet. Während des Fluges zum Kometen 81P/Wild 2 wurde ein interstellarer Partikelstrom beprobt und der Asteroid Annefrank passiert. Nach fünf Jahren kam es zum Zusammentreffen mit dem Kometen 81P/Wild 2 und über fünf Minuten, wurden Proben mit einer Auffangvorrichtung eingesammelt. Es dauerte weitere zwei Jahre bis die Stardust Sonde die Proben erfolgreich zur Erde zurückgebracht hat und zur Untersuchung freigegeben wurden. Interstellare und kometare Partikel wurden mit einer tennisschlägerartigen Auffangvorrichtung eingefangen, die aus einer Vielzahl von Aerogel Zellen aufgebaut ist. Das für die Stardust Mission verwendete Aerogel besteht aus SiO2 dessen dendritische Struktur zu 99,8 % aus Luft (Poren) besteht. Dadurch erscheint es nahezu transparent, was die optische Suche mit Mikroskopen nach den Einschlagsspuren der Körner vereinfacht. Die jeweiligen Partikel wurden auf unterschiedlichen Seiten der Vorrichtung eingefangen, da unterschiedliche Eigenschaften des Aerogels notwendig waren und um sie später voneinander unterscheiden zu können. Die Seite, in der die Kometenpartikel eingefangen wurde, musste Körner mit unterschiedlichen Grössen, Morphologien und niedrigeren Geschwindigkeiten abbremsen, während auf der interstellaren Seite die Körner von wesentlich höheren Geschwindigkeiten abgebremst werden mussten. Die Aerogelzellen haben ein variierendes Dichteprofil: an der Oberfläche ist die Dichte geringer (5 mg/ml) und erhöht sich mit der Tiefe auf 30-50 mg/ml. Dieses Dichteprofil ist notwendig, da beim Einschlag der Körner auf das Auffangmedium ein hoher Druck entsteht, der umso geringer ist, je niedriger die Dichte im Moment des Auftreffens ist. Die Aerogelzellen für die Kometenpartikel haben drei Lagen mit unterschiedlichen Dichten, die Zellen für die interstellaren Körner haben zwei unterschiedliche Dichten (Tsou et al., 2003)....
Das Ziel dieser Studie ist es, die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen von hochauflösenden Klimaprojektionen in orographisch beeinflussten Gebieten an den Beispielen der europäischen Alpen und des Himalajas zu prüfen. Insbesondere wird die Fragestellung untersucht, ob beobachtete regionale Muster in den höher aufgelösten Daten besser wiedergegeben werden als in den antreibenden großskaligen Daten. Dazu werden regionale Klimasimulationen des COSMO-CLM Modells und Daten von zwei statistischen Regionalisierungsmethoden mit ERA40 Reanalysen sowie Daten des globalen Atmosphäre-Ozean Modells ECHAM5/MPIOM für verschiedene Parameter des Klimasystems verglichen. Ein Vergleich mit den Reanalysen anhand täglicher Niederschlagsstatistiken ergibt, dass die COSMO-CLM Niederschlagsdaten auf der 0.5° Skala vergleichbar sind mit ERA40 Niederschlägen und mit statistisch regionalisierten ERA40 Niederschlägen. Eine zusätzliche Fehlerkorrektur der COSMO-CLM Niederschläge liefert gute Ergebnisse. Dabei sind jedoch etwa 500 Regentage notwendig, um eine robuste Fehlerabschätzung zu gewährleisten. Für das südasiatische Gebiet ist eine realistische Wiedergabe des indischen Sommermonsuns (ISM) in den Modellen von hoher Relevanz. Betrachtet man nur die Mittelwerte und zeitlichen Variabilitäten von verschiedenen Indizes des ISM, so liefert das COSMO-CLM keinen Mehrwert im Vergleich zu den antreibenden Daten. Allerdings werden die räumlichen Strukturen von Niederschlag und vertikaler Windscherung, sowie die zeitliche Korrelation der modellierten Indizes gegenüber dem ECHAM5/MPIOM Modell verbessert. Die durchgeführten COSMO-CLM Projektionen für die Jahre 1960 bis 2100 zeigen negative Trends des ISM für die SRES Szenarien A2, A1B und B1. Die negativsten Trends sind dabei im Szenario A2 zu finden, gefolgt von A1B und B1. Fast keine Trends zeigen sich im commitment Szenario. Trotz großen zeitlichen Variabilitäten sind die Abnahmen in Niederschlagsmengen, ausgehender langwelliger Strahlung und Windscherung statistisch signifikant in großen Regionen des Simulationsgebietes. Für Nordwest-Indien weisen die Projektionen teilweise einen Rückgang der Monsunniederschläge von über 70% in 100 Jahren auf. Der Rückgang der Windscherung ist hauptsächlich auf Veränderungen in der oberen Troposphäre bei 200 hPa zurück zu führen. Während in den COSMO-CLM Projektionen alle Indizes des ISM synchrone Negativtrends aufweisen, sind die Trends für den Monsunregen über Indien im globalen ECHAM5/MPIOM Model positiv. Gemäß den Definitionen der verschiedenen Indizes, sind jedoch synchrone Trends wahrscheinlicher und das COSMO-CLM liefert zu den globalen ISM Projektionen ebenfalls einen Mehrwert. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Studie, dass das COSMO-CLM wertvolle regionale Zusatzinformationen zu den globalen Modellen in den beiden untersuchten Regionen liefert. Für die Einzugsgebiete der oberen Donau und des oberen Brahmaputra liefern die COSMO-CLM Projektionen einen signifikanten Anstieg der Temperatur für alle Jahreszeiten der Jahre 1960 bis 2100. Die Werte sind generell höher im Brahmaputragebiet, mit den größten Trends in der Region des tibetanischen Plateaus. Im Niederschlag zeigen die saisonalen Anteile ebenfalls klare Trends, beispielsweise eine Zunahme des Frühjahrsniederschlags im Einzugsgebiet der oberen Donau. Die größten Trends werden wiederum in der Region des tibetanischen Plateaus projiziert mit einem Anstieg von bis zu 50% in der Länge der Trockenperioden zwischen Juni und September und einem gleichzeitigen Anstieg von etwa 10% für die maximale Niederschlagsmenge an fünf aufeinander folgenden Tagen. Für die Region Assam in Indien, zeigen die Projektionen zudem eine Zunahme von 25% in der Anzahl der aufeinander folgenden trockenen Tage während der Monsunzeit
The TTL is the transition layer between the tropical troposphere and stratosphere, and is the main region where tropospheric air enters the stratosphere. In this thesis different transport processes are studied by using in situ measurements of tracers. Long-lived tracers were measured with the High Altitude Gas Analyzer (HAGAR) on board the M55 Geophysica aircraft. The instrument was developed by the University of Frankfurt and measures the long-lived tracers CO2, N2O, CFC-12, CFC-11, H-1211, SF6, CH4 and H2 with two gas chromatographic channels and a CO2 sensor (LICOR). The measurements are supported by CO and O3 measurements of other instruments. Two campaigns were conducted to obtain measurements in the TTL: SCOUT-O3 (November/December 2005 in Darwin, Australia) and AMMA-SCOUT-O3 (August 2006 in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso). After a general introduction of the thesis in chapters one and two, the third chapter describes the findings during this last campaign. Five local flights are analyzed to study the different transport processes that occur in the tropical tropopause layer above West-Africa: deep convection up to the level of main convective outflow, vertical mixing after overshooting of air in deep convection, horizontal inmixing from the extratropical lower stratosphere, and horizontal transport across the subtropical barrier. Main findings are that the TTL over West-Africa is mostly influenced by remote convection. The subtropical barrier is not a strong barrier but more a region of transition between the extratropical and the tropical stratosphere. Chapter 4 presents the results obtained during the SCOUT-O3 campaign. From the eight local flights the last four flights (051129, 051130a, 051130b, 051205) show enhanced values of ozone, CO and CO2 between 355 and 380 K potential temperature in comparison with the first four flights (051116, 051119, 051123, 051125). Horizontal inmixing from the extra-tropical stratosphere and influence of the local convective system Hector cannot explain the enhanced values of the two flights on 30 November Therefore, other possible explanations for these enhanced CO, CO2 and ozone levels are proposed. The first explanation is vertical mixing in the vicinity of the jet stream. However, the jet cannot explain the differences between the flights on 30 November and the flights on 29 November and 5 December. Another possible explanation is influence of polluted boundary layer air masses from the Indonesian region. Especially air sampled during the flights on November 30 crossed large parts of northern Indonesia between 8 and 10 days before the measurements. Convective uplift of biomass burning and other pollution plumes can transport CO and ozone precursors into the upper troposphere, where they can significantly enhance the ozone production. The last chapter deals with the vertical ascent rate in the TTL and uses measurements of both the SCOUT-O3 and AMMA-SCOUT-O3 campaign as well as data from previous aircraft campaigns (TROCCINOX and APE-THESEO). Time scales and residence times for mean vertical transport in the background TTL are estimated for different seasons and over different geographic regions using in situ observations of CO2 and long-lived tracers. The vertical transport time scales are constrained using the seasonal variation of CO2 in the tropical troposphere as a “tracer clock” for vertical ascent. Two methods are applied to calculate the residence time in the layer between 360 and 390 K potential temperature. The first method uses the slope of the CO2 index, the second method fits the CO2 index directly to the measurements assuming a constant ascent rate. The first method yields residence times for Australia,West Africa, and Brazil of the same order, 35-45 days to 380 K and 50 days to 390 K (where no value can be derived for Australia as the slope is changing approximately one month before the campaign). For APE-THESEO, the method does not yield reasonable results. The best estimates using the second method show moderate residence times between 360 and 390 K of 60±25 days SCOUT-O3 (NH autumn) and 43±8 days for AMMA/SCOUT-O3 (NH summer). These results agree well with the results calculated using the first method. For APE-THESEO and TROCCINOX the best fits yield shorter residence times of 23±7 and 40±10 days, respectively, both during winter. These results correspond well to the expectations based on the seasonal variation of the Brewer-Dobson circulation.
Within the present study the occurrence and fate of the organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-chloro-1-methylethyl) phosphate (TCPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP), tri-iso-butyl phosphate (TiBP), and tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP) in precipitation, lake water, surface runoff and groundwater from urban and remote areas in Germany was investigated between June 2007 and October 2009. 255 samples of precipitation, 210 samples of lentic surface water and 72 samples of groundwater were analyzed for the six organophosphates (OPs) by solid phase extraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The research focused on aspects concerning (1) the atmospheric washout of OPs by precipitation, (2) the temporal variation of OP concentrations in precipitation and in lentic surface waters as well as (3) the pollution of groundwater by OPs. The results of the study emphasize the importance of precipitation as an all-season entry-pathway for OPs in the aquatic environment, particularly in densely populated urban environments with high traffic volume and abundant usage of flame-protected products. No seasonal trends were observed for all analytes in precipitation at the urban sampling site. TCPP dominated in all precipitation and storm water holding tank (SWHT) water samples with maximum levels exceeding 1 µg/L. An accumulation of OPs deposited in SWHTs was observed with concentrations often exceeding those observed in wet precipitation. Median concentrations of TCPP (880 ng/L), TDCP (13 ng/L), and TBEP (77 ng/L) at the urban SWHT were more than twice as high as those measured at the urban precipitation sampling site (403 ng/L, 5 ng/L, 21 ng/L) located close to the SWHT. OP levels in more remote lakes were often below or close to the limits of quantitation (LOQ). Nevertheless, TCPP was the substance with the highest median concentration in rural volcanic lakes (7–18 ng/L) indicating an atmospheric transport of the compound. At urban lakes the median OP concentrations were in the range of 23–61 ng/L (TCEP), 85–126 ng/L (TCPP), <LOQ–53 ng/L (TBEP), 8–10 ng/L (TiBP), and 17–32 ng/L (TnBP). In laboratory experiments, TBEP, TiBP, and TnBP were photochemically degraded in spiked lake water samples upon exposure to sunlight. In the SWHT a seasonal trend with decreasing concentrations in summer/autumn was evident for TiBP and TnBP but not for the chlorinated OPs. The decreasing concentrations can be explained by in-lake photodegradation. Results have also shown that the occurrence of OPs in groundwater is depending on the anthropogenic impact during groundwater recharge/natural replenishment. Infiltration of precipitation was found to be no important entry-pathway for OPs into aquifers at rural sites. Highest OP concentrations (>0.1 µg/L) were determined in groundwater polluted by percolating leachate from contaminated sites or groundwater recharged via bank filtration of OP-loaded recipients. Concentrations of TCEP, TCPP, TiBP and TnBP in groundwater decreased rapidly (89–97%) during bank filtration with increasing distance from the recipient due to adsorption processes and/or biotransformation. Although TCEP and TCPP are stable within the aquifer, they are not suitable as conservative organic tracers in groundwater.
The Alborz Mountains are forming a ~100 km wide, E-W trending mountain chain where individual summits are up to 5000 m in elevation. The Alborz Mountains range are part of the Alpine orogen and are straddling a 2000 km wide area S of the Caspian Sea. The rocks of the Alborz Mountains consist of Neogen sediments, which are affected by folding and faulting. In the western part of the Alborz Mountains the folds and faults are trending NW-SE, whereas in the eastern part they are trending NE-SW. GPS data confirm N-S shortening including dextral strike-slip along ESE-WNW trending faults, and sinistral strike-slip along ENE-WSW trending faults. The present thesis is focusing on the active Garmsar salt nappe, the fragmented roof of which is pierced by rock salt which extruded near the front of the Alborz Mountains Range. During the past 5 m.y. the front of the Alborz chain migrated towards SSW on top of the salt of the Garmsar basin. The salt was squeezed towards SSW and took place at the Great Kavir. The extruded salt is forming the Eyvanekey plateau between the cities of Eyvanekey and Garmsar. Both the Garmsar salt nappe and the Eyvanekey plateau are dextrally displaced for ca. 9 km along the Zirab-Garmsar fault. Structural analyses of the Garmsar salt nappe indicate three different groups of joints which are trending perpendicular and parallel to the local mechanical anisotropy. The folds of the study area are congruent (type 2 and 3 after Ramsay) resulting from viscose inhomogeneous flow. InSAR-Investigations suggest the Alborz Mountains to be lifted up by ca. 1 cm/a, while horizontal shortening is active at a rate of 8 ±2 mm/a. These values are consistent with GPS data. Based on nine „Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar“ (ASAR) scenarios, produced by the ENVISAT satellite of the European space agency between 2003 and 2006, we used interferograms to map the displacement via 22 increments during 2 – 18 months. The results suggest that the topographic height of the surface of the salt is changing at a rate which is controlled by the season. The displacement ranges from subsidence at -40 to -50 mm/a to uplift of 20 mm/a. In order to investigate the time-dependent deformation with high spatial resolution, we used algorithms which are based on data of small base lines (SBAS). The resulting interferometric SAR time series analyses also suggest that the study area is largely subsiding at a rate that is controlled by the seasons. The map with the averaged LOS deformation velocities, on the other hand, suggests the subsidence to increase from the upper part of the salt nappe towards deeper topographic 5 levels of the agricultural lowlands. The major part of subsidence is probably caused by the annual rainfall which results in subrosion of salt. The spatial changes in the subsidence rate are probably controlled by the distribution of fountains, mining activity at the margin of the salt glacier, and faults and fractures inside the salt. Striking seasonal imprints are obvious along the agricultural areas which are surrounding the Garmsar salt nappe. These areas are rapidly subsiding in summer and spring when groundwater is used for irrigations. The maximum rate of subsidence (40-50 mm/a) is located E and W of the Eyvanekey plateau, where large areas are irrigated. The maximum displacement is 20 mm/a in the farmland and 5 mm/a in the center of the salt nappe. Depth estimates using Euler deconvolution method for gravimetric and magnetic data suggest the salt to extrude from a depth less than ca. 2000 m. The gravity field of the study area is characterized by strong anomalies in the SW and weak anomalies in the NE. A considerable negative anomaly in the N indicates that the northern part subsided, whereas the southern part was lifted up. The seismic data show three major horizons inside the Miocene sediments: the Lower Red Formation, the Qom Formation, and the Upper Red Formation. The western part of the study area seems to be free from salt domes. The layers of the upper part of the Qom Formation show thinning along the NE and NW trending faults. In some areas the seismic reflectors indicate steep faults close the saddle of the folds. NE-SW-, NW-SE and E-Wtrending faults prevail. Analogue experiments have been carried out to extend our knowledge about the evolution of the Garmsar salt dome. We used a scaled model (34 cm * 25 cm * 2.5 cm) that was shortened perpendicular to its long side. The wedge shape of the Alborz Mountains was simulated by a wedge consisting of Styrofoam. Rock salt was simulated using Polydimethylsiloxan (PDMS), a linear viscous material with a viscosity of 2.3*104 Pa s and a density of 0.96 g/cm3 at room temperature. Other sediments were modeled using dry quartz sand. The experimental results can be used to simulate the structural evolution of the study area: The Alborz deformation front was emplaced on top of the salt rocks in the Garmsar area while migrating towards SSW. A salt basin and a salt extrusion have also been produced in the model. Cross sections through the wedge shaped analogue model indicate N- and S-dipping reverse faults, which are in line with the wedge shape of the Alborz chain. Moreover, ENE-WSW trending sinistral and ESE-WNW trending dextral strike-slip faults led to N-S shortening during the Miocene. Structural marker horizons, 6 which have been turned into Z-folds on the western fold limbs and to S-folds on the eastern fold limbs, are comparable with the folds of the study area. Solving the problem of waste is one of the central tasks of environmental protection. It is becoming increasingly difficult to find suitable sites that are acceptable to the public. Salt and salt formations have relevant properties to be utilizing as a repository for each kind of waste. The favorable properties make rock salt highly suitable as a host rock, in particular for nonradioactive and radioactive wastes. The Qom and Garmsar basins are the nearest salt diapirs to the Tehran province, and there are suitable repositories for waste disposal. Based on surface and subsurface data, the Garmsar salt diapir has been investigated as a case example for its suitability as a host and repository for various types of waste. The data used are based on field studies, interferometry, and geophysical investigations. The results of this study suggest the deep bedded salt of the Garmsar Salt Basin to be an appropriate host for the deposition of industrial waste. Rock salt of surficial layers or domes, on the other hand, is not regarded as an appropriate candidate for waste disposal.
Until now, the NW Indian Ocean was sparsely covered with coral proxy records, and records from the Maldives Archipelago do not exist. The first such coral proxy record from the central Maldives is presented in this study. It originates from a massive Porites lutea (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) colony that was sampled March 2007 in the lagoon of Rasdhoo Atoll (4°N/ 73°W), which is located in the central Maldives. The record spans a period of 90 yrs and reaches back to 1917 AD with monthly to bimonthly resolution. This study investigates temporal variations of the skeletal stable oxygen (delta18O) and carbon (delta13C) isotopes, the strontium-to-calcium (Sr/Ca), and the annual extension-rates, and their relationship to historical climate variations 1917-2007. Annual extension-rates show an increase over the 20th century, and are correlated with instrumental sea surface temperatures (SST). The interannual variation of the extension-rates within 2.5-4 years is driven by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The amount of skeletal extension during the summer months is triggered by variations in the strength of the SW monsoon. Interannual and decadal variability in monsoon current activity (18-19 yrs) and rainfall over India are an expression of the summer monsoon strength. This is the reason why a statistical link between coral extension-rates and precipitation over India can be established. This implies that annual extension-rates in corals can be used as a new proxy for Indian monsoon variability on decadal resolution. The delta18O record exhibits the 20th century warming trend that is influenced by the effect of monsoon-induced cooling. delta18O also reveals interannual ENSO triggered variability, which is due to ENSO-forced variations in SST and sea surface salinity (SSS). A decadal variation at 12-14 yrs cannot be linked to SST variations in the NW Indian Ocean, but with decadal variations of SSS. They could be caused by ENSO- forced variations of the monsoon currents during the mature phase of ENSO teleconnections in the Indian Ocean in boreal winter. The Sr/Ca record does not indicate a significant warming, in spite of the observed SST rise at the sampling site. Changes in seawater Sr/Ca cannot be excluded. Nevertheless, interannual ENSO forcing is still evident. Evidence for the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is found during 1917-1955. Afterwards, the Sr/Ca data indicate the disappearance of PDO forcing. By the combination of Sr/Ca and delta18O it is possible to detect ~80% of historical El Niño and La Niña events at the sample site. This study confirms the notion that interannual to multi-decadal climate fluctuations in the Pacific play a crucial role for climate variability in the Indian Ocean.
Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde im Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts „Integrierte Analyse von mobilen, organischen Fremdstoffen in Fließgewässern“ (INTAFERE) am Institut für Physische Geographie an der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt erstellt. In INTAFERE wurde das Gefährdungspotenzial von mobilen, organischen Fremdstoffen (MOF) für aquatische Ökosysteme und die natürlichen Wasserressourcen in integrierter und partizipativer Art und Weise untersucht. MOF sind chemische Substanzen, die in Alltagsprodukten enthalten sind und durch unterschiedliche Eintragsfade in unbekannten Mengen in Oberflächengewässer eingetragen werden. Problematisch sind aus Umweltgesichtspunkten ihre Eigenschaften: sie besitzen im Wasser eine hohe Mobilität und sind schwer abbaubar. Dies führt zu einer Persistenz über lange Zeiträume. Für einige dieser Substanzen wurde zudem gezeigt, dass sie in sehr geringen Konzentrationen biologisch aktiv sind und für aquatische Ökosysteme eine Gefahr darstellen. In INTAFERE wurden drei zentrale Ziele verfolgt: Charakterisierung des Problemfeldes MOF, Erzeugung von praxisrelevantem Wissen für das Management von MOF und Entwicklung einer Softwareanwendung, die gesellschaftliche Aushandlungsprozesse durch eine transparente Darstellung der Wirkungszusammenhänge im Problemfeld unterstützt. Um einen Beitrag für die Erfüllung der Ziele zu leisten, war es die Aufgabe der Verfasserin, eine Akteursanalyse und -modellierung durchzuführen sowie Zukunftsszenarien im Bereich der MOF zu entwickeln. Dafür existierte keine adäquate Methodik, daher verfolgt die Dissertation zum einen die Entwicklung einer Methodik und zum anderen deren Anwendung im Kontext des Projektes INTAFERE. Da im Forschungsprozess die Durchführung von Analysen, die wissenschaftliche und gesellschaftliche Sichtweise der Problematik sowie die Erarbeitung von praktischen Lösungen im Mittelpunkt standen, wurde eine transdisziplinäre Herangehensweise gewählt. Ziel war es, eine Methodik zu entwerfen, die sowohl eine Entwicklung von Szenarien als auch eine Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen umfasst. Eine Modellierung und Visualisierung von Handlungsentscheidungen ist notwendig, um Strategien für ein Umweltproblem für verschiedene Szenarien zu ermitteln, und damit einen Lernprozess der Stakeholder zu initiieren. Dies wurde mit der transdisziplinären Methode „Akteursbasierte Modellierung“ umgesetzt. Hierbei wurden insbesondere Aspekte der Problemwahrnehmung von Akteuren und deren Darstellung, der partizipativen Szenarienentwicklung sowie der semi-quantitativen Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen berücksichtigt. Die Verfasserin hat mit der semi-quantitativen akteursbasierten Modellierung eine Methode erarbeitet und getestet, die bisher unverbundene Komponenten (wie die Software Dynamic Actor Network Analysis (DANA) und die Szenarienentwicklung) zusammenführt. Um Handlungsentscheidungen unter verschiedenen Szenarien zu modellieren hat die Autorin eine sequentielle Modellierung entwickelt, die mit der Software DANA durchgeführt werden kann. Die dafür notwendige Weiterentwicklung von DANA wurde von Dr. Pieter Bots (TU Delft) umgesetzt. Die akteursbasierte Modellierung läuft in drei methodischen Schritten ab: 1. Modellierung von Akteurs-Sichtweisen in Form von Wahrnehmungsgraphen und deren Analyse, aufbauend auf Ergebnissen von qualitativen, leitfaden-gestützten Expertengesprächen (= Akteursmodellierung), 2. partizipative Szenarienentwicklung mit den Akteuren und 3. Zusammenführung der Ergebnisse der Akteursmodellierung und der Szenarienentwicklung und darauf aufbauend eine sequentielle Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen und deren Auswirkungen auf Schlüsselfaktoren. Im Zuge der Anwendung auf das Problemfeld der MOF wurde für folgende Akteure jeweils ein Wahrnehmungsgraph modelliert: Obere Wasserbehörde, Umweltbundesamt, Umwelt- und Verbraucherschutzorganisationen, Wasserversorger sowie für die Hersteller von verschiedenen MOF, weiterhin für die European Flame Retardants Association und die Weiterverarbeitende Industrie. Das Ergebnis der Szenarienentwicklung waren vier Szenarien: ein Gesundheitsszenario, unter der Annahme von hohen lokalen Umweltstandards durch nachhaltigkeitsorientierte KonsumentInnen, ein Umweltszenario, in dem eine starke Regulierung und nachhaltigkeitsorientierter Konsum Hand in Hand gehen, ein Globalisierungsszenario, in dem Wirtschaftsmacht und preisbewusste KonsumentInnen statt staatliche Regulierung vorherrschen und ein Technikszenario, unter der Annahme, dass Kläranlagen, bedingt durch eine starke Regulierung, aufgerüstet werden. Bei der Modellierung von Handlungsentscheidungen wurden die Wahrnehmungsgraphen und die vier Szenarien miteinander verknüpft. Pro Substanz wurde ein Modell entwickelt, welches die wichtigsten Systemkomponenten in einer angemessenen Komplexität umfasst und die von den Akteuren gemeinsam getragene Einschätzung der Wirkungsbeziehungen darstellt. Insgesamt wurden 16 Modelle entwickelt. Basierend auf den simulierten Akteurshandlungen wurden relativen Veränderungen der Schlüsselfaktoren Produktion, Import und Leistungsfähigkeit der Kläranlagen für die vier genannten Szenarien berechnet. In Zusammenarbeit mit Pieter Bots konnten algorithmische Beiträge zur Analyse- und Modellierungssoftware DANA getestet und verbessert werden. Da keine vollständige und zugleich leicht verständliche Einführung zu DANA vorlag, wurde für Nutzer im Rahmen dieser Dissertation eine Anleitung verfasst, die die Modellierung von Wahrnehmungsgraphen und deren Analyse sowie alle Schritte der akteursbasierten Modellierung mit DANA erläutert.
Die kumulative Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der atmosphärischen Konzentration von Eiskeimen, einer Unterklasse des atmosphärischen Aerosols, die bei der Eisbildung in Wolken eine zentrale Bedeutung besitzt. Messungen der Eiskeimkonzentration am Taunusobservatorium (Kleiner Feldberg) (nahe Frankfurt am Main) wurden mit dem Verfahren einer Vakuum-Diffusionskammer durchgeführt. Die Arbeit umfasst die Darstellung des angewandten Messverfahrens und die Analyse und Bewertung der Messergebnisse für den Raum Zentraleuropa, anhand von u.a. Rückwärtstrajektorien und Korrelationen zu aerosolphysikalischen Parametern. Ein signifikanter Einfluss von Mineralstaub-Ferntransport aus Wüstengebieten auf die Eiskeimkonzentration in Zentral-Europa wurde ermittelt.
Flusssysteme im mediterranen Raum reagieren besonders sensitiv auf Veränderungen von Umweltbedingungen, z.B. durch Neotektonik, Klimaänderungen und Landnutzung. Geowissenschaftler der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt untersuchen in diesem Zusammenhang das Einzugsgebiet des Rio Palancia (Spanien), um über die Erstellung einer Sediment-Massenbilanzierung die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Systems zu erforschen. Zur Identifizierung und Quantifizierung verschiedener Sediment-Ablagerungstypen wurde das Georadarverfahren (GPR) eingesetzt. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, am Beispiel fluvialer Lockersedimente das Zustandekommen von Radargrammen noch besser zu verstehen und möglichst viel Information über den Untergrund aus einem Radargramm zu extrahieren. An 30 Standorten wurden GPR-Messungen durchgeführt und mit Geoelektrik und Rammkernsondierungen kombiniert. Die Einführung einer Bearbeitungs- und Auswertesystematik gewährleistet die Vergleichbarkeit von Radardaten unterschiedlicher Standorte. Als Besonderheit werden die Radargramme jeweils auf zwei verschiedene Arten bearbeitet und dargestellt, um sowohl Strukturen herauszuarbeiten als auch die – zumindest relative – Amplitudencharakteristik zu erhalten. Erst dadurch wird eine Auswertung mithilfe der erweiterten Radarstratigraphie-Methode möglich. Diese setzt sich aus der klassischen Radarstratigraphie und der neu entwickelten Reflexionsanalyse zusammen. Dabei werden systematisch Radar-Schichtflächen, Radareinheiten und Radarfazies ermittelt und anschließend die Amplitudengröße, die Polarität und die Breite der Reflexionen betrachtet. Die Radarstratigraphie liefert objektive Erkenntnisse über Form und Verlauf von Untergrundstrukturen, während mithilfe der Reflexionsanalyse Aussagen zu relativen Änderungen von Wassergehalt, Korngrößenverteilung und elektrischer Leitfähigkeit möglich sind. Mithilfe der Radarstratigraphie wurde die Radarantwort verschiedener Sediment-Ablagerungstypen im Untersuchungsgebiet verglichen. Die Radargramme zeigen unterschiedliche Zusammensetzungen von Radarfazies. Eine Unterscheidung und räumliche Abgrenzung verschiedener Ablagerungstypen mit GPR ist somit durchführbar. Die Dielektrizität des Mediums bestimmt, zusammen mit der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit, die Geschwindigkeit und Dämpfung der elektromagnetischen Welle sowie die Reflexionskoeffizienten. Um das Zustandekommen von Radargrammen im Detail nachvollziehen zu können, ist es notwendig, die Dielektrizitätskoeffizienten (DK) der untersuchten Sedimente zum Zeitpunkt der Messung zu kennen und die Abhängigkeit des DK von petrophysikalischen Parametern zu verstehen. Deshalb wurden Proben aus den Rammkernsondierungen entnommen. Im Labor wurden der Real- und Imaginärteil des DK im Radarfrequenzbereich (mit Schwerpunkt auf 200 MHz) in Abhängigkeit von Wassergehalt, Trockendichte, Korngrößenverteilung und Kalkgehalt mithilfe der Plattenkondensatormethode bestimmt. Der DK ist in erster Linie vom Wassergehalt abhängig. Es konnte eine für die Sedimente im Untersuchungsgebiet charakteristische Wassergehalts-DK-Beziehung ermittelt werden. Die resultierende Kurve ist gegenüber entsprechenden in der Fachliteratur zu findenden Beziehungen verschoben, was vermutlich auf die hohen Kalkgehalte der Proben zurückzuführen ist. Für trockene Sedimente wurde eine Korrelation des DK mit der Trockendichte festgestellt. Bei der Bestimmung der Absorptionskoeffizienten fiel auf, dass Proben mit hohem Tonanteil selbst bei geringen Wassergehalten außerordentlich hohe Dämpfungskoeffizienten aufweisen können. Die charakteristische Wassergehalts-DK-Beziehung wurde für Modellierungen von Radardaten genutzt, die dann mit Messdaten verglichen wurden. Über die Modellierung einer einzelnen Radarspur konnte die spezielle Charakteristik der entsprechenden gemessenen Spur erklärt werden, die durch den Einfluss einer dünnen Schicht zustande kommt, deren Mächtigkeit an der Grenze der theoretischen Auflösung für die verwendete Radarfrequenz liegt. Auf Basis der Erkenntnisse aus der erweiterten Radarstratigraphie an einem Radargramm auf fluvialen Lockersedimenten war es zudem möglich, ein komplettes Radargramm zu simulieren. Es gibt das gemessene Radargramm vereinfacht, aber in guter Übereinstimmung wieder. Die Georadarmethode erwies sich als sehr gut geeignet für die Untersuchung, Identifizierung und Quantifizierung fluvialer Sedimente im Palancia-Einzugsgebiet. Die im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit entwickelte erweiterte Radarstratigraphie-Methode stellt ein systematisches und weitgehend objektives Verfahren zur Auswertung von Radargrammen dar, das sich auch auf andere Untersuchungsgebiete übertragen lassen sollte. Durch Laboruntersuchungen wurde der Einfluss petrophysikalischer Parameter auf den DK bestimmt. Über die Modellierungen konnten die Ergebnisse großskaliger Geländemessungen mit denen kleinskaliger Labormessungen verknüpft werden. Die insgesamt gewonnenen Erkenntnisse tragen zu einem besseren Verständnis von Radargrammen bei.
Östlich des Rwenzori Gebirges im Westen Ugandas wurden magnetotellurische Messungen durchgeführt. An 23 Stationen wurden Übertragungsfunktionen und Phasen Tensor Elemente zwischen den gemessenen magnetischen- und tellurischen Feldern im Periodenbereich von 10s bis 10000s geschätzt. Die Übertragungsfunktionen deuten eine komplexe drei dimensionale Leitfähigkeitsstruktur innerhalb der Kruste an, insbesondere in der Verbindungszone zwischen dem Rwenzori Gebirge und der östlichen Riftschulter. In dieser Arbeit wird eine alternative Darstellung der Phasen Tensor Ellipsen als Balken eingeführt. Für Perioden größer 100s zeigen die maximalen Phasen der Phasen Tensor Balken aller Stationen einheitlich in SSW-NNE und die Phasen Tensor Invarianten f min und f max weisen eine Differenz von mindestens 20° auf. Dieses auffällige Verhalten und die kleinen vertikalen magnetischen Feldr im gleich Periodenbereich kann mit einer anisotropen Leitfähigkeit in einer Tiefenbereich zwischen 30-50km mit der gut leitenden Richtung senkrecht zur Riftachse erklärt werden. Die Anisotropie könnte ihren Ursprung in orientierten Olivien Kristallen im oberen Mantel haben, wobei die Orientierungsrichtung mit der Delamination der Unterkruste unter den Rwenzoris zusammen hängen kann. Eine gut leitende Zone süd-östlich der Rwenzoris wurde in 15km Tiefe gefunden, die mit einer seismischen low velocity zone übereinstimmt und partielle Schmelzen innerhalb der Kruste andeutet. An allen Stationen steigt die minimale Phase bei der Periode 200s über 45° und zeigt einen Anstieg der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit unterhalb der Lithosphäre an.
In this thesis, laboratory investigations have been conducted to investigate several processes occurring during the melt segregation (crystal settling and compaction processes), as well as during emplacement of plutons. With the help of three different sets of centrifuge experiments rates of these three magmatic processes have been evaluated. In the first series of the centrifuge experiments, the diapiric ascent of buoyant material from two source layers at different depths was studied. Through five models, the hypothesis of ascending diapirs was tested and it was demonstrated whether a rising diapir ascends straight upward or if its ascent might be deviated by another buoyant, softer – and consequently easier to travel through – layer which is located within the overburden strata. We were interested under which conditions they can be formed. For this purpose we placed perturbations on top of both the buoyant layers; either with a set-off of both the protrusions (for three of these experiments), or with both protrusion sitting directly on top of each other (for one of the experiments). In the first experiment, we omitted the perturbations, to test which pathways diapirs take which grow from natural Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities. Three others experiments differed in the viscosity contrast between the overburden and the buoyant material. Through the experimental runs, the effects of different overburden viscosities and perturbation positions on the number of the diapirs were observed. The modeling results show that two diapirs rising from the offset perturbations do not take the same pathway through the overburden layer. Rather, each diapir takes a different pathway, with the deeper diapir piercing through its overburden while rising, regardless if it was a buoyant layer or denser overburden layers. However, when the two perturbations were situated directly above each other in the different PDMS layers, this resulted in the formation of one big diapir rather than several smaller ones, and the overburden layer was less deformed than with offset perturbations. Diapiric structures as those derived from the models without perturbation and where the perturbation are offset occur within Great Kavir Basin (Iran), where numerous salt diapirs grew from several salt horizons, which show a similar spatial distribution. The resulting structure observed in the model where the two perturbations situated directly above each other, is close to what is observed in composite batholiths such as the Flasergranitoid Zone within the Bergsträßer Odenwald Crystalline Complex (Germany). The second series of models were aimed to study crystal settling within a magma. For this purpose experiments with an artificial magma of 30 vol% olivine in 70 vol% basaltic melt were conducted to elucidate the formation mechanisms and time scales of gravitational cumulates. Through the experiments, two physical processes have been observed: (i) purely mechanical compaction, and (ii) chemical compaction induced by dissolution and re-precipitation of settled crystals. The results reveals that the mechanical settling of the dense olivine suspension occurs at about 1/6 the speed of simple Stokes settling, and a sedimentation exponent n of 4.1 is found. Evidences of chemical compaction induced by dissolution and re-precipitation of settled crystals have been highlighted by a detailed analysis of the fine structure of olivine grain boundaries. This last has revealed (1) the presence of Ca, which is characteristic only for MORB-melt, at the interface of two adjacent Ol-grains even when no melt is present; (2) a not fully crystallized boundary layer between two adjacent olivine grains. The crystal size distribution curves and the grain size growth exponent n ~3.6 indicate that diffusion controlled Ostwald ripening is the dominant crystal growth mechanism in concentrated magmatic suspensions. Finally, the formation times in natural olivine adcumulates have been calculated. The last series of centrifuge experiments deals with the crystal-melt settling-floating mechanism in a system composed of natural two pyroxene gabbro. The results have revealed a vertical evolution of the major and trace elements in the melt phase. Then, a numerical modelling of the sedimentation process of the crystals has been made in order to describe the compaction evolution with time. In comparing the numerical simulation with the centrifuge modelling, the stratification of the compacted layer in the runs is reproduced in numerical models. Moreover, on the base of the numerical and centrifuge modelling, a sedimentation exponent describing a deviation of settling in concentrated suspensions from Stokes sedimentation has been evaluated. Finally, the numerical simulation is applied to the Muskox intrusion to estimate the formation time and the melt fraction evolution in using the hindered sedimentation model calculations.
The aim of this study is a better understanding of radiation processes in regional climate models (RCMs) in order to quantify their impact and to reduce possible errors. A first important task in finding an answer to this question was to examine the accuracy of the components of the radiation budget in regional climate simulations. To this end, the simulated radiation budgets of two regional climate simulations for Europe were compared with a satellite-based reference. In the simulations with the RCM COSMO-CLM there were some serious under- and overestimations of short- and long-wave net radiation in Europe. However, taking into account the differences in the reference datasets, the results of the COSMO-CLM were quite satisfactory.
Using statistical methods, the influence of potential sources of uncertainties was estimated. Uncertainties in the cloud cover and surface albedo had a significant impact on uncertainties in short-wave net radiation, the explained variance of uncertainties in cloud cover was two to three times higher than that of uncertainties in surface albedo. Uncertainties in the cloud cover resulted in significant errors in the net long-wave radiation. However, the influence of uncertainties in soil temperature on errors in the long-wave radiation budget was low or even negligible. These results were confirmed in a comparison with simulations of the REMO and ALADIN regional climate models. It is reasonable to expect that a better parameterization of relatively simple parameters such as cloud cover and surface albedo is a means of significantly improving the simulation of radiation budget components in the COSMO-CLM.
An important question for the application of RCMs is to examine whether the results of radiation uncertainties and their impact factors are comparable if the model is applied in a region that is not the one for which it was originally created. Comparisons of the simulated radiation budgets of different RCMs for West Africa showed that problems in the simulation of short- and long-wave radiation fluxes were a widespread problem. Most of the tested models showed some considerable under- or overestimation of the short- and long-wave radiation fluxes.
Similar to Europe uncertainties in cloud cover were also in the simulations for Africa a significant factor affecting uncertainties in the simulated radiation fluxes. However, for the African simulations uncertainties in the parameterization of surface albedo were much more important than in Europe. On average, overland uncertainties in the cloud cover and surface albedo were of similar importance. Uncertainties in soil temperature simulations were of higher importance in Africa, and reached overland similar values of the mean explained variance (R2 ≈ 0.2) such as uncertainties in the cloud cover. This indicates a geographical dependence of the model error. This study confirmed the assumption that an improved parameterization of relatively simple parameters such as the surface albedo in RCMs leads to a significant improvement in the modeled radiation budget, particularly in Africa.
The influence of errors in the simulated radiation budget components on the simulation of climate processes, such as the West-African monsoon (WAM), was investigated in a next step. The evaluation of ERA-Interim and ECHAM5 driven COSMO-CLM simulations for Africa showed that the main features of the WAM were well reproduced by the model, but there were only slight improvements compared to the driving data. The index of convective activity in the model simulations was much too high and precipitation was underestimated in large parts of tropical Africa. The partly considerable differences between the ERA-Interim and ECHAM5 driven simulations demonstrated the sensitivity of the RCM to the boundary conditions and in particular to the sea surface temperature. An excessive northwards shift of the monsoon in the model was influenced by the land-sea temperature gradient and the strength of the Saharan heat low. Consequently, a part of the error was due to the driving data and the model itself produced another part.
By modifying the parameterization of the bare soil albedo the errors in the radiation budget and 2 m temperature in the Sahara region were significantly reduced. Similarly, the overesti-mation of precipitation and convection has been reduced in the Sahel. The effect of this modifi-cation on the examined WAM area was low. This confirmed that especially in desert regions, errors in the surface albedo were a driving factor for errors in the radiation budget. However, there are other important factors not yet sufficiently understood that have a strong influence on the quality of the simulation of the WAM.
The analysis of the actual state, the quantification of error sources and the highlighting of connections made it possible to find means to reduce uncertainties in the simulated radiation in RCMs and to have a better understanding of radiation processes. However, the magnitude of the errors found, the number of possible influencing factors, and the complexity of interactions, indicate that there is still a need for further research in this area.
Owing to long-term similarities with regard to orbital climate forcing (i.e., low eccentricity and a dampened influence of precession), Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11 represents one of the closest astronomical analogues for present and future climate. Hence, insights into the climate variability of MIS 11 can contribute to a better understanding of the climatic evolution of the present (Holocene) interglacial as it would occur without human interference. In order to elucidate the natural climate variability during MIS 11, this study examines predominantly annually laminated lake sediments of Holsteinian age from Dethlingen, northern Germany. The Holsteinian interglacial is widely accepted to be the terrestrial equivalent of MIS 11c in central Europe and can be biostratigraphically correlated with the Hoxnian, Mazovian and Praclaux interglacials on the British Isles, in Poland and in France, respectively. These correlations yield the potential to cross-check the results from individual sites on a regional scale. This study is based on a multi-proxy approach including palynological, micropaleontological, sedimentological, geochemical and time series analyses within a wellconstrained chronological framework that has been established through varve counting and regional bio-stratigraphic correlations with other annually laminated archives of Holsteinian age. In particular, the here-presented study aims at (i) fingerprinting the long-term (centennial- to millennial-scale) and short-term (sub-decadal- to decadal-scale) climate variability during the Holsteinian interglacial, (ii) deciphering the nature, tempo and trigger mechanisms of abrupt climate change under interglacial boundary conditions, and (iii) assessing its impact on terrestrial ecosystems. With regard to long-term climate variability, the vegetation succession at Dethlingen as inferred from pollen data provides insights into the mesocratic to telocratic forest phases of a glacial-interglacial cycle spanning ~11500 (± 1000) years of the 15-16-ka-long Holsteinian interglacial. The development of temperate mixed forests suggests a general prevalence of mild climatic conditions during the Holsteinian. The older parts of the interglacial are characterised by the strong presence of boreal tree taxa (e.g., Picea), whereas the younger parts of the interglacial are marked by the expansion of sub-Atlantic to Atlantic forest elements (e.g., Abies, Buxus, Ilex, Quercus) and the decline of boreal tree taxa. This vegetation succession suggests a general warming trend and decreasing seasonality over the course of the Holsteinian interglacial. Based on the maximum pollen abundances of indicator tree taxa (e.g., Buxus and Quercus), peak warmth was reached during the later stages of the interglacial; it was accompanied by high humidity. The forest succession of the Holsteinian interglacial was punctuated by abrupt and gradual changes in the abundances of temperate plant taxa. These vegetation changes indicate considerable intra-interglacial climate variability. In particular, two marked declines of temperate taxa leading to the transient development of boreal and sub-boreal forests were triggered by centennial-scale climate oscillations, here termed Older and Younger Holsteinian Oscillations (OHO and YHO). These oscillations occurred ~6000 and ~9000 years after the onset of the interglacial pioneer forestation in central Europe, respectively. To assess the impact of abrupt climate change on terrestrial ecosystems during the Holsteinian and to investigate the underlying driving mechanisms, the intervals spanning the OHO and the YHO at Dethlingen were subjected to decadal-scale palynological and sedimentological analyses. Based on these data, the OHO comprises a 90-year-long decline of temperate taxa associated with expansion of Pinus and non-arboreal pollen, and a subsequent 130-year-long recovery of temperate taxa marked by the pioneer expansion of Betula and Alnus. Owing to its highly characteristic imprint on vegetation dynamics, the OHO can be identified in pollen records from the central European lowlands north of 50º latitude, from the British Isles to Poland. A close inspection of individual pollen records from that region reveals the prevalence of colder winters during the OHO, with a gradient of decreasing temperature and moisture availability, and increased continentality towards eastern Europe. This climate pattern points to a weakened influence of the westerlies and/or stronger influence of the Siberian High connected to the OHO. The vegetation dynamics during the YHO are characterised by a decline of temperate taxa (particularly of Carpinus) and the expansion of pioneer trees (mainly Betula). In contrast to the OHO, frost-sensitive taxa (e.g., Ilex, Buxus and Hedera) continued to thrive. This suggests that mean winter temperatures remained relatively high (>0 ºC) during the YHO pointing to a decrease of summer warmth related to the climatic deterioration. The YHO, which has a duration on the order of 300 years, is centered within a long-term (~1500-year) decline and subsequent, millennial-scale recovery of temperate taxa. Because the impact of the OHO and the YHO on the vegetation at Dethlingen was markedly different, both short-term climate oscillations may have been caused by different trigger mechanisms. For the OHO, the inferred regional-scale winter cooling over central Europe lasting for several decades points to a decrease in ocean heat transport, most likely related to a transient slowdown in North Atlantic Deep Water formation. This view is supported by the strong resemblance of the OHO to the 8.2 ka event of the Holocene with regard to the duration, imprint on terrestrial ecosystems, spatial pattern of the climatic impact, timing within the respective interglacial, and prevailing interglacial boundary conditions. In contrast, the presence of frost-sensitive taxa during the YHO appears to exclude a reduction in oceanic heat transport as postulated for the OHO. Instead, the long-lasting, gradual changes in the abundances of temperate taxa suggest a connection to orbital forcing, with the triggering mechanism causing the centennial-scale vegetation setback itself remaining unclear. The characteristics of short-term climate variability were investigated based on microfacies and time series analyses of a ~3200-year-long, annually laminated window of the Dethlingen record. The annual laminations at Dethlingen comprise biogenic varves consisting of two discrete sub-layers. The light layers, which are controlled by the intensity of diatoms blooms during spring/summer, reflect changes in the productivity of the Dethlingen palaeolake. In contrast, the dark layers, which consist predominantly of amorphous organic matter and fragmented diatom frustules, represent sediment deposition during autumn/winter. Spectral analyses of the thicknesses of the light and dark layers have revealed several peaks exceeding the 95% and 99% confidence levels that are near-identical to those known from modern instrumental data and Holocene records. Decadal-scale signals at periods of 90, 25, and 10.5 years are likely associated with the 88-, 22- and 11-year solar cycles; hence, solar activity appears to have been a forcing agent in productivity changes of the Dethlingen palaeolake. Sub-decadal-scale signals at periods between 3 and 5 years and ~6 years may reflect an influence of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) on varve formation during winter.
Forty two samples of the Late Eocene Kiliran oil shale, Central Sumatra Basin, Indonesia were collected from a 102 m long drill core. Palynofacies and geochemical analyses have been carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental conditions and paleoecology during deposition of the oil shale. Amorphous organic matter (AOM) is very abundant (>76%). B. braunii palynomorph is present (3-16%) as the only autochtonous structured organic matter and generally more abundant in middle part of the profile. The stable carbon isotopic composition of organic matter (δ13C) varies from -27.0 to -30.5‰ and is generally more depleted in middle part of the profile. The ratio of total organic carbon to sulfur (TOC/S), used as salinity indicator, ranges from 2.5 to 15.8 and shows variations along the profile. Relatively less saline environments are observed in the middle part profile. Fungal remains are generally present only in middle part of the profile with distinct peak of abundances. The presence of fungal remains is regarded as an indication for a relatively warmer climate during deposition of middle part of the profile. The warmer climate is thought to influence the establishment of a thermocline, limiting the supply of recycled nutrients to the epilimnion. Consequently, the primary productivity in the Kiliran lake decreased during deposition of the middle part of the profile as indicated by the relatively depleted δ13C and the blooming of B. braunii. The chemocline was also shoaling during deposition of the middle part of the profile according to the higher abundance of isorenieratene derivatives of green sulfur bacteria origin. The warmer climate affected also to increase of water supply and thus less saline environments.
Tectonic subsidence is also thought to be a significant factor for the development of the Kiliran lake. The Zr/Rb ratio, an indicator for grain size, ranges from 0.4 to 1.3 and generally increases upwards along the profile. Three sudden decreases of the ratio are observed, indicating rapid change to finer grain size. These decreases are interpreted to indicate rapid deepening events of the lake due to mainly periodic subsidence. During deposition of lower part of the profile, the subsidence rates might have been relatively higher than sediment and water supply rates, resulting in a higher autochtonous fraction in the oil shale. During deposition of middle part of the profile, the sediment and water supply rates were relatively higher promoting distinct progradational sedimentation. Subsequently, the lake became more shallow and smaller during deposition of the upper part of the profile, leading to a relatively higher terrigenous input to the oil shale.
Norneohop-13(18)-ene and neohop-13(18)-ene derived from methanotrophic bacteria are the dominant hopanoid hydrocarbons. The sum of their concentrations varies from 40.6 to 360.0 μg/g TOC. The δ13C of these compounds are extremely depleted (-45.2 to -50.2‰). The occurrence of abundant bacteria including methanotrophic bacteria was responsible for the recycling of carbon below the chemocline of the lake. The effect of the recycling of carbon is observed by the presence of a concomitant depletion (about 7-9‰) in 13C of some specific biomarkers derived from organisms dwelling in the whole phototrophic zone.
4-Methylsterane and 4-methyldiasterene homologues occur in the oil shale as the predominant biomarkers. The sum of the concentrations of all homologues are about 40.3-1,009.2 μg/g TOC with generally higher values in uppermost and lower parts of the profile. Ca accounts as the predominant element in the oil shale, ranging from 5.0 to 16.7%. This element shows generally parallel variation with the 4-methylsterane homologues along the profile. This suggests that the 4-methylsteranes were derived from biological sources favoring more alkaline and more trophic environments. On the other hand, these compounds were less abundant in middle part of the profile which is consistent with less alkaline and less trophic environments promoting B. braunii to bloom.
The 4-methylsterane homologues are considered to originate from Dinoflagellates. Alternation between Dinoflagellates and B. braunii in Paleogene lake systems due to water chemistry changes are known from previous studies. Moreover, freshwater Dinoflagellates have been frequently reported to occur in the basin depocenters. In the present case, distinct alternation between B. braunii abundances and concentrations of 4-methylsterane homologues along the studied oil shale profile suggest that the 4-methylsterane homologues were derived from freshwater Dinoflagellates although dinosterane is not present in the sediment extracts. Water alkalinity and trophic level changes were most likely responsible for the alternation of Dinoflagellates and B. braunii blooming.
Forty two samples of the Late Eocene Kiliran oil shale, Central Sumatra Basin, Indonesia were collected from a 102 m long drill core. The oil shale core represents the deposition time of about 240.000 years. Palynofacies and geochemical analyses have been carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironmental conditions and paleoecology during deposition of the oil shale. Amorphous organic matter (AOM) is very abundant (>76%). B. braunii palynomorphs are present (3-16%) as the only autochtonous structured organic matter and generally more abundant in the middle part of the profile. The stable carbon isotopic composition of bulk organic matter (13C) varies from -27.0 to -30.5‰ and is generally more depleted in the middle part of the profile. The ratio of total organic carbon to sulfur (TOC/S), used as salinity indicator, ranges from 2.5 to 15.8 and shows variations along the profile. Slightly less saline environments are observed in the middle part of the profile. Fungal remains are generally present only in this part with a distinct peak of abundance. The presence of fungal remains is regarded as an indication for a relatively warmer climate during deposition of the middle part of the profile. The warmer climate is thought to influence the establishment of a thermocline, limiting the supply of recycled nutrients to epilimnion. Consequently, the primary productivity in the Kiliran lake decreased during deposition of the middle part of the profile as indicated by the relatively depleted 13C values and the blooming of B. braunii. The chemocline was also shoaling during the deposition according to the higher abundance of total isorenieratane and its derivatives originated from green sulfur bacteria dwelling in the photic zone euxinia. The warmer climate is also thought to influence the slightly decrease of water salinity during deposition of the middle part of the profile. The occurrence of B. braunii in Kiliran lake is also recognized from organic geochemical data. The distribution of n-alkanes is characterized by the unusual high amount of C27 n-alkane relative to the other long-chain n-alkanes. The concentrations of C27 n-alkane vary from 30.1 to 393.7 μg/g TOC and are generally in parallel with the abundances of B. braunii palynomorphs along the profile. The 13C values of this compound are about -31‰ and up to 2‰ enriched relative to those of the adjacent long-chain n-alkanes. B. braunii race A can thus be regarded as the significant biological source of the C27 n-alkane. Lower amounts of lycopane are observed in many oil shale samples (0 to 54.7 μg/g TOC). The 13C value of this compound is 17.2‰. This strong enrichment of 13C suggests that the lycopane was derived from B. braunii race L. The concentrations of lycopane develop generally in opposite with those of C27 μalkane. It is likely that both B. braunii races bloomed in alternation in the lake, probably due to changes on specific water chemistry. Norneohop-13(18)-ene and neohop-13(18)-ene derived from methanotrophic bacteria are the dominant hopanoid hydrocarbons. The sum of their concentrations varies from 40.6 to 360.0 μg/g TOC. The 13C of these compounds are extremely depleted (-45.2 to -50.2‰). The occurrence of abundant bacteria including methanotrophic bacteria was responsible for the recycling of carbon below the chemocline of the lake. The effect of the recycling of carbon is observed by the presence of a concomitant depletion (about 7-9‰) in 13C of some specific biomarkers derived from organisms dwelling in the whole phototrophic zone. 4-Methylsterane and 4-methyldiasterene homologues occur in the oil shale as the predominant biomarkers. The sum of the concentrations of all homologues are about 40.3-1,009.2 μg/g TOC with generally higher values in the uppermost and lower parts of the profile. Calcium (Ca) accounts as the predominant element in the oil shale, ranging from 5.0 to 16.7%. This element shows generally parallel variation with the 4-methylsterane and 4-methyldiasterene homologues along the profile. This suggests that these compounds were derived from biological sources favoring more alkaline and more trophic environments. On the other hand, these compounds were less abundant in the middle part of the profile which is consistent with less alkaline and less trophic environments promoting B. braunii to bloom. Alternation between Dinoflagellates and B. braunii in ancient lacustrine environments due to water chemistry changes have been known from previous studies. In the present case, distinct alternation between B. braunii abundances and concentrations of 4-methylsterane and 4-methyldiasterene homologues along the studied oil shale profile suggest a hypothesis that these compounds were derived from freshwater Dinoflagellates although dinosterane is not present in the sediment extracts. Water alkalinity and trophic level changes were most likely responsible for the alternation of Dinoflagellates and B. braunii blooming.
Occurrence and sources of 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-diol (TMDD) in the aquatic environment
(2011)
The aim of the present study was to identify the sources of 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyne-4,7-diol (TMDD) into the aquatic environment and to investigate its occurrence in rivers and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Therefore, TMDD was analyzed in 441 wastewater samples from influents and effluents of 27 municipal WWTPs, in 6 sludge samples, in 52 wastewater samples from 3 sewage systems of municipal WWTPs, in 489 surface samples from 24 rivers, in 9 wastewater samples of 3 paper-recycling industries and in 65 groundwater samples. TMDD was also analyzed in household paper products, in 23 samples of toilet
papers, in 5 types of paper towels and in 12 types of paper tissues. The samples were collected between 2007 and 2011. The water samples were extracted with solid phase extraction (SPE) and the household paper samples with Soxhlet extraction. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used for quantification purposes. Between November 2007 and January 2008, TMDD was detected in the river Rhine at Worms with permanent high concentrations (up to 1330 ng/L). The results showed that TMDD is uniformly distributed across the river at Worms. An increase of the mean TMDD concentration from approximately 500 ng/L to 1000 ng/L was registered in January 2008. Due to the minor fluctuations of the TMDD concentration during the sampling period it is expected that the input of TMDD into the river is continuous. Therefore, TMDD might rather originate from effluents of municipal WWTPs than from temporal sources. The mean TMDD load based on the analysis of 147 water samples collected in the River Rhine was 62.8 kg/d which is equivalent to 23 t/a suggesting that TMDD must be used and/or produced in high quantities in order to be found in those high concentrations. To determine if TMDD is discharged by effluents of municipal WWTPs into the rivers, 24 hours influent and effluent samples of four municipal WWTPs in the Frankfurt/Rhine-Main metropolitan region were collected during November 2008 and February 2010 and analyzed for TMDD. The TMDD influent concentrations varied between 134 ng/L and 5846 ng/L and the effluent concentrations between <LOQ (limit of quantitation) and 3539 ng/L. The TMDD elimination rates in the four WWTPs varied between 33% and 68%. The results showed that effluents of municipal WWTPs are an important source of TMDD in the aquatic environment because TMDD is not completely removed from the sewage during the wastewater treatment. Weekly and daily variations of the TMDD concentration in the influents of two municipal WWTPs indicated that both private households and indirect industrial dischargers contribute to the introduction of TMDD into the municipal sewage systems. A more detailed study of the TMDD elimination rate in the different wastewater treatment stages was carried out in the WWTP Niederrad/Griesheim in Frankfurt am Main. The results showed that the removal of TMDD is mainly carried out during the aerobic biological treatments, where the elimination rate was 46%. In contrast, during the anoxic treatment the removal efficiency was only 1.4% and during the mechanical treatment the elimination rate was 19%. To determine the sources of TMDD in the sewage, household paper products (paper tissues, toilet papers and paper towels) were analyzed for TMDD using Soxhlet extraction. TMDD was detected in 83% of the samples (n=40). The highest mean TMDD concentrations were found in recycled toilet paper (0.20 μg/g) and in paper towels (0.11 μg/g). In paper tissues and non-recycled toilet paper the mean TMDD concentrations were lower 0.080 μg/g and 0.025 μg/g respectively. According to these results the high TMDD influent concentrations found previously in municipal WWTPs (mean 1.20 μg/L) cannot be explained due to migration of TMDD from the household paper products into the sewage. Thus indirect industrial dischargers are the cause of the high influent TMDD concentrations. Effluents of municipal WWTPs with different indirect industrial dischargers (textile-, metal processing-, food processing-, electroplating-, paper-recycling- and printing ink factories) were analyzed. The highest mean TMDD concentrations were found in the effluents of municipal WWTPs that have paper-recycling (71.3 μg/L) and printing ink factories (138 μg/L) as indirect industrial dischargers. These results were confirmed by analyzing process wastewater of three paper-recycling factories located in Germany. High TMDD concentrations were detected and fluctuated between 1.83 μg/L and 113 μg/L. TMDD was also analyzed in the wastewater of a non-recycling-paper factory but its concentration was much lower (0.066 μg/L) indicating that TMDD is introduced into the processing water during the papermaking process due to the use of waste paper. Analyses of wastewater samples from different parts of the sewage pipes of a municipal WWTP in Hesse, which receives the wastewater from a printing ink factory, were carried out. The TMDD concentration in the wastewater sample from the sewage pipe of the printing ink factory was much higher (3,300 μg/L) than the TMDD concentration detected in the other wastewater samples from the sewage system (0.030 μg/L – 0.89 g/L). These results confirm the printing ink production as one of the principal sources of TMDD in the sewage. Analysis of surface water samples of the River Modau downstream from the effluent of the WWTP Nieder-Ramstadt showed TMDD concentrations of up to 28.0 μg/L. These high TMDD concentrations might be caused by the indirect wastewater discharges of a paint factory connected to the municipal sewage system. These results indicate that TMDD is introduced into the municipal WWTPs principally by indirect industrial dischargers and they are mainly paint and printing ink factories. The paper-recycling factories also represent an important source of TMDD in municipal WWTPs but indirectly. According to statements given by the representatives of two paper recycling factories neither TMDD or any other TMDD containing product is used or added during the papermaking process. Therefore, TMDD is washed out from the printing inks of the coloured waste paper and concentrated in the process wastewater in the closed water circuits of paper-recycling factories reaching rivers and municipal WWTPs. The occurrence and distribution of TMDD in surface waters in Germany was also studied. The results showed that TMDD is widely distributed across different rivers systems in the federal states of Hesse, North-Rhine-Westphalia, Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg and Rhineland-Palatinate. In Hesse, TMDD was detected in the some of main rivers with mean concentrations of 812 ng/L (Schwarzbach, Hessian Ried), 374 ng/L (Kinzig), 393 ng/L (Main, at Frankfurt), 539 ng/L (Werra), 326 ng/L (Fulda), 151 ng/L (Emsbach) and 161 ng/L (Nidda). In small rivers (creeks) the mean TMDD concentrations varied between <LOQ (Diemel, Urselbach) and 1890 ng/L (Darmbach). The results showed that the TMDD concentrations in creeks are highly influenced by both effluents of WWTPs and by the distance between the sampling point and the nearest WWTP. Surface samples from sampling locations downstream from WWTPs dischargers showed higher TMDD concentrations (mean 518 ng/L) than sampling locations upstream from WWTPs dischargers (mean 35.1 ng/L). The behavior of TMDD during bank filtration was investigated at two locations, at a water utility company at the Lower River Rhine (urban area) and at the Oderbruch polder (rural area). The results indicated that TMDD is removed from the surface water by bank filtration at both sampling locations. The removal process is probably carried out in the first meters of the aquifer (hyporheic zone) by biodegradation processes, since TMDD does not tend to be absorbed by sediments and it was not found in the groundwater of monitoring wells. In groundwater samples from the Hessian Ried (n=23) TMDD was found only in five samples and the highest TMDD concentration was 135 ng/L. According to these results, TMDD does not represent a concern for drinking water in Germany, since it does not reach the groundwater with high concentrations and it has a low toxicity potential. The input of TMDD into the North Sea was estimated to be 60.7 t/a by considering the mean transported loads of TMDD by the River Rhine at Wesel (58.3 t/a) and Meuse in the Netherlands (2.40 t/a). The estimated discharge of TMDD by German municipal WWTPs (8.19 t/a) and paper-recycling factories (9.24 t/a) into rivers seems to be too low considering that the mean TMDD load in the River Rhine downstream from Wesel is 58.3 t/a. However, due to the high density of population and industries at the Lower Rhine it is expected that more relevant sources of TMDD are located along the Rhine River increasing the transported load. According to the results of this PhD project TMDD is a non-ionic surfactant contained in products, which are applied on surfaces (printing inks and paints) and has the potential to reach the aquatic environment. Therefore, TMDD should fulfill the requirement of a biodegradability of 80% established by the “Law on the Environmental Impact of Detergents and Cleaning Products” in Germany. However, due to the partial elimination rates of TMDD obtained in municipal WWTPs (between 33% and 68%) and to the absence of information about the execution of the biodegradation test on TMDD, it is unknown if TMDD is in accordance with this law. Otherwise, its use as surfactant in such products is questionable.
The mantle xenoliths collected by kimberlites indicate that the subcratonic mantle underneath the Archean crust is mostly a residue of high degrees of partial melting which was subsequently reenriched. The majority of the xenoliths show cryptic metasomatism and only few modal metasomatism.
Much effort has been put into deciphering different kinds of enrichment processes within the mantle. Here, we take the approach to look into the inventory of subcalcic garnets which stem from cpx-free harzburgites and dunites. These subcalcic garnets, commonly with sinusoidal REE patterns, carry the major budget of the trace elements of their host rock. Thus, they are promising objects to study both depletion and enrichment. Most importantly, the analysis of a single grain subcalcic garnetwill provide almost all important information of the bulk rock. Our aim is to gain detailed information mainly on metasomatism on a craton wide scale by combining major, trace elements and Lu-Hf and Sm-Nd isotopic signatures from subcalcic garnets. Eventually, we will summarize the metasomatic agent(s) and processes and possibly the timing of the enrichment within the lithospheric mantle underneath the Kaapvaal craton.