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Cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and the capacity to disseminate to distant organs. The properties of cancers are caused by genetic and epigenetic alterations when compared to their normal counterparts. Genetic mutations occur in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes and are the initial drivers of cellular transformation (Lengauer et al., 1998; Vogelstein and Kinzler, 2004). In addition, epigenetic alterations, which influence the expression of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes independently from sequence alterations, are also involved in the transformation process (Esteller and Herman, 2001; Sharma et al., 2010). Genetic alterations and epigenetic regulatory signals cooperate in tumor etiology. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a frequent and aggressive malignant brain tumor in humans. The median survival of GBM patients is about 15 months after diagnosis. Like in other cancers, genetic and epigenetic alterations can be detected in GBM. Genetic alterations in GBM affect cell growth, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and invasion; however, epigenetic alterations in GBM also affect the expression of oncogenes or tumor suppresser genes that increase tumor malignancy (Nagarajan and Costello, 2009).
Reprogramming is a cellular process in which somatic cells can be induced to assume the properties of less differentiated stem cells. This process can be mediated through epigenetic modifications of the genome of somatic cells by the action of four defined transcription factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and Myc) or by the action of the miR 302/367 cluster (Anokye-Danso et al., 2011; Takahashi and Yamanaka, 2006; Takahashi et al., 2007) and result in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells). Reprogramming of somatic cells by the miR 302/367 cluster can generate nontumorigenic iPS cells through the inhibition of the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), cell cycle regulatory genes and epigenetic modifiers (Lin and Ying, 2013).
The investigated haloarchaeal species, Halobacterium salinarum, Haloferax mediterranei, and H. volcanii, have all been shown to be polyploid. They contain several replicons that have independent copy number regulation, and most have a higher copy number during exponential growth phase than in stationary phase. The possible evolutionary advantages of polyploidy for haloarchaea, most of which have experimental support for at least one species, are discussed. These advantages include a low mutation rate and high resistance toward X-ray irradiation and desiccation, which depend on homologous recombination. For H. volcanii, it has been shown that gene conversion operates in the absence of selection, which leads to the equalization of genome copies. On the other hand, selective forces might lead to heterozygous cells, which have been verified in the laboratory. Additional advantages of polyploidy are survival over geological times in halite deposits as well as at extreme conditions on earth and at simulated Mars conditions. Recently, it was found that H. volcanii uses genomic DNA as genetic material and as a storage polymer for phosphate. In the absence of phosphate, H. volcanii dramatically decreases its genome copy number, thereby enabling cell multiplication, but diminishing the genetic advantages of polyploidy. Stable storage of phosphate is proposed as an alternative driving force for the emergence of DNA in early evolution. Several additional potential advantages of polyploidy are discussed that have not been addressed experimentally for haloarchaea. An outlook summarizes selected current trends and possible future developments.
In this study I analysed past and recent Daphnia populations from Lake Constance and Greifensee. Herefore, I first established a set of microsatellite markers applicable to European Hyalodaphnia species (chapter 1). Primers were also identified for species specific fragment lengths. 32 markers were then available to characterize the resting egg banks of Daphnia galeata and D. hyalina. Chapter 2 presents the reconstruction of the taxonomic composition in these two ecologically different lakes. This part of my work shows that the eutrophication that occurred in both lakes in the mid of the last century has strongly influenced the Daphnia populations. In both lakes Daphnia galeata established and hybridized with the indigenous D. hyalina. Interspecific hybridization resulted in introgression on the mitochondrial and nuclear level. In chapter 3 resting eggs from the sediments of the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s were characterized with microsatellite markers. The aim was to specify the extent of interspecific hybridization and nuclear introgression assuming that the genetic exchange between both species has an impact on their adaptation to their habitat. In life history experiments D. galeata and D. galeata x hyalina clones hatched from different time periods showed significant differential responses to food quality. Therefore, the question had to be answered how the Daphnia resting egg bank and the planktonic population are connected. In chapter 4 hatching experiments were conducted to bridge this gap of scientific knowledge in the life cycle of cyclic parthenogenetic waterfleas. Only D. galeata individuals were able to establish a clonal lineage after maturity. All observed recombinant individuals did not reproduce at all or firstly went through another sexual phase of reproduction i.e. produced resting eggs. In order to compare the findings of chapter 4 with the taxon composition of the recent planktonic population of Daphnia in Lake Constance, samples were taken over one season (between May 2005 and September 2006). During the season, the taxonomic composition of Daphnia changes severely with D. galeata being most abundant during the warm season and D. hyalina in the cold season. Moreover, some individuals were detected, that did not follow this pattern. With mitochondrial analysis those individuals were identified as mitochondrial introgressants and processed to life history experiments. Significant differences in the somatic growth rate under different temperatures (5°C, 12.5°C and 20°C) were related to the origin of the mitochondrial genome rather than the nuclear taxonomic assignment of the individual.
The findings of this study show that all organisms exposed to rapid ecological changes and their microevolutionary reaction to those.
Many studies about endocrine pollution in the aquatic environment reveal changes in the reproduction system of biota. We analysed endocrine activities in two rivers in Southern Germany using three approaches: (1) chemical analyses, (2) in vitro bioassays, and (3) in vivo investigations in fish and snails. Chemical analyses were based on gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. For in vitro analyses of endocrine potentials in water, sediment, and waste water samples, we used the E-screen assay (human breast cancer cells MCF-7) and reporter gene assays (human cell line HeLa-9903 and MDA-kb2). In addition, we performed reproduction tests with the freshwater mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum to analyse water and sediment samples. We exposed juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta f. fario) to water downstream of a wastewater outfall (Schussen River) or to water from a reference site (Argen River) to investigate the vitellogenin production. Furthermore, two feral fish species, chub (Leuciscus cephalus) and spirlin (Alburnoides bipunctatus), were caught in both rivers to determine their gonadal maturity and the gonadosomatic index. Chemical analyses provided only little information about endocrine active substances, whereas the in vitro assays revealed endocrine potentials in most of the samples. In addition to endocrine potentials, we also observed toxic potentials (E-screen/reproduction test) in waste water samples, which could interfere with and camouflage endocrine effects. The results of our in vivo tests were mostly in line with the results of the in vitro assays and revealed a consistent reproduction-disrupting (reproduction tests) and an occasional endocrine action (vitellogenin levels) in both investigated rivers, with more pronounced effects for the Schussen river (e.g. a lower gonadosomatic index). We were able to show that biological in vitro assays for endocrine potentials in natural stream water reasonably reflect reproduction and endocrine disruption observed in snails and field-exposed fish, respectively.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a common, age associated neurodegenerative disease that manifests as progressive dementia and is characterized by accumulation of the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide which is a processing product of a transmembrane protein termed Alzheimer Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP). The Aβ peptide is generated by a sequential proteolytic processing of APP by two distinct proteases that are termed β- and γ-secretase. The β-secretase, also called BACE-1 or memapsin 2, belongs to the family of aspartyl proteases. BACE-1 evidently cleaves APP in an acidic endosomal compartment after endocytosis of APP, thereby facilitating Aβ peptide generation.
Sorting of transmembrane proteins is generally controlled by sorting signals in the cytoplasmic domains of the cargo proteins. The short cytoplasmic tail of BACE-1 with 23 amino acids contains a sorting signal of the acidic cluster, di-leucine (ACDL) type. The two Leu residues in this determinant are important for the clathrin mediated endocytosis of BACE-1, whereas the acidic residues together with the Leu are required for the endosomal sorting and recycling of BACE-1 back to the plasma membrane. The ACDL motif binds to the members of the GGA (Golgi-localized γ ear-containg ARF- binding proteins) family (GGA1-GGA3) that are involved in the sorting of BACE-1.
One of the major aims of this study was to address the role of flotillins in the intracellular sorting of BACE-1. This study shows that flotillin-1 directly binds to the di-leucine motif in the cytoplasmic tail of BACE-1, whereas flotillin-2 only shows an association mediated by flotillin-1. Flotillin-1 competes with GGA2 for the binding to BACE-1 tail, and thus influences the endosomal sorting of BACE-1. Importantly, depletion of flotillins results in an altered localization of the wildtype BACE-1, whereas the plasma membrane resident Leu to Ala (LLAA) mutant is not affected. Flotillin knockdown results in an accumulation of BACE-1, implicating reduced degradation and enhanced stability of this protease. Thus, flotillins appear to be important for the cellular targeting of BACE-1 and also influence the amyloidogenic processing of APP, as demonstrated by an increase in the amyloidogenic C-99 processing fragments.
When flotillin depleted cells were subjected to apoptotic stresses including Aβ25-35 synthetic peptide (inducer of the extrinsic apoptosis pathway) or several chemotherapeutic agents (staurosporine, brefeldin A, doxorubicin, carboplatin and paclitaxel: intrinsic apoptosis pathway) and cytotoxicity was determined, various apoptotic markers were activated in flotillin depleted cells. Caspase-3 and GGA3 are well accepted apoptosis markers and an enhanced caspase-3 cleavage was detected upon STS induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y, HeLa, and HaCaT cell lines and increased GGA3 cleavage was observed in MCF7 cell line.
One of the major reasons for the apoptotic sensitivity in the absence of flotillins was a PI3K/Akt signaling defect. Neuroblastoma cells depleted of flotillins showed diminished levels of total Akt, phospho-Akt and phospho-ERK upon STS induced apoptosis. Since PI3K/Akt was the primary survival pathway affected upon STS induced apoptosis, ectopic expression of Akt in neuroblastoma cell line reduced caspase-3 cleavage and retarded apoptosis.
The direct downstream target of Akt is FOXO3a, whose localization was investigated in flotillin depleted cells. A major proportion of FOXO3a was localized in the nucleus of flotillin knockdown cells, implicating that FOXOs are active in these cells and subsequently trigger the transcription of death genes. Strikingly, an essential anti-apoptotic molecule and a major cancer target, Mcl-1, was inherently downregulated in flotillin knockdown cells. Mcl-1 is a chief member of the Bcl-2 family as it plays a pivotal role in cell survival and it is a critical protein in cancer therapeutics as suppression of Mcl-1 protein can curtail the survival and growth of tumorous cells.
Neuroblastoma cells were rescued from undergoing permanent damage due to STS induced apoptosis by overexpression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. Phorbol esters are well known PKC activators, and pre-treatment of neuroblastoma cells with phorbol esters along with staurosporine reduced caspase-3 cleavage.
These results demonstrate that absence of flotillins can sensitize cellular systems to apoptosis induction. The two main characteristics of cancer cells include resistance to apoptosis and unresponsiveness to chemotherapeutic agents. It is a well established fact that impaired apoptosis is central to tumour development. This study implicates that the downregulation of flotillin function can trigger cellular susceptibility and enhances apoptosis in response to conventional chemotherapeutic agents. Therefore, flotillins can serve as vital regulators in providing a more rational approach in molecular-targeted therapies for receding cancer growth and survival.
Species' geographical distributions are tracking latitudinal and elevational surface temperature gradients under global climate change. To evaluate the opportunities to track these gradients across space, we provide a first baseline assessment of the steepness of these gradients for the world's terrestrial birds. Within the breeding ranges of 9,014 bird species, we characterized the spatial gradients in temperature along latitude and elevation for all and a subset of bird species, respectively. We summarized these temperature gradients globally for threatened and non-threatened species and determined how their steepness varied based on species' geography (range size, shape, and orientation) and projected changes in temperature under climate change. Elevational temperature gradients were steepest for species in Africa, western North and South America, and central Asia and shallowest in Australasia, insular IndoMalaya, and the Neotropical lowlands. Latitudinal temperature gradients were steepest for extratropical species, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. Threatened species had shallower elevational gradients whereas latitudinal gradients differed little between threatened and non-threatened species. The strength of elevational gradients was positively correlated with projected changes in temperature. For latitudinal gradients, this relationship only held for extratropical species. The strength of latitudinal gradients was better predicted by species' geography, but primarily for extratropical species. Our findings suggest threatened species are associated with shallower elevational temperature gradients, whereas steep latitudinal gradients are most prevalent outside the tropics where fewer bird species occur year-round. Future modeling and mitigation efforts would benefit from the development of finer grain distributional data to ascertain how these gradients are structured within species' ranges, how and why these gradients vary among species, and the capacity of species to utilize these gradients under climate change.
Vesicle transport is a central process to ensure protein and lipid distribution in eukaryotic cells. The current knowledge on the molecular components and mechanisms of this process is majorly based on studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Arabidopsis thaliana, which revealed 240 different proteinaceous factors either experimentally proven or predicted to be involved in vesicle transport. In here, we performed an orthologue search using two different algorithms to identify the components of the secretory pathway in yeast and 14 plant genomes by using the ‘core-set’ of 240 factors as bait. We identified 4021 orthologues and (co-)orthologues in the discussed plant species accounting for components of COP-II, COP-I, Clathrin Coated Vesicles, Retromers and ESCRTs, Rab GTPases, Tethering factors and SNAREs. In plants, we observed a significantly higher number of (co-)orthologues than yeast, while only 8 tethering factors from yeast seem to be absent in the analyzed plant genomes. To link the identified (co-)orthologues to vesicle transport, the domain architecture of the proteins from yeast, genetic model plant A. thaliana and agriculturally relevant crop Solanum lycopersicum has been inspected. For the orthologous groups containing (co-)orthologues from yeast, A. thaliana and S. lycopersicum, we observed the same domain architecture for 79% (416/527) of the (co-)orthologues, which documents a very high conservation of this process. Further, publically available tissue-specific expression profiles for a subset of (co-)orthologues found in A. thaliana and S. lycopersicum suggest that some (co-)orthologues are involved in tissue-specific functions. Inspection of localization of the (co-)orthologues based on available proteome data or localization predictions lead to the assignment of plastid- as well as mitochondrial localized (co-)orthologues of vesicle transport factors and the relevance of this is discussed.
The comeback of the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) throughout western and central Europe is considered a major conservation success. Traditionally, several subspecies are recognised by morphology and mitochondrial haplotype, each linked to a relict population. During various reintroduction programs in the 20th century, beavers from multiple source localities were released and now form viable populations. These programs differed in their reintroduction strategies, i.e., using pure subspecies vs. mixed source populations. This inhomogeneity in management actions generated ongoing debates regarding the origin of present beaver populations and appropriate management plans for the future. By sequencing of the mitochondrial control region and microsatellite genotyping of 235 beaver individuals from five selected regions in Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, and Belgium we show that beavers from at least four source origins currently form admixed, genetically diverse populations that spread across the study region. While regional occurrences of invasive North American beavers (n = 20) were found, all but one C. fiber bore the mitochondrial haplotype of the autochthonous western Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU). Considering this, as well as the viability of admixed populations and the fact that the fusion of different lineages is already progressing in all studied regions, we argue that admixture between different beaver source populations should be generally accepted.
RNA contains various chemical modifications that expand its otherwise limited repertoire to mediate complex processes like translation and gene regulation. 25S rRNA of the large subunit of ribosome contains eight base methylations. Except for the methylation of uridine residues, methyltransferases for all other known base methylations have been recently identified. Here we report the identification of BMT5 (YIL096C) and BMT6 (YLR063W), two previously uncharacterized genes, to be responsible for m3U2634 and m3U2843 methylation of the 25S rRNA, respectively. These genes were identified by RP-HPLC screening of all deletion mutants of putative RNA methyltransferases and were confirmed by gene complementation and phenotypic characterization. Both proteins belong to Rossmann-fold-like methyltransferases and the point mutations in the S-adenosyl-L-methionine binding pocket abolish the methylation reaction. Bmt5 localizes in the nucleolus, whereas Bmt6 is localized predominantly in the cytoplasm. Furthermore, we showed that 25S rRNA of yeast does not contain any m5U residues as previously predicted. With Bmt5 and Bmt6, all base methyltransferases of the 25S rRNA have been identified. This will facilitate the analyses of the significance of these modifications in ribosome function and cellular physiology.
Wie andere Vögel auch, verfügen Hühner über zwei verschiedene Magnetfeldrezeptoren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden diese beiden Rezeptoren, vor allem unter dem Aspekt Verhaltensontogenie eingehender untersucht. Meine Ergebnisse werden durch histologische Untersuchungen gestützt. Ich untersuchte zwei Hühnerrassen, einen braunen und einen weißen Legehuhn Stamm. Mit der Standardmethode konnte ich die Befunde der Literatur bestätigen. Zur Untersuchung des Magnetkompasses im Auge, habe ich Hühner darauf trainiert einen roten Tischtennisball, auf den sie geprägt wurden, in einer bestimmten magnetischen Richtung zu suchen. Im unbelohnten“ Test ist das Magnetfeld um 90 Grad gedreht, so dass der magnetische Norden nun im geographischen Osten liegt. Die braunen Hühner benutzen den Magnetkompass zum Lösen der gestellten Aufgabe, die weißen Hühner wählen zufällig eine Richtung. Eine Veränderung der Trainingsmethode, ein Training im gedrehten Magnetfeld und eine „Bestrafung“, haben das Ergebnis verändert. Die weißen Hühner sind nun in der Lage, die magnetisch richtige Richtung zu finden, die braunen Hühner reagieren verängstigt und wählen nur zufällig eine Richtung. Beide Hühnerrassen können also - unter verschiedenen Voraussetzungen - einen magnetischen Kompass für die Orientierung benutzen.
Die Funktion der äußeren Haarsinneszellen geht weit über die normale Rezeptoreigenschaft der Kategorie Mechanorezeptor hinaus. Äußere Haarzellen mit ihrer reichhaltigen efferenten Innervierung sind nicht nur für die sensorische Aufnahme mechanischer Bewegung zuständig, sondern ermöglichen aufgrund ihrer motorischen Funktionen die mechanische Verstärkung der Wanderwelle in der Cochlea. Äußere Haarzellen sind eine maßgebliche Komponente des ´cochleären Verstärkers` und ihr Ausfall führt zur Schwerhörigkeit. Beiprodukte des cochleä-ren Verstärkers sind otoakustische Emissionen, deren Messung Aufschluss über aktive mechanische Prozesse im Innenohr gibt.
Die äußeren Haarsinneszellen bilden Synapsen mit dem olivo-cochleären efferenten System, welches im Zentrum der vorliegenden Untersuchung steht. Es vermittelt den Einfluss des Zentralnervensystems auf das Corti-Organ des Innenohrs. Über die akustische Reizung des olivo-cochleären Reflexbogens ist man in der Lage, das efferente System zu aktivieren und gleichzeitig die Antworteigenschaften der Cochlea zu verändern. Efferente Modulationen des cochleären Verstärkers können sich z. B. in einer Veränderung des Emissionspegels bemerk-bar machen. Die Fledermausspezies Carollia perspicillata ist aufgrund ihres Echoortungs-systems mit einem sehr sensitiven und hochauflösenden Hörvermögen ausgestattet und eignet sich hervorragend als Modelltier in der Hörforschung, insbesondere auch deshalb, da oto-akustische Emissionen sehr gut messbar sind.
Das efferente System von C. perspicillata wurde in dieser Untersuchung durch akustische Stimulation der kontralateralen Cochlea angeregt. Die Stimuli, die nicht nur in ihrem Pegel sondern auch in ihrer Bandbreite und in der Mittelfrequenz in Relation zu den ipsilateralen Stimulusfrequenzen variierten, beeinflussten dabei die Generierung der otoakustischen Emis-sionen (DPOAE, engl: distortion product otoacoustic emissions) im ipsilateralen Ohr: akustische Stimulation der kontralateralen Cochlea bewirkte zuverlässig eine Änderung der DPOAE- Amplitude im kontralateralen Ohr. Vor allem eine Suppression des cochleären Verstärkers in Form von DPOAE-Pegelverminderungen wurde beobachtet. Die supprimieren-den Effekte erreichten trotz leiser bis moderater kontralateraler Rauschpegel (bis maximal 54 dB SPL) Werte von bis zu 14, 17.1 und 13.9 dB SPL (bei f2 = 20, 40 und 60 kHz und effek-tivstem kontralateralen Rauschstimulus) und waren damit deutlich größer als in vorangegang-enen Studien an anderen Spezies. Die DPOAE-Pegelverminderungen waren positiv mit dem x Pegel der kontralateralen akustischen Stimulation, ebenso wie seiner Bandbreite und der Mittelfrequenzen in Relation zu den ipsilateralen Stimulusfrequenzen korreliert. Es gab keinen absoluten Frequenzbereich, in dem die efferenten Effekte am größten gewesen wären. Vielmehr traten maximale Effekte immer durch etwas oberhalb der ipsilateralen Stimulusfre-quenzen gelegene kontralaterale Rauschstimuli auf. Die Effekte waren auch abhängig von der Bandbreite des kontralateralen Rauschstimulus und maximal bei einer relativen Bandbreite von 1.5 Oktaven. Die Verschiebung des efferenten Effekts hin zu hohen Frequenzen und die Bandbreitenabhängigkeit sind vereinbar mit den anatomischen Eigenschaften der Projektio-nen der medialen olivo-cochleären Efferenzen in der Säugetiercochlea. Kontralaterale akusti-sche Reizung bewirkte auch eine Verschiebung der Wachstumsfunktionen der 2f1-f2 -DPOAE in einen unsensitiven Bereich und außerdem eine Verformung der Wachstumsfunktion. Bei-des könnte durch Beeinträchtigung des cochleären Verstärkers verursacht sein. Eine Beteili-gung des Mittelohrmuskels an den Effekten kann nahezu ausgeschlossen werden und die beobachteten Effekte sind höchstwahrscheinlich dem olivo-cochleären System zuzuschreiben.
Funktionell ist denkbar, dass bei C. perspicillata das mediale olivo-cochleäre System im Kontext einer Frequenzverschärfung bei der cochleären Verstärkung der Basilarmembranbe-wegung aktiv wird. Aus diesem Grund wurden ipsilateral sogenannte DPOAE-Suppressions- Abstimmkurven gemessen, welche die mechanische Abstimmschärfe im Innenohr beschrei-ben. Während und nach kontralateraler Reizung kam es zu Veränderungen der Abstimmkur-ven. Signifikante Effekte konnten allerdings nicht festgestellt werden, da die Veränderungen der Suppressions-Abstimmkurven variabel und schlecht kategorisierbar war.
Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse unterstützen weit verbreitete Hypothesen zur Funktion der medialen olivo-cochleären Effernzen in Bezug auf mechanische Suppression, Verbesserung des cochleären Signal-Rauschverhältnisses und einer generellen frequenzspezifischen Wirkung.
Protein quality control systems (PQC), i.e. UPS and aggresome-autophagy pathway, have been suggested to be a promising target in cancer therapy. Simultaneous pharmacological inhibition of both pathways have shown increase efficacy in various tumors, such as ovarian and colon carcinoma. Here, we investigate the effect of concomitant inhibition of 26S proteasome by FDA-approved inhibitor Bortezomib, and HDAC6, as key mediator of the aggresome-autophagy system, by the highly specific inhibitor ST80 in rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cell lines. We demonstrated that simultaneous inhibition of 26S proteasome and selective aggresome-autophagy pathway significantly increases apoptosis in all tested RMS cell lines. Interestingly, we observed that a subpopulation of RMS cells was able to survive the co-treatment and, upon drug removal, to recover similarly to untreated cells. In this study, we identified co-chaperone BAG3 as the key mediator of this recovery: BAG3 is transcriptionally up-regulated specifically in the ST80/Bortezomib surviving cells and mediates clearance of cytotoxic protein aggregates by selective autophagy. Impairment of the autophagic pathway during the recovery phase, both by conditional knock-down of ATG7 or by inhibition of lysosomal degradation by BafylomicinA1, triggers accumulation of insoluble protein aggregates, loss of cell recovery and cell death similarly to stable short harpin RNA (shRNA) BAG3 knock-down. Our results are the first demonstration that BAG3 mediated selective autophagy is engaged to cope with proteotoxicity induced by simultaneous inhibition of constitutive PQC systems in cancer cell lines during cell recovery. Moreover, our data give new insights in the regulation of constitutive and on demand PQC mechanisms pointing to BAG3 as a promising target in RMS therapy.
Cell-cell adhesion is an essential process during the development of multicellular organisms. It is based on various cellular junctions and ensures a tight contact between neighboring cells, enabling interactive exchanges necessary for morphological and functional differentiation and maintaining the homeostasis of healthy tissue organization. Two important types of cell-cell adhesions are the adherens junction (AJ) and the desmosome which link the actin cytoskeleton and intermediate filaments to cadherin-based adhesion sites. The core of these structures is composed of single-span transmembrane proteins of the cadherin superfamily which include, among other members, the classical cadherins, e.g. E-cadherin, as well as the desmosomal cadherins, e.g. desmoglein-3. The cytoplasmic domains of the desmosomal and classical cadherins enable interactions with proteins of the catenin family. Classical cadherins preferentially associate with β-catenin and p120-catenin, whereas desmosomal cadherins bind to γ-catenin and plakophilins. Intriguingly, γ-catenin, also known as plakoglobin, is so far the only protein known to be present both in the AJ and the desmosome.
In this study, we showed that the two homologous, membrane raft-associated proteins flotillin-1 and flotillin-2 associate with core proteins of the AJ and the desmosome in vitro and in vivo. In confluent human, non-malignant epithelial MCF10A cells and human skin cryosections, flotillin-2 colocalized with E-cadherin, desmoglein-3 and γ-catenin at cell-cell contact sites, whereas flotillin-1 showed barely any overlap with these proteins. In addition, we detected a colocalization of both flotillins with the actin-binding protein α-actinin in membrane ruffles in subconfluent and at cell-cell contact sites in confluent MCF10A cells as well as in human skin cryosections. The interaction with α-actinin was later shown to be flotillin-1 dependent by performing indirect GST pulldown experiments with purified α-actinin-1-GST in MCF10A cell lysates.
Since flotillin-2 strongly colocalized with cell-cell junctions, this suggested that flotillins might be found in complex with cell adhesion proteins. Thus, we performed coimmunoprecipitation experiments in murine skin lysates and various cell lines of epithelial origin, such as human breast cancer MCF7 cells, human keratinocyte HaCaT cells and primary mouse keratinocytes. These experiments demonstrated that flotillins, especially flotillin-2, coprecipitated with E-cadherin, desmosomal cadherins and γ-catenin in relation to the respective cell type and the maturation status of these cell-cell adhesion structures. However, since γ-catenin is so far the only protein known to be present in the AJ and the desmosome, we further assumed that the complex formation of flotillins with cell adhesion structures is mediated by γ-catenin. For this, we performed indirect GST pulldown experiments in MCF10A cell lysates with bacterially expressed, purified flotillin-1-GST, flotillin-2-GST and γ-catenin-GST and were able to verify the complex formation of adhesion proteins and flotillins in vitro. To further test if the interaction of γ-catenin and flotillins is a direct one, we used purified flotillin-1-GST or flotillin-2-GST and γ-catenin-MBP fusion proteins. Both flotillins directly interacted with γ-catenin in this in vitro assay. In addition, mapping of the interaction domains in γ-catenin by using GST fusion proteins carrying different parts of γ-catenin suggested that flotillins bind to a discontinuous γ-catenin binding domain which consists of a Major determinant around ARM domains 6-12, most likely with a major contribution of the ARM domain 7, and possibly including the NT part of γ-catenin.
To study the effect of flotillin depletion on cell-cell adhesion, we generated stable MCF10A cell lines in which flotillins were knocked down by means of lentiviral shRNAs. Staining of E-cadherin and γ-catenin in these cells showed that the localization at the cell-cell borders was significantly altered after flotillin-2 depletion, which pointed to a role for flotillin-2 in the formation of cell-cell adhesion structures in epithelial cells. Furthermore, isolation of detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) from these cells demonstrated that upon depletion of flotillin-2, a significant amount of E-cadherin and γ-catenin shifted into raft fractions. On the contrary, no change was detected in flotillin-1 knockdown cells. These observations point to a functional role of flotillin-2 in the regulation of raft association of cell-cell adhesion proteins. To gain more insight into the in vivo relevance of our findings, we next studied the function of flotillins in the skin of Flot2-/- knockout mice. Analysis of lysates prepared from the skin of one year old female animals revealed an increased expression of E-cadherin, desmoglein-1 and γ-catenin but not β-catenin, implicating that specific adhesion proteins are upregulated in flotillin-2 knockout skin.
Since flotillins are tightly associated with membrane microdomains we next studied the interaction of flotillin-2 with membrane cholesterol. Using the photoreactive cholesterol analog azocholestanol, we were able to show that flotillin-2 and cholesterol directly interacted. In addition, previous studies speculated that flotillin-2 interacts with cholesterol via two putative cholesterol recognition/interaction amino acid consensus (CRAC) motifs. Analysis of the flotillin-2 sequence revealed that flotillin-2 actually contains four putative CRAC motifs. However, using various flotillin-2 CRAC mutant GFP fusion proteins, we were able to show that none of the putative CRAC motifs is functional, which suggested that flotillin-2 interacts with membrane cholesterol, e.g., via posttranslational modifications, such as myristoylation and palmitoylation which were previously shown to be essential for membrane association of flotillin proteins.
Die X-chromosomal gebundene chronische Granulomatose (X-CGD) ist eine seltene Erbkrankheit, bei der die NADPH-Oxidase der Phagozyten nicht funktionell ist. Der Grund hierfür liegt meist in Mutationen in der GP91phox Untereinheit der Phagozyten-Oxidase. Hierdurch treten lebensbedrohliche Bakterien- und Pilzinfektionen bei Patienten auf, was neben einer geringen Lebensqualität zu einer erheblich verkürzten Lebenserwartung führt. Eine Stammzelltransplantation eines gesunden Spenders ist bislang der einzige heilende Therapieansatz. Für X-CGD-Patienten, die keinen passen-den Spender zur Verfügung haben, stellt die genetische Modifikation autologer hämato-poetischer Stammzellen eine alternative Form der Therapie dar. Im Jahr 2004 wurden daher in einer präklinischen Phase I/II Studie in Frankfurt zwei X-CGD-Patienten gentherapeutisch behandelt. Hierbei wurden CD34+ Stammzellen ex vivo mit einem γ-retroviralen Vektor transduziert, der eine LTR-getriebene Expressionskassette für GP91phox trägt. Nach einer nicht-myeloablativen Konditionierung wurden die genetisch modifizierten Zellen der Patienten retransplantiert. Beide behandelten Patienten zeigten schon kurz nach Therapiebeginn eine deutliche Verminderung der Infektionsanfälligkeit und somit eine stark verbesserte Lebensqualität. Auf zellulärer Ebene konnte ein gutes Engraftment der modifizierten hämatopoetischen Stammzellen im Knochenmark beobachtet werden. In funktionellen Tests konnte die Bildung superoxidproduzierender Phagozyten für die Immunabwehr gezeigt werden. Das molekulare Monitoring beider Patienten hat jedoch über die Zeit eine Verringerung der Enzymaktivität in den Phagozyten (Superoxidproduktion) gezeigt, obwohl der Anteil genetisch modifizierter Zellen nicht geringer wurde. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte durch quantitative RT-PCR-Analysen proviraler mRNA-Transkripte, eine Korrelation zwischen dem Verlust der Enzymaktivität und reduzierter Transgen-expression gezeigt werden. Durch DNA-Analysen peripherer Blutproben beider Patienten konnte eine verstärkte Methylierung an der Promotor-CpG-Insel, welche die Transgen-expression reguliert, als Ursache identifiziert werden. Weiterführende klonale Untersuchungen genmodifizierter Kolonien aus dem Knochenmark der Patienten offenbarten einen direkten Zusammenhang zwischen der Abwesenheit von Transkription bzw. Superoxidbildung und der Methylierung dieser CpG-Insel im proviralen Promotor-bereich. Somit konnte zum ersten Mal ein epigenetisches Silencing bei Patienten nach einer Behandlung mit Gentherapie nachgewiesen werden. In weiteren Versuchen konnte die vollständig ausgebildete, spezifische Methylierung des SFFV-Promotors in transduzierten Knochenmarkzellen eines Patienten durch in vitro Behandlung mit einem Methyltransferase-Inhibitor (Aza-D) in Kombination mit einem Histondeacetylase-Inhibitor (TSA) bis zu 30% reduziert werden. Dieser Teilerfolg zeigt, dass eine klinisch relevante Reaktivierung der Transgenexpression, durch Umkehrung des Silencings am SFFV-Promotor, prinzipiell möglich ist. Das Phänomen der Abschaltung der Genexpression des γ-retroviralen Vektors in der Frankfurter Gentherapiestudie, hat ein Testsytem zur Evaluierung zukünftiger Gentherapie-Vektoren erfordert. Durch Monitoring proviraler Parameter (Kopien, Transgenexpression, Proteinexpression und Promotor-CpG-Methylierung), in der murinen embryonalen Stammzelllinie P19 konnte in dieser Arbeit ein prädiktiver Silencing-Assay erfolgreich etabliert werden. Mit Hilfe dieses Systems wurden vielversprechende Silencing-resistente Vektoren mit dem UCOE (Ubiquitous Chromatin Opening Element) identifiziert. Hierdurch wurden wichtige Grundlagen geschaffen, um zukünftige virale Vektorsysteme in Bezug auf ihre Langzeitexpression testen zu können. Zusätzlich zu der Inaktivierung der transduzierten Expressionskassette konnte in beiden Patienten ein klonales Auswachsen von Subklonen beobachtet werden, das letztendlich zu einem myelodisplastischen Syndrom bei beiden Patienten führte. Der virale Enhancer war im Gegensatz zum viralen Promotor niemals methyliert, wodurch seine transaktivierenden Eigenschaften unbeeinflusst blieben. Diese enhancervermittelte Aktivierung proliferationsfördernder Gene (Mds1-Evi1-Genlokus) konnte durch RT-PCR-Analysen zunächst in Mischpopulationen aus peripherem Blut der Patienten nach-gewiesen werden. Weiterführende klonale Analysen in Knochenmarkzellen zeigten den direkten Zusammenhang zwischen der transkriptionellen Aktivierung des Mds1-Evi1-Genlokus und den proviralen Insertionen. Somit konnte die Ursache für die therapie-assoziierte, klonale Dominanz in beiden X-CGD-Patienten aufgeklärt werden. In der Frankfurter Gentherapiestudie wurde erstmals ein klinischer Erfolg für X-CGD-Patienten erzielt. Durch intensives molekulares Monitoring konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgedeckt werden, dass der eingesetzte γ-retrovirale Vektor über das Phänomen der Insertionsmutagenese hinaus, auch in Bezug auf die epigenetische Abschaltung der Transkription (Silencing), für zukünftige Studien modifiziert werden muss. Sicherheits-verbesserte Vektoren mit einer Resistenz gegenüber Silencing in murinen embryonalen Stammzellen konnten in dieser Arbeit charakterisiert werden. Mit diesen Genfähren könnte der angestrebte Langzeittherapieerfolg in Zukunft möglich werden.
Autophagie ist ein evolutionär stark konservierter Degradationsmechanismus für geschädigte Proteine bis hin zu ganzen Organellen eukaryotischer Zellen. Dabei umhüllt eine Doppelmembran, bisher unbekannten Ursprungs, das zu degradierende Material und bildet das Autophagosom. Dies fusioniert später mit Lysosomen, wodurch dessen Inhalt proteolytisch zersetzt und die Bestandteile der Zelle wieder zur Verfügung gestellt werden kann.
In dieser Abeit wurde der Fokus auf den mitochondrialen Abbau über Autophagie (Mitophagie) und dessen Funktion als ein mitochondrialer Qualitätsmechanismus gesetzt. Als Zellmodell wurden primäre humane Endothelzellen der Nabelschnurvene (HUVEC) verwendet. Diese zeichenen sich durch einen Übergang von einer mitotischen, jungen in eine lange postmitotische, seneszente Phase während der Kultiverungszeit aus. Dabei durchlaufen sie einer zelluläre und mitochondriale Morphologieänderung. , wodurch sich die Möglichkeit bot , die Autophagie unter verschiedenen Parametern zu betrachten.
So wird generell eine Abnahme des autophagosomalen / lysosomalen Weges mit dem Alter beschrieben und die Abhängigkeit der Mitophagie von der mitochondrialen Länge.
Mitophagie ist unter normalen Kultivierungsbedingungen ein mikroskopisch selten zu beobachtender Vorgang. Daher wurde ein mitochondriales Schädigungsystem etabliert, welches die photosensibiliesierende Wirkung des Farbstoffs MitoTracker Red Cmx Ros (MTR) nutzt, um Mitochondrien gezielt oxidativ zu schädigen und die Mitophagie zu aktivieren.
Mitotische HUVEC zeigten 2 h – 8 h nach oxidativer Schädigung eine mitochondriale Fragmentierung größtenteils begleitet von einem Verlust des Membranpotentials. Über einen Zeitraum von 72h-120h kam es zur Regeneration des mitochondrialen Netzwerks durch Neusynthese mitochondrialer Biomoleküle. Entgegen der rescue Hypothese konnten oxidativ geschädigte Mitochondrien nicht durch eine Fusion mit funktional intakten Mitochondrien gerettet werden und wurden über den autophagosomalen / lysosomalen Weg abgebaut, gekennzeichnet durch die Ubiquitin-Ligase Parkin vermittelte Markierung und finaler Kolokalisation mit den autophagosomalen und lysosomalen Markerproteinen LC3B und LAMP-2A. Auf mRNA- und Proteinebene zeigte sich in diesem Zeitraum eine erhöhte Expression autophagie-relevanter Gene (ATGs) ATG5, ATG12 und LC3B.
Der Vergleich von mitotischen mit postmitotischen HUVEC nach oxidativer Schädigung wies zwei grundlegende Unterschiede auf.
Zum einem behielten, in Gegensatz zu jungen Zellen, die Mitochondrien alter HUVEC ihre Morphologie und ihr Membranpotential bei. Diese erhöhte Widerstandfähigkeit gegenüber oxidativem Stress konnte auf die erhöhte Expression der mitochondrial lokalisierten Serin / Threonin Kinase PINK1 zurückgeführt werden, ein Schlüsselgen in Parkinson.
Die PINK1-Transkription stand invers zu der Expression der mitochondrialen Teilungsfaktoren Fis1- und Drp1, welche in postmitotischen HUVEC stark vermindert war.
Andererseits wiesen alte Zellen eine verminderte Degradationsfähigkeit geschädigter Mitochondrien auf. Dieser Umstand war durch eine verminderte lysosomale Azidität bedingt. Eine externe ATP-Zugabe förderte die Azidität der Lysosomen alter Zellen und die Fusion mit Autophagosomen, wodurch Mitochondrien und ihre geringere ATP-Produktion im Alter als ein Faktor der Autophagie ermittelt weden konnte.
Die Autophagierate steht in Verbindung mit der Lebensspanne von Zellen bis hin zu ganzen Organismen. Durch die Überexpression autophagie-relevanter GFP-Fusions-Proteine ATG5, ATG12 und LC3B, welche nach oxidativer Schädigung in ihrer Expression verstärkt wurden, förderten die Mitophagie und wurden stabil in junge HUVEC exprimiert. Diese Überexpressionen bewirkten eine verbesserte mitochondriale Qualität, veranschaulicht durch ein erhöhtes Membranpotential und die ATP-Bereitstellung, einer besseren mtDNA Integrität und sie verlängerten die Lebensspanne signifikant, wobei die Produktion von reaktiven Sauerstoffspezien (ROS), entgegen der von Harman aufgestellten Alterungstheorie, keine Verminderung zeigte. Dennoch wiesen sie einen erhöhten Gehalt oxidativ modifizierter Proteine auf, welche letztendlich auf die erhöhten Autophagosomenanzahl zurückgeführt werden konnte, in denen höchstwahrscheinlich das oxidativ geschädigte Material gelagert wird.
In dieser Arbeit kann gezeigt werden, dass Mitochondrien nach oxidativer Schädigung eine Teilung vollziehen und geschädigte Mitochondrien selektiv über Autophagie abgebaut werden. Dabei fungiert Mitophagie als ein mitochondrialer Qualitätmechanismus und steht unmittelbar mit der Lebensspanne in Verbindung.
Glioblastoma is the most common and most aggressive type of brain tumor in adults. In contrast to epithelial cancers, glioblastomas do not metastasize. While the major treatment challenge in epithelial cancers is not the primary tumor but metastasis, glioblastoma patients die of the primary tumor.
However, there is a common theme which underlies the malignant properties of progressed epithelial cancers and glioblastoma: invasion from the primary tumor into the surrounding tissue. In the case of epithelial cancers this is the first and necessary step to metastasis, whereas invasion leads inevitably to tumor recurrence after resection in the case of glioblastoma, causing it to be incurable.
A cellular program which has been described in detail to promote the invasive phenotype in epithelial tumors, is the epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT). Differentiated neural cells are not epithelial, thus, strictly speaking, EMT does not occur in glioblastoma. However, the traits acquired in the process of EMT, especially invasiveness and stemness, are highly relevant to glioblastoma. One of the key transcription factors known to induce EMT in epithelial cancers is ZEB1, which has been described only marginally in the central nervous system so far. Here, I investigate the expression and function of ZEB1 in glioblastoma and during human fetal neural development.
ZEB1 mRNA was significantly upregulated in all histological types of glioma, including glioblastoma, when compared to normal brain. There was no correlation between ZEB1 mRNA levels and tumor grade. Immunohistochemical staining of glioma samples demonstrated that ZEB1 was highly expressed in the great majority of tumor cells. In the developing human brain, intense staining for ZEB1 could be observed in the ventricular and subventricular zone, where stem- and progenitor cells reside. ZEB1 positive cells included cells stained with stem- and progenitor markers like PAX6, GFAP and Nestin. In contrast, ZEB1 was never found in early neuronal cells as identified by TUBB3 staining.
To gain insight into ZEB1 function I generated a human fetal neural stem cell line and a glioblastoma cell line with ZEB1 knockdown, which were compared with their respective control cell lines. First, I found that ZEB1 does not regulate the micro RNA 200 family in either cell line, which has been described as an essential ZEB1 target in epithelial cancers. Second, regulated target genes were identified with a genome wide microarray. The third approach was to directly identify genomic binding sites of ZEB1 by chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq). All three approaches showed that the ZEB1 transcriptional program is surprisingly similar in the neural stem cell line and the glioblastoma cell line. In contrast, it bears only little resemblance to the program described in epithelial cancers.
The most interesting, previously unrecognized ZEB1 target gene identified in this study is integrin b1. It was regulated after ZEB1 knockdown detected by microarray analysis, and has a ZEB1 binding site in its promoter region detected by ChIP-seq. Finally, I addressed the question whether ZEB1 influences tumor growth and invasiveness in a glioblastoma model. After intracranial xenotransplantation in mice, ZEB1 knockdown glioblastoma cells formed significantly smaller and less invasive tumors than control glioblastoma cells.
This study demonstrates that ZEB1 is widely expressed in glioma and relevant for glioblastoma growth and invasion. In contrast to what is known about ZEB1 function in epithelial cancers, ZEB1 is not associated with glioma progression, but instead seems to be an early and necessary event in tumorigenesis. Also with regard to ZEB1 target genes, ZEB1 functions differently in glioblastoma than in epithelial cancers. The two most important ZEB1 targets in epithelial cancers are E-cadherin and the miR-200 family members. Both are not relevant to ZEB1 function in glioblastoma. Interestingly, while the ZEB1 transcriptional program is different from the one described in epithelial cancers, it is highly similar in glioblastoma cells and fetal neural stem cells. This suggests that an embryonic pathway restricted to stem- and progenitor cells during development is reactivated in glioblastoma.
Previously known ZEB1 target genes were tissue specific and therefore seemed unlikely to mediate ZEB1 function in the central nervous system. However, the newly identified ZEB1 target gene integrin b1 is well known to play pivotal roles in both glioblastoma tumorigenesis and invasion as well as in neural stem cells. Additionally, integrin b1 is widely expressed and seems a likely ZEB1 target in other organs than the brain.
Taken together, I demonstrate that ZEB1 is a new regulator of glioblastoma growth and invasion. The transcriptional program of ZEB1 differs from the one in epithelial cancers but is strikingly similar to the one in neural stem cells. The newly identified ZEB1 target gene integrin b1 is likely to mediate crucial ZEB1 functios. Thus, this study identifies ZEB1 as a yet unrecognized player in glioblastoma and neural development. Furthermore, it sets the stage for more research which will help to deepen our understanding of ZEB1 function in the central nervous system and beyond.
Ecological speciation assumes reproductive isolation to be the product of ecologically based divergent selection. Beside natural selection, sexual selection via phenotype-assortative mating is thought to promote reproductive isolation. Using the neotropical fish Poecilia mexicana from a system that has been described to undergo incipient ecological speciation in adjacent, but ecologically divergent habitats characterized by the presence or absence of toxic H2S and darkness in cave habitats, we demonstrate a gradual change in male body colouration along the gradient of light/darkness, including a reduction of ornaments that are under both inter- and intrasexual selection in surface populations. In dichotomous choice tests using video-animated stimuli, we found surface females to prefer males from their own population over the cave phenotype. However, female cave fish, observed on site via infrared techniques, preferred to associate with surface males rather than size-matched cave males, likely reflecting the female preference for better-nourished (in this case: surface) males. Hence, divergent selection on body colouration indeed translates into phenotype-assortative mating in the surface ecotype, by selecting against potential migrant males. Female cave fish, by contrast, do not have a preference for the resident male phenotype, identifying natural selection against migrants imposed by the cave environment as the major driver of the observed reproductive isolation.
Mechanics has an important role during morphogenesis, both in the generation of forces driving cell shape changes and in determining the effective material properties of cells and tissues. Drosophila dorsal closure has emerged as a reference model system for investigating the interplay between tissue mechanics and cellular activity. During dorsal closure, the amnioserosa generates one of the major forces that drive closure through the apical contraction of its constituent cells. We combined quantitation of live data, genetic and mechanical perturbation and cell biology, to investigate how mechanical properties and contraction rate emerge from cytoskeletal activity. We found that a decrease in Myosin phosphorylation induces a fluidization of amnioserosa cells which become more compliant. Conversely, an increase in Myosin phosphorylation and an increase in actin linear polymerization induce a solidification of cells. Contrary to expectation, these two perturbations have an opposite effect on the strain rate of cells during DC. While an increase in actin polymerization increases the contraction rate of amnioserosa cells, an increase in Myosin phosphorylation gives rise to cells that contract very slowly. The quantification of how the perturbation induced by laser ablation decays throughout the tissue revealed that the tissue in these two mutant backgrounds reacts very differently. We suggest that the differences in the strain rate of cells in situations where Myosin activity or actin polymerization is increased arise from changes in how the contractile forces are transmitted and coordinated across the tissue through ECadherin-mediated adhesion. Altogether, our results show that there is an optimal level of Myosin activity to generate efficient contraction and suggest that the architecture of the actin cytoskeleton and the dynamics of adhesion complexes are important parameters for the emergence of coordinated activity throughout the tissue.
The mitochondrial kinase PINK1 and the ubiquitin ligase Parkin are participating in quality control after CCCP- or ROSinduced mitochondrial damage, and their dysfunction is associated with the development and progression of Parkinson’s disease. Furthermore, PINK1 expression is also induced by starvation indicating an additional role for PINK1 in stress response. Therefore, the effects of PINK1 deficiency on the autophago-lysosomal pathway during stress were investigated. Under trophic deprivation SH-SY5Y cells with stable PINK1 knockdown showed downregulation of key autophagic genes, including Beclin, LC3 and LAMP-2. In good agreement, protein levels of LC3-II and LAMP-2 but not of LAMP-1 were reduced in different cell model systems with PINK1 knockdown or knockout after addition of different stressors. This downregulation of autophagic factors caused increased apoptosis, which could be rescued by overexpression of LC3 or PINK1. Taken together, the PINK1-mediated reduction of autophagic key factors during stress resulted in increased cell death, thus defining an additional pathway that could contribute to the progression of Parkinson’s disease in patients with PINK1 mutations.
It was long assumed that translation initiation in prokaryotes generally occurs via the so-called Shine Dalgarno (SD) mechanism. Recently, it became clear that translation initiation in prokaryotes is more heterogeneous. In the haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii, the majority of transcripts is leaderless and most transcripts with a 5′-UTR lack a SD motif. Nevertheless, a bioinformatic analysis predicted that 20–30% of all genes are preceded by a SD motif in haloarchaea. To analyze the importance of the SD mechanism for translation initiation in haloarchaea experimentally the monocistronic sod gene was chosen, which contains a 5′-UTR with an extensive SD motif of seven nucleotides and a length of 19 nt, the average length of 5′UTRs in this organism. A translational fusion of part of the sod gene with the dhfr reporter gene was constructed. A mutant series was generated that matched the SD motif from zero to eight positions, respectively. Surprisingly, there was no correlation between the base pairing ability between transcripts and 16S rRNA and translational efficiency in vivo under several different growth conditions. Furthermore, complete replacement of the SD motif by three unrelated sequences did not reduce translational efficiency. The results indicate that H. volcanii does not make use of the SD mechanism for translation initiation in 5′-UTRs. A genome analysis revealed that while the number of SD motifs in 5′-UTRs is rare, their fraction within open reading frames is high. Possible biological functions for intragenic SD motifs are discussed, including re-initiation of translation at distal genes in operons.
Nervous system development requires a sequence of processes such as neuronal migration, the development of dendrites and dendritic spines and the formation of synapses. The extracellular matrix protein Reelin plays an important role in these processes, Reelin regulates for example the migration of neurons from proliferative zones to their target positions in the brain. As a consequence, layered structures are formed in the neocortex, the hippocampus and cerebellum (Lambert de Rouvroit et al., 1999). Reelin exerts its functions by binding to two transmembrane receptors, apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2) and very-low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR). This binding causes phosphorylation of the intracellular adapter protein Disabled-1 (Dab1) (D’Arcangelo et al., 1999) via activation of Src-family kinases (SFKs) (Bock and Herz, 2003), leading to cytoskeletal reorganization which enables cell migration and morphological changes (Lambert de Rouvroit and Goffinet, 2001). Since ApoER2 and VLDLR do not possess intrinsic kinase activity to activate SFKs, the existence of a co-receptor was suggested. EphrinBs are transmembrane ligands for Eph receptors and have signaling capabilities required for axon guidance (Cowan et al., 2004), dendritic spine maturation (Segura et al., 2007) and synaptic plasticity (Essmann et al., 2008; Grunwald et al., 2004). As stimulation of cultured cortical neurons with soluble EphB receptors causes recruitment of SFKs to ephrinB-containing membrane patches and SFK activation (Palmer et al., 2002), we investigated whether ephrinB ligands would be the missing co-receptors in the Reelin signaling pathway functioning during neuronal migration, dendritic spine maturation and synaptic plasticity. We found that the extracellular part of ephrinBs directly binds to Reelin and that ephrinBs interact with Dab1, phospho-Dab1, ApoER2 and VLDLR. EphrinB3 is localized in the same neurons as ApoER2 and Dab1 in the cortex and hippocampus, and in the cerebellum ephrinB2 is detected in neurons that express Dab1. To investigate the requirement of ephrinBs for neuronal migration, triple knockout mice lacking all ephrinB ligands were analyzed. The cortical layering of ephrinB1, B2, B3 knockout brains is inverted, showing the outside-in pattern typical for the reeler cortex. The hippocampus and cerebellum of triple knockout mice also exhibit reeler-like malformations, although less penetrant than the cortical defects. Dab1 phosphorylation is impaired in mice lacking ephrinB3 and this effect is strongly enhanced in neurons lacking all ephrin ligands. Moreover, activation of ephrinB3 reverse signaling induces Dab1phosphorylation in reeler primary neurons. In agreement with an important regulatory function of ephrinBs in Reelin signaling, activation of ephrinB3 reverse signaling is even able to rescue reeler defects in cortical layering in organotypic slice cultures. In summary, all these results identify ephrinBs as co-receptors for Reelin signaling, playing essential roles in neuronal migration during the development of cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum (Sentürk et al., 2011).
Haloferax volcanii uses extracellular DNA as a source for carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous. However, it can also grow to a limited extend in the absence of added phosphorous, indicating that it contains an intracellular phosphate storage molecule. As Hfx. volcanii is polyploid, it was investigated whether DNA might be used as storage polymer, in addition to its role as genetic material. It could be verified that during phosphate starvation cells multiply by distributing as well as by degrading their chromosomes. In contrast, the number of ribosomes stayed constant, revealing that ribosomes are distributed to descendant cells, but not degraded. These results suggest that the phosphate of phosphate-containing biomolecules (other than DNA and RNA) originates from that stored in DNA, not in rRNA. Adding phosphate to chromosome depleted cells rapidly restores polyploidy. Quantification of desiccation survival of cells with different ploidy levels showed that under phosphate starvation Hfx. volcanii diminishes genetic advantages of polyploidy in favor of cell multiplication. The consequences of the usage of genomic DNA as phosphate storage polymer are discussed as well as the hypothesis that DNA might have initially evolved in evolution as a storage polymer, and the various genetic benefits evolved later.
The midbrain DA system comprising dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is involved in various brain functions, including voluntary movement and the encoding and prediction of behaviorally relevant stimuli. In Parkinsonʼs disease (PD), a progressive degeneration of particularly vulnerable SN DA neurons causes a progressive DA depletion of striatal projection sites. As a consequence, motor symptoms such as tremor, hypokinesia and rigidity appear once about 50 % to 70 % of SN DA neurons have been lost. Under physiological conditions, SN DA neurons can encode behaviorally salient events and coordinated movements through tonic and phasic activity and correlated striatal DA release. Burst-activity mediates a phasic, supralinear rise of striatal DA levels and allows to activate coordinated movements via modulation of corticostriatal signals.
In the present dissertation project, pathophysiological adaptations of surviving SN DA neurons after a partial degeneration of the nigrostiatal system have been studied using a 6-hydroxydopamine mouse model of PD. Combining in vivo retrograde tracing techniques with in vitro whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, multifluorescent immunolabeling and confocal microscopy allowed an unambiguous correlation of electrophysiological phenotypes, anatomical positions and neurochemical phenotypes of recorded neurons on a single-cell level. In vitro, neuronal activity of SN DA neurons is characterized by spontaneous, slow pacemaker activity of 1 to 10 Hz and a high degree of spike-timing precision. In vitro current-clamp recordings of surviving SN DA neurons using acute brain slice preparations after a partial, PD-like degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system showed a significant perturbation of spontaneous pacemaker activity, mirrored by a decreased spike-timing precision compared to controls. Selective pharmacology and whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings served to identify calciumactivated SK channels as molecular effectors of a perturbated pacemaker activity of surviving SN DA neurons. SK channels and have been shown to critically contribute to the spike-timing precision of SN DA neurons. Consistently, in vitro current-clamp recordings after pharmacological blockade of SK channels in vitro caused a significant decrease of spike-timing precision, occluding previously observed differences between surviving SN DA neurons and controls.In addition to in vitro patch-clamp recordings, extracellular single-unit recordings in anaesthetized animals in vivo served to study surviving SN DA neurons embedded in an intact neuronal network after a partial, PD-like degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system. Combining in vivo single-unit recordings, juxtacellular neurobiotin labeling and multifluorescent immunohistochemistry allowed to directly correlate electrophysiological and neurochemical phenotypes as well as anatomical positions on a single-cell level. In vivo, surviving SN DA neurons showed a significant decrease of spike-timing precision as reflected by an increased irregularity and an augmented burst activity compared to controls.
The present dissertation project provided a unique combination of a neurotoxicological PD mouse model, retrograde tracing techniques and in vitro as well as in vivo electrophysiologiy, allowing to unambiguously correlate electrophysiological adaptations, projection-specific anatomical positions and neurochemical phenotypes of SN DA neurons after a partial degeneration of the nigrostriatal system. Surviving SN DA neurons exhibited a significant deficit of SK channel activity after a partial degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system. In consequence of a diminished SK channel activity observed in vitro, surviving SN DA neurons exhibited and enhanced burst activity in vivo, providing a plausible mechanism to compensate a striatal DA depletion.
The dependence of the Escherichia coli Na+H+ antiporter A (EcNhaA) pH sensor mutant E241C on H+ and Na+ concentrations was tested using a solid supported membrane (SSM) based electrophysiological approach. Proteoliposome preparations with right side out (RSO) oriented carriers were used to investigate the passive downhill uptake mode (physiologically the reverse transport mode) at zero membrane potential. Na+ concentration gradients established with a rapid solution exchange acted as the driving force. When a Na+ concentration gradient was established at symmetrical pH, the transport activity of the E241C EcNhaA variant was similar to that of the wildtype EcNhaA, with no shift of the bell-shaped pH dependence, an increase of the KmNa at acidic pH and a decrease of the KmNa at alkaline pH, supporting the model of a competitive binding of Na+ and H+ to a common binding site.
In dieser Arbeit werden erstmals Mutationsraten von Mikrosatelliten von Daphnia-Taxa aus der Klasse der Crustaceen vorgestellt. Es wurden zwölf Loci bei 27 Individuen über einen Zeitraum von 240 Generationen getestet, von denen 267 Klon/Locus-Kombinationen informativ waren und in denen an drei solcher Kombinationen Mutation beobachtet wurde. Gemittelt über alle Taxa und Loci wurde eine Rate von 2,34 * 10-5 Mutationen pro Allel und Generation gefunden. Der Vergleich mit Mutationsraten anderer Organismen zeigt, dass die gefundene Rate durchaus in deren Größenordnung liegt. Am nächsten kommen sie den Raten, die bei Schweinen und Fruchtfliegen gefunden wurden.
Ribosome biogenesis is fundamental for cellular life, but surprisingly little is known about the underlying pathway. In eukaryotes a comprehensive collection of experimentally verified ribosome biogenesis factors (RBFs) exists only for Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Far less is known for other fungi, animals or plants, and insights are even more limited for archaea. Starting from 255 yeast RBFs, we integrated ortholog searches, domain architecture comparisons and, in part, manual curation to investigate the inventories of RBF candidates in 261 eukaryotes, 26 archaea and 57 bacteria. The resulting phylogenetic profiles reveal the evolutionary ancestry of the yeast pathway. The oldest core comprising 20 RBF lineages dates back to the last universal common ancestor, while the youngest 20 factors are confined to the Saccharomycotina. On this basis, we outline similarities and differences of ribosome biogenesis across contemporary species. Archaea, so far a rather uncharted domain, possess 38 well-supported RBF candidates of which some are known to form functional sub-complexes in yeast. This provides initial evidence that ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotes and archaea follows similar principles. Within eukaryotes, RBF repertoires vary considerably. A comparison of yeast and human reveals that lineage-specific adaptation via RBF exclusion and addition characterizes the evolution of this ancient pathway.
The phylogeny of the genus Gazella and the phylogeography and population genetics of arabian species
(2014)
Biodiversity is caused by a fundamental evolutionary process: speciation. When species can spread into new habitats and are allowed to colonize new ecological niches, speciation can become accelerated and is then called radiation. This can happen, e.g., when formerly separated land masses become connected. A prime example of such a scenario is the Arabian Peninsula that connects Africa and Asia since the Oligocene (approx. 30 Ma ago). Since then, the peninsula promoted several faunal exchanges between both continents. The mammalian genus Gazella is an excellent candidate for investigating this faunal exchange. Species are distributed on both, the African and Asian continent as well as on the Arabian Peninsula that is located in between. The aim of my thesis was to cast new light on the evolution and speciation of the genus and, furthermore, to evaluate the currently problematic taxonomy to infer suggestions for improved conservation actions for threatened gazelle species. Therefore, I investigated the taxon Gazella genetically and identified factors that promoted the speciation of this diverse genus. I assessed intraspecific genetic variability for species that inhabited the Arabian Peninsula to infer the past demography of those species and to estimate the history of species divergence and past population parameters.
In the first part of my thesis I inferred a mitochondrial phylogeny based on cytochrome b gene sequences using samples of all nine extant species of Gazella and also of closely related taxa (chapter 2). Besides the monophyly of the genus Gazella two reciprocally monophyletic clades were detected that evolved in allopatry: one predominantly African and one predominantly Asian clade. Within both clades species pairs could be inferred with species being ecologically adapted to different habitats: one species is a desert-dweller (probably the ancestral character state combination), while the other one is adapted to rather mountainous and humid habitats. These adaptations also correlate with the behavior of the species with the mountainous forms being sedentary, territorial and living in small groups and the desert forms being migratory, non-territorial and living in larger herds.
The second part of my thesis focuses on the Arabian gazelle species. In a study about G. subgutturosa I could show that the Arabian form G. marica (sand gazelle)—previously recognized as a subspecies of G. subgutturosa—is genetically distinct from the nominate form (chapter 3). Moreover, a phylogenetic tree based on cytochrome b gene sequences revealed a polyphyly of G. subgutturosa and G. marica with sand gazelles being more closely related to G. leptoceros and G. cuvieri of North Africa. Consequently, I suggested the restoration to full species level for G. marica corroborating earlier conservation practices of breeding both taxa separately in captivity.
In case of G. dorcas such a genetic differentiation could not be detected (chapter 4). Despite the large distribution range from Mali in the west to Saudi Arabia in the east only low genetic variation was detectable in mitochondrial sequence data. Statistically parsimony network analyses revealed pronounced haplotype sharing across regions. Using a coalescence approach I observed a steep population decline that started about 25,000 years ago and which is still ongoing. The decline could be correlated with human hunting activities in the Sahara. Hence, hunting of G. dorcas (already in ancient times) had a much larger impact on gazelle populations than previously thought and even led to the extinction of the Arabian form of G. dorcas.
In chapter 5 of my thesis I provided a rigorous test to genetically distinguish between the potential species G. gazella and G. arabica. Previously recognized as a single species mitochondrial sequence analyses provided first hints for the separation of both taxa. But without the investigation of nuclear loci the observed pattern could also be the result of male biased dispersal combined with female philopatry. Therefore, I amplified mitochondrial sequence markers and nuclear microsatellite loci for both taxa and found support for the earlier view of two separate species. No signs of recurrent gene flow could be detected between neighboring populations of G. arabica and G. gazella. The split of both species could be estimated one million years ago and the recommendation of breeding both taxa separately in captivity for conservation purposes is fully justified.
Several populations of G. arabica suffer from a severe decline. In chapter 6 I asked whether the population occurring on the Farasan archipelago—being at stable individual numbers for decades—may serve as potential source for future reintroduction on the Arabian mainland, although the gazelles show a reduced body size. Analyzing the genetic differentiation of Farasan gazelles, a genetic cluster could be inferred being endemic to the archipelago. However, only approx. 70% of Farasan individuals were assigned to this specific cluster, while the others showed at least intermediate or even complete assignment to the mainland cluster. This indicates ongoing introgression that is probably mediated by human translocations of gazelles from and onto the islands. Considering the uniform dwarfism of Farasan gazelles, reasons for the smaller body size might be direct consequences of resource limitations, i.e., phenotypic plasticity. If the population decline on the mainland will hold on Farasan gazelles could serve as stocks for future reintroductions.
The use of reporter gene fusions to assess cellular processes such as protein targeting and regulation of transcription or translation is established technology in archaeal, bacterial, and eukaryal genetics. Fluorescent proteins or enzymes resulting in chromogenic substrate turnover, like β -galactosidase, have been particularly useful for microscopic and screening purposes. However, application of such methodology is of limited use for strictly anaerobic organisms due to the requirement of molecular oxygen for chromophore formation or color development. We have developed β -lactamase from Escherichia coli (encoded by bla) in conjunction with the chromogenic substrate nitrocefin into a reporter system usable under anaerobic conditions for the methanogenic archaeon Methanosarcina acetivorans. By using a signal peptide of a putative flagellin from M. acetivorans and different catabolic promoters, we could demonstrate growth substrate-dependent secretion of β -lactamase, facilitating its use in colony screening on agar plates. Furthermore, a series of fusions comprised of a constitutive promoter and sequences encoding variants of the synthetic tetracycline-responsive riboswitch (tc-RS) was created to characterize its influence on translation initiation in M. acetivorans. One tc-RS variant resulted in more than 11-fold tetracycline-dependent regulation of bla expression, which is in the range of regulation by naturally occurring riboswitches. Thus, tc-RS fusions represent the first solely cis-active, that is, factor-independent system for controlled gene expression in Archaea.
Background: Cichlid fishes show considerable diversity in swim bladder morphology. In members of the subfamily Etroplinae, the connection between anterior swim bladder extensions and the inner ears enhances sound transmission and translates into an improved hearing ability. We tested the hypothesis that those swim bladder modifications coincide with differences in inner ear morphology and thus compared Steatocranus tinanti (vestigial swim bladder), Hemichromis guttatus (large swim bladder without extensions), and Etroplus maculatus (intimate connection between swim bladder and inner ears).
Methodology and results: We applied immunostaining together with confocal imaging and scanning electron microscopy for the investigation of sensory epithelia, and high-resolution, contrast-enhanced microCT imaging for characterizing inner ears in 3D, and evaluated otolith dimensions. Compared to S. tinanti and H. guttatus, inner ears of E. maculatus showed an enlargement of all three maculae, and a particularly large lacinia of the macula utriculi. While our analysis of orientation patterns of ciliary bundles on the three macula types using artificially flattened maculae uncovered rather similar orientation patterns of ciliary bundles, interspecific differences became apparent when illustrating the orientation patterns on the 3D models of the maculae: differences in the shape and curvature of the lacinia of the macula utriculi, and the anterior arm of the macula lagenae resulted in an altered arrangement of ciliary bundles.
Conclusions: Our results imply that improved audition in E. maculatus is associated not only with swim bladder modifications but also with altered inner ear morphology. However, not all modifications in E. maculatus could be connected to enhanced auditory abilities, and so a potential improvement of the vestibular sense, among others, also needs to be considered. Our study highlights the value of analyzing orientation patterns of ciliary bundles in their intact 3D context in studies of inner ear morphology and physiology.
The radical pair model proposes that the avian magnetic compass is based on radical pair processes in the eye, with cryptochrome, a flavoprotein, suggested as receptor molecule. Cryptochrome 1a (Cry1a) is localized at the discs of the outer segments of the UV/violet cones of European robins and chickens. Here, we show the activation characteristics of a bird cryptochrome in vivo under natural conditions. We exposed chickens for 30 min to different light regimes and analysed the amount of Cry1a labelled with an antiserum against an epitope at the C-terminus of this protein. The staining after exposure to sunlight and to darkness indicated that the antiserum labels only an illuminated, activated form of Cry1a. Exposure to narrow-bandwidth lights of various wavelengths revealed activated Cry1a at UV, blue and turquoise light. With green and yellow, the amount of activated Cry1a was reduced, and with red, as in the dark, no activated Cry1a was labelled. Activated Cry1a is thus found at all those wavelengths at which birds can orient using their magnetic inclination compass, supporting the role of Cry1a as receptor molecule. The observation that activated Cry1a and well-oriented behaviour occur at 565 nm green light, a wavelength not absorbed by the fully oxidized form of cryptochrome, suggests that a state other than the previously suggested Trp/FAD radical pair formed during photoreduction is crucial for detecting magnetic directions.
Background: Endometriosis is characterized by the presence of functional endometrial tissue outside of the uterine cavity. It affects 1 in 10 women of reproductive age. This chronic condition commonly leads to consequences such as pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea, infertility and an elevated risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. Despite the prevalence of endometriosis and its impact on women's lives, there are relatively few in vitro and in vivo models available for studying the complex disease biology, pathophysiology, and for use in the preclinical development of novel therapies. The goal of this study was to develop a novel three-dimensional (3D) cell culture model of ovarian endometriosis and to test whether it is more reflective of endometriosis biology than traditional two dimensional (2D) monolayer cultures.
Methods: A novel ovarian endometriosis epithelial cell line (EEC16) was isolated from a 34-year old female with severe endometriosis. After characterization of cells using in vitro assays, western blotting and RNA-sequencing, this cell line and a second, already well characterized endometriosis cell line, EEC12Z, were established as in vitro 3D spheroid models. We compared biological features of 3D spheroids to 2D cultures and human endometriosis lesions using immunohistochemistry and real-time semi-quantitative PCR.
Results: In comparison to normal ovarian epithelial cells, EEC16 displayed features of neoplastic transformation in in vitro assays. When cultured in 3D, EEC16 and EEC12Z showed differential expression of endometriosis-associated genes compared to 2D monolayer cultures, and more closely mimicked the molecular and histological features of human endometriosis lesions.
Conclusions: To our knowledge, this represents the first report of an in vitro spheroid model of endometriosis. 3D endometriosis models represent valuable experimental tools for studying EEC biology and the development of novel therapeutic approaches.
The haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii was shown to contain 145 intergenic and 45 antisense sRNAs. In a comprehensive approach to unravel various biological roles of haloarchaeal sRNAs in vivo, 27 sRNA genes were selected and deletion mutants were generated. The phenotypes of these mutants were compared to that of the parent strain under ten different conditions, i.e. growth on four different carbon sources, growth at three different salt concentrations, and application of four different stress conditions. In addition, cell morphologies in exponential and stationary phase were observed. Furthermore, swarming of 17 mutants was analyzed. 24 of the 27 mutants exhibited a difference from the parent strain under at least one condition, revealing that haloarchaeal sRNAs are involved in metabolic regulation, growth under extreme conditions, regulation of morphology and behavior, and stress adaptation. Notably, 7 deletion mutants showed a gain of function phenotype, which has not yet been described for any other prokaryotic sRNA gene deletion mutant. Comparison of the transcriptomes of one sRNA gene deletion mutant and the parent strain led to the identification of differentially expressed genes. Genes for flagellins and chemotaxis were up-regulated in the mutant, in accordance with its gain of function swarming phenotype. While the deletion mutant analysis underscored that haloarchaeal sRNAs are involved in many biological functions, the degree of conservation is extremely low. Only 3 of the 27 genes are conserved in more than 10 haloarchaeal species. 22 of the 27 genes are confined to H. volcanii, indicating a fast evolution of haloarchaeal sRNA genes.
Genome-wide association studies are widely used to correlate phenotypic traits with genetic variants. These studies usually compare the genetic variation between two groups to single out certain Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) that are linked to a phenotypic variation in one of the groups. However, it is necessary to have a large enough sample size to find statistically significant correlations. Direct-To-Consumer (DTC) genetic testing can supply additional data: DTC-companies offer the analysis of a large amount of SNPs for an individual at low cost without the need to consult a physician or geneticist. Over 100,000 people have already been genotyped through Direct-To-Consumer genetic testing companies. However, this data is not public for a variety of reasons and thus cannot be used in research. It seems reasonable to create a central open data repository for such data. Here we present the web platform openSNP, an open database which allows participants of Direct-To-Consumer genetic testing to publish their genetic data at no cost along with phenotypic information. Through this crowdsourced effort of collecting genetic and phenotypic information, openSNP has become a resource for a wide area of studies, including Genome-Wide Association Studies. openSNP is hosted at http://www.opensnp.org, and the code is released under MIT-license at http://github.com/gedankenstuecke/snpr.
Three neonicotinoids, imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiacloprid, agonists of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in the central brain of insects, were applied at non-lethal doses in order to test their effects on honeybee navigation. A catch-and-release experimental design was applied in which feeder trained bees were caught when arriving at the feeder, treated with one of the neonicotinoids, and released 1.5 hours later at a remote site. The flight paths of individual bees were tracked with harmonic radar. The initial flight phase controlled by the recently acquired navigation memory (vector memory) was less compromised than the second phase that leads the animal back to the hive (homing flight). The rate of successful return was significantly lower in treated bees, the probability of a correct turn at a salient landscape structure was reduced, and less directed flights during homing flights were performed. Since the homing phase in catch-and-release experiments documents the ability of a foraging honeybee to activate a remote memory acquired during its exploratory orientation flights, we conclude that non-lethal doses of the three neonicotinoids tested either block the retrieval of exploratory navigation memory or alter this form of navigation memory. These findings are discussed in the context of the application of neonicotinoids in plant protection.
BMPs control postnatal dendrite growth and complexity in sympathetic neurons / von Afsaneh Majdazari
(2012)
The vertebrate nervous system is a complex network of billions of neurons connected by dendrites and axons, integrated to functional circuits and areas/organs in the central and peripheral nervous system. The cells of the nervous system origin from common progenitors, which take on different cell fates based on intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors determine general neuronal traits, but also the morphology and the type of connections made to other cells. Mechanisms underlying axonal and dendritic growth are well described in contrast to the initiation of neurite growth, which remains to be fully elucidated, especially concerning dendrite formation. Recently BMPs have been identified as candidate dendrite inducing factors in sympathetic, cortical and hippocampal neurons. Here we focus on the in vivo role of BMPs on dendrite growth in sympathetic neurons as their development and differentiation processes have been analyzed in detail.
Prokaryotische Organismen werden in ihrer natürlichen Umgebung mit schwankenden Umwelteinflüssen konfrontiert oder müssen gegebenenfalls extremen Bedingungen standhalten. Um sich an derartige Veränderungen anpassen zu können und damit ein weiteres Überleben zu sichern, ist es wichtig neue genetische Informationen zu akquirieren. Die molekulare Basis dieser Anpassung sind Genmutationen, Genverlust, intramolekulare Rekombination und/oder horizontaler Gentransfer. Der vorliegende Selektionsdruck der Umwelt begünstigt schlussendlich die Spezialisierung und damit die Erschließung neuer Standorte aufgrund des Erwerbs neuer metabolischer Eigenschaften, Resistenzgene oder Pathogenitätsfaktoren. Vergleichende Analysen bakterieller Genome, welche auf Analysen der GC-Gehalte, der Codon- und Aminosäurenutzung und der Genlokalisation beruhen, zeigten, dass bei diesem evolutiven Prozess bzw. der Weiterentwicklung der bakteriellen Genome der horizontale Gentransfer als treibende Kraft eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. So indizieren Genomstudien, dass 0-22% der gesamten bakteriellen und 5-15% der archaeellen Gene horizontal erworben wurden, wobei der DNA-Transfer nicht ausschließlich zwischen Vertretern einer Domäne, sondern ebenfalls zwischen Organismen unterschiedlicher Domänen stattgefunden hat. So sind z.B. 24 bzw. 16% der Gene von Genomen hyperthermophiler Organismen wie Thermotoga maritima oder Aquifex aeolicus archaeellen Ursprungs. Ebenso finden sich Gene für Chaperone und DNA-Reparaturenzyme im Genom des thermophilen Bakteriums Thermus thermophilus wieder, welche wahrscheinlich ebenfalls durch horizontalen Gentransfer aus hyperthermophilen und archaeellen Genomen erworben wurden um eine Anpassung an extreme Standorte zu ermöglichen. Durch vergleichende Genomstudien wurde ebenfalls festgestellt, dass die durch horizontalen Gentransfer erworbenen Gene oftmals zu einer Neuorganisation von Transkriptionseinheiten und zu einer veränderten Genomorganisation führten. Dennoch finden sich immer wieder Beispiele von horizontal erworbenen Operonen in den verschiedenen Organismen. Gut charakterisierte Vertreter horizontal übertragener Operone sind dabei z.B. das archaeelle H+-ATPase-Operon, das Operon der Na+-translozierenden NADH:Ubichitonoxidoreduktase oder das Nitratreduktase-Operon.
Man unterscheidet bei dem horizontalen Gentransfer zwischen drei Mechanismen der DNAAufnahme: Konjugation, Transduktion und Transformation. Die DNA-Übertragung durch Konjugation ist durch einen spezifischen Zell-Zell-Kontakt definiert, der durch einen von der Donorzelle ausgehenden, sogenannten F-Pilus hergestellt wird. Die Donorzelle überträgt schließlich Plasmid-kodierte genetische Informationen und oftmals Eigenschaften für die eigenständige Konjugation auf eine Rezipientenzelle. Die Transduktion hingegen beschreibt die DNA-Übertragung von Bakteriophagen auf eine Wirtszelle, wobei hier eine hohe Wirtsspezifität Voraussetzung ist. Die Übertragung der DNA von einer Bakterienzelle in eine andere erfolgt dabei ohne Kontakt der Zellen. Die natürliche Transformation ist definiert als Transfer von freier DNA und ermöglicht damit im Gegensatz zu den beiden ersten spezifischen Mechanismen der DNA-Übertragung ein größeres Spektrum der Verbreitung genetischer Informationen. Freie DNA, welche entweder durch Zelllyse oder Typ-IVSekretion ausgeschieden wird und aufgrund von Adsorption an mineralische Oberflächen über längere Zeiträume stabil in der Umgebung vorliegen kann, kann unter der Voraussetzung der Existenz eines speziellen Aufnahmesystems von Bakterien aufgenommen werden. Mittlerweile sind über 44 Bakterien aus unterschiedlichen taxonomischen Gruppen beschrieben, die eine natürliche Kompetenz ausbilden können. Die bekanntesten Beispiele für natürlich transformierbare Gram-negative Bakterien sind Heliobacter pylori, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Haemophilus influenzae, T. thermophilus und Acinetobacter baylyi. Auch unter den Gram-positiven Bakterien finden sich einige Vertreter, die natürlich kompetent sind, wie Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis und Streptococcus pneumoniae. Ungeachtet der relevanten Rolle der Transformation im horizontalen Gentransfer, ist über die Struktur und Funktion der komplexen DNA-Aufnahmesysteme wenig bekannt.
A novel xanthomonadin-dialkylresorcinol hybrid named arcuflavin was identified in Azoarcus sp. BH72 by a combination of feeding experiments, HPLC-MS and MALDI-MS and gene clusters encoding the biosynthesis of this non-isoprenoid aryl-polyene containing pigment are reported. A chorismate-utilizing enzyme from the XanB2-type producing 3- and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and an AMP-ligase encoded by these gene clusters were characterized, that might perform the first two steps of the polyene biosynthesis. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of the already known or novel biosynthesis gene clusters involved in the biosynthesis of polyene containing pigments like arcuflavin, flexirubin and xanthomonadin revealed the presence of similar gene clusters in a wide range of bacterial taxa, suggesting that polyene and polyene-dialkylresorcinol pigments are more widespread than previously realized.
Ribosome heterogeneity is of increasing biological significance and several examples have been described for multicellular and single cells organisms. In here we show for the first time a variation in ribose methylation within the 18S rRNA of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using RNA-cleaving DNAzymes, we could specifically demonstrate that a significant amount of S. cerevisiae ribosomes are not methylated at 2′-O-ribose of A100 residue in the 18S rRNA. Furthermore, using LC-UV-MS/MS of a respective 18S rRNA fragment, we could not only corroborate the partial methylation at A100, but could also quantify the methylated versus non-methylated A100 residue. Here, we exhibit that only 68% of A100 in the 18S rRNA of S.cerevisiae are methylated at 2′-O ribose sugar. Polysomes also contain a similar heterogeneity for methylated Am100, which shows that 40S ribosome subunits with and without Am100 participate in translation. Introduction of a multicopy plasmid containing the corresponding methylation guide snoRNA gene SNR51 led to an increased A100 methylation, suggesting the cellular snR51 level to limit the extent of this modification. Partial rRNA modification demonstrates a new level of ribosome heterogeneity in eukaryotic cells that might have substantial impact on regulation and fine-tuning of the translation process.
Due to recent technical developments, it became evident that the mammalian transcriptome is much more complex than originally expected. Alternative splicing(AS) and the transcription of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are two phenomenas which have been greatly underestimated in their frequency. Nowadays it is accepted that almost every gene has at least one alternative isoform and the number of lncRNAs exceeds the one of protein-coding genes.
We built user-friendly web interfaces which can process Affymetrix GeneChip Exon 1.0 ST Arrays (exon arrays) and GeneChip Gene 1.0 ST Arrays (gene arrays)for the analysis of alternative splicing events. Results are presented with detailed annotation information and graphics to identify splice events and to facilitate biological validations. Based on two studies using exon arrays, we show how our tools were used to profile genome-wide splicing changes under silencing of Jmjd6 and under hypoxic conditions. Since gene arrays are not intended for AS analysis originally, we demonstrated their applicability by profiling alternative splicing events during embryonic heart development.
To measure lncRNAs expressions with exon arrays, we completely re-annotation all probes and built a lncRNA specific annotation. To demonstrate the applicability of exon arrays in combination with our annotation, we profiled the expression of tens of thousands of lncRNAs. Further, our custom annotation allows for a detailed inspection of lncRNAs and to distinguish between isoforms, as we validated by RTPCR.
To allow for a general usage to the research community, we integrated the annotation in an easy-to-use web interface, which provides various helpful features for the analysis of lncRNAs.
Struktur-Funktionsbeziehungen des Verpackungschaperons Gsf2 in der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(2007)
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Funktion des in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulum lokalisierten Proteins Gsf2 der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae näher charakterisiert. Gsf2 ist ein 46 kDa großes ER-Transmembranprotein mit zwei membrandurchspannenden Domänen, wobei C- und N-Terminus cytosolisch orientiert sind. Zudem besitzt Gsf2 C-terminal ein klassisches Dilysin-Motiv. Eine Deletion des GSF2-Gens resultiert in einer Retention der Hexosetransporter Hxt1, Hxt3 und Gal2 im ER, so dass es sich bei Gsf2 möglicherweise um ein Hexosetransporterspezifisches Verpackungschaperon handelt.
Um Sequenzbereiche zu determinieren, die für die Funktion des Verpackungschaperons bezüglich der Reifung und des ER-Transportes von Hxt1 notwendig sind, wurden verkürzte Versionen des Gsf2-Proteins hergestellt. Die funktionelle Analyse zahlreicher verkürzter Versionen ergab die Lokalisation eines essentiellen Sequenzbereiches in den hinteren 40 Aminosäuren der carboxyterminalen Domäne des Gsf2-Proteins.
Vorläufige genetische und biochemische Untersuchungen hatten ergeben, dass Gsf2 mit Komponenten der Ribosomen, des Sec61-Translokationsapparates und mit Proteinen der COPII-Vesikel interagiert.
Mit Hilfe des Split-Ubiquitin Systems konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit eine direkte Interaktion zwischen Gsf2 und dem Sec61-Translokations-Komplex und den Komponenten des sekretorischen Weges Sec12 und Sar1 bestimmt werden. Sec12 ist ein Sar1-spezifischer Guanin-Nucleotid-Austausch-Faktor, der für die Aktivierung von Sar1 benötigt wird. Sar1 ist ein kleines G-Protein, welches für die Initiation der COPII-Vesikelbildung benötigt wird. Sar1 ist aber auch für die Erkennung di-basische ER-Exportsignale spezifischer Cargo-Proteine zuständig. Diese Interaktion weist daraufhin, dass Gsf2 über solch ein Motiv verfügt und somit die Verpackung von Hxt1 in COPII-Vesikel gewährleisten könnte.
Postuliert wird ein Modell, wonach Gsf2 bereits eine wichtige Funktion bei der Translokation des Hexosetransporter Hxt1 in die ER-Membran übernimmt. Dabei interagiert Gsf2 mit dem Sec61-Translokon, um den Reifungsprozess der naszierenden Polypeptidkette des Metabolittransporters zu ermöglichen. Anschließend rekrutiert Gsf2 das gefaltete Proteine an Exit-Sites des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums. Es interagiert dort mit Sec12 und Sar1, so dass Gsf2 zusammen mit dem Hexosetransporter in die COPII-Vesikel verpackt und zum Golgi-Apparat transportiert wird. Aufgrund des ERRetentionssignals wird Gsf2 über COPI-Vesikel recycelt.
Dieses Modell impliziert, dass Hxt1 über kein ER-Exportsignal verfügt und daher Gsf2 als guide eine ausschlaggebende Funktion bei dessen Translokation übernimmt.
Life-attenuated measles virus (MV) vaccines have revealed their capacity to routinely induce life-long immunity against MV after just a single or two low-dose injections. Moreover, MV vaccines have been shown to be extensively safe and well tolerated, in general. Thus, MV is a prime candidate for a recombinant vaccine platform to protect also against other pathogens after vaccination. For this purpose, foreign genes can be inserted into additional transcription units (ATU) in recombinant MV genomes so that the encoded foreign proteins are co-expressed with MV proteins in infected cells. These so-called bivalent MV should protect against infection by MV or the pathogen, which the encoded foreign protein had been derived from. Bivalent MVs have already been shown to be effective vaccines against e.g. dengue virus or hepatitis B virus infections by inducing humoral and sometimes also cellular immune responses. In most of these studies, soluble or soluble versions of the pathogens' antigens were used for generation of bivalent MVs.
We hypothesized that the form of the antigen expressed by bivalent MVs is crucial for the potency and constitution of the induced immune responses. Therefore, three different forms of an antigen expressed by bivalent MVs were analyzed, here. The model antigen chosen for this purpose has been the envelope protein (Env) of SIVsmmPBj1.9. In its natural mature form, Env is composed of the surface unit gp120 and the transmembrane unit gp41, which stay non-covalently linked after proteolytic processing of the common precursor protein gp160. However, gp120 can be shed by infected cells or virus particles. Therefore, natural gp160 antigen was used as shedding form. Furthermore, stabilized covalently-linked gp160 variants and soluble gp140 variants were used in this thesis. These different antigen forms were inserted either behind the P or behind the H expression cassettes into the MV genome. The respective bivalent MVs were rescued and characterized. Expression of SIVsmmPBj1.9 Env variants by the bivalent MVs was confirmed by immuno blot and in situ immunoperoxidase assays. Replication curves of bivalent MV showed that growth of MVs expressing the different Env variants was slightly delayed by approximately 24 h compared to control viruses.
For immunization of transgenic, MV-susceptible IFNAR-/--CD46Ge mice, which are the current standard to analyze MV vaccines in a small animal model, an optimal dose of 1x105 TCID50 was determined. For the evaluation of humoral immune responses in transgenic mice, two ELISA systems for the detection of total α-MV and α-SIV antibodies and neutralization assays for detection of neutralizing antibodies against MV and SIV in sera of immunized mice were established. Mice immunized with any of the bivalent MVs showed significant humoral immune responses against MV comparable to those elicited by the parental MV vaccine strain without further genetic modifications. Mice immunized with MVvac2-gp140(P) expressing the soluble gp140 variant revealed highest α-SIV titers with a maximal OD of up to 0.4. Second highest levels of α-SIV antibodies were detected in mice that were immunized with the shedding variants or soluble Env in other positions. MVs expressing the stabilized variants induced only very low α-SIV antibody titers. Neutralizing antibodies directed against SIV could be detected in sera of mice immunized with MVs expressing the soluble or shedding variants, but not in sera of mice immunized with MVs expressing the stabilized variants. In sera of control mice immunized with PBS no antibodies could be detected, as expected. Thus, soluble and shedding antigens induced humoral immune responses, whereas stabilized antigens induced only weak humoral immune responses but no neutralizing antibodies. Analysis of cellular immune responses is still ongoing.
Besides Env, further SIV antigens could be tested for their potency to induce humoral as well as cellular immune responses.
Besides being used as a vaccine platform, recombinant MVs are evaluated as future agent for cancer therapy due to their significant inherent tumor-lytic, so-called oncolytic activity. Currently, the anti-tumoral activity of MV is analyzed in clinical phase I trials. MV strains with high fusion activity are used as oncolytic agents. The fusion protein F of MV strain NSe is highly fusogenic, in contrast to e.g. F of MVwt323, a clone of the pathogenic strain IC-B. Sequence analysis of these two proteins identified one coding nucleotide difference at aa 94 in the F2 domain: a valine (V) in FNSe and a methionine (M) in Fwt323. To evaluate impact of this difference, residues at aa 94 were exchanged. After transient-transfection of MV F and H expression plasmids in receptor-positive cells, V94 in the F2 subunit of FNSe or Fwt323 led to about 6-fold higher fusion activity compared to F proteins with M94. The co-expressed H protein (HNSe or Hwt323) did not influence fusion activity, indicating that the receptor (CD46 or SLAM) bound by H does not quantitatively affect the F proteins' activation. Analysis of F and H showed that formation and transport of MV glycoprotein complexes are not altered by substitution in aa 94 of FNSe or Fwt323.
Furthermore, recombinant MVNSe, MVNSe-F-M94, MVwt323, or MVwt323-F-V94 were rescued. Viral replication revealed slightly higher titers for recombinant MVs expressing M94 in F after 96 h of replication, compared to MVs expressing V94. MVs expressing V94 in F2 showed 2.5-fold higher fusion activity on CD46- and SLAM-positive Vero-hSLAM cells and 2-fold higher fusion activity on B95a cells expressing only SLAM compared to MVs expressing F with M94. Fusion activity of recombinant MVs can thus be modulated by substituting a single aa. V94 in the F protein results in highly fusion active MVs with possibly increased direct cytotoxicity in infected tumors, whereas M94 in F could be associated with decreased fusion activity for therapies, where higher virus titers are required.
Die Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae hat sich wie kaum ein anderer Organismus auf die Verwertung von Glukose spezialisiert. Die Aufnahme dieser Hexose stellt dabei den ersten Schritt der Metabolisierung dar. Saccharomyces cerevisiae besitzt hierfür eine große Zahl an Hexosetransportern und eignet sich daher gut zur Untersuchung der Wirkungsweise und Regulation dieser Transporter, sowie deren Translokation zur Plasmamembran.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die Funktion des in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums lokalisierten Proteins Gsf2 der Hefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae näher zu charakterisieren. Gsf2 ist an der Translokation der Hexosetransporter Hxt1, Hxt3 und Gal2 zur Plasmamembran beteiligt. Die Deletion von GSF2 führt zur Akkumulation dieser Transporter in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums. Interaktionen von Gsf2 mit ribosomalen Proteinen, Komponenten der Translokationsmaschinerie und COPII-Hüllproteinen deuten auf eine multifunktionelle Hexosetransporterspezifische Funktion des Verpackungschaperons Gsf2 hin.
Mit Hilfe des „Synthetic Genetic Arrays“ wurde nach synthetisch letalen und synthetisch kranken Interaktionspartnern von GSF2 gesucht, die zur Aufklärung der Funktion von GSF2 beitragen beziehungsweise bisherige Forschungsergebnisse verifizieren sollten. Unter den nicht-essentiellen Genen der Hefe konnte allerdings kein synthetisch letaler oder synthetisch kranker Interaktionspartner von GSF2 ermittelt werden.
Im zweiten Projekt sollten Multicopy-Suppressoren aus einer Genbank identifiziert werden, die in der Lage sind die Deletion von GSF2 und damit verbundene Retention von Hxt1 in der Membran des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums zu komplementieren. Mit Hilfe dieses Screenings konnten einzig GSF2-kodierende Plasmide identifiziert werden.
Die Ergebnisse der beiden genetischen Screening-Verfahren belegen, dass Gsf2 eine herausragende Rolle innerhalb des Translokationsprozesses von Hxt1 einnimmt.
The present work is a pioneer study specifically addressing the aquaporin transcripts in sugarcane transcriptomes. Representatives of the four aquaporin subfamilies (PIP, TIP, SIP, and NIP), already described for higher plants, were identified. Forty-two distinct aquaporin isoforms were expressed in four HT-SuperSAGE libraries from sugarcane roots of drought-tolerant and -sensitive genotypes, respectively. At least 10 different potential aquaporin isoform targets and their respective unitags were considered to be promising for future studies and especially for the development of molecular markers for plant breeding. From those 10 isoforms, four (SoPIP2-4, SoPIP2-6, OsPIP2-4, and SsPIP1-1) showed distinct responses towards drought, with divergent expressions between the bulks from tolerant and sensitive genotypes, when they were compared under normal and stress conditions. Two targets (SsPIP1-1 and SoPIP1-3/PIP1-4) were selected for validation via RT-qPCR and their expression patterns as detected by HT-SuperSAGE were confirmed. The employed validation strategy revealed that different genotypes share the same tolerant or sensitive phenotype, respectively, but may use different routes for stress acclimation, indicating the aquaporin transcription in sugarcane to be potentially genotype-specific.
Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from existing ones, is a fundamental biological process required for embryonic development; it also plays an important role during postnatal organ development and various physiological and pathological remodeling processes in the adult organism. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its main receptor, VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2), play a central role in angiogenesis. VEGFR-2 expression is strongly upregulated in angiogenic vessels, but the mechanisms regulating VEGFR-2 expression are not well understood. We found in this study that the G-protein α subunit Gα13 plays an important role in the regulation of VEGFR-2 expression. In vitro, we found that knockdown of Gα13 reduced VEGFR-2 expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and impaired responsiveness to VEGF-A. This phenotype was rescued by adenoviral normalization of VEGFR-2 expression. Gα13-dependent VEGFR-2 expression involved activation of the small GTPase RhoA and transcription factor NF-κB; it was abrogated by deletion of the NF-κB binding site at position -84 of the VEGFR-2 promoter. In vivo, endothelial cell-specific loss of Gα13 resulted in reduced VEGFR-2 expression, impaired responsiveness towards VEGF-A in Matrigel assays, and reduced retinal angiogenesis. Importantly, also tumor vascularization was diminished in the absence of endothelial Gα13, resulting in reduced tumor growth. Taken together, we identified Gα13-dependent NF-κB activation as a new pathway underlying the transcriptional regulation of VEGFR-2 during retinal and tumor angiogenesis.
Lichens are present in most land ecosystems, frequently occupying habitats where few other organisms are able to survive. Their contribution to the ecosystems in terms of biomass and ground cover increases with latitude and altitude, being, together with bryophytes, the most conspicuous component of alpine and polar landscapes. Whereas some polar lichens have reduced distributions and are restricted to high latitudes, most of them have very wide distributional ranges, which oven extend over several climatic regions. Many of them are common to Polar Regions of both hemispheres, a distributional pattern that has been denominated as bipolar, antitropical or amphitropical. Bipolar distributions are not exclusive to lichens, but common to many groups of organisms. The bipolar element in lichens is exceptional as it includes a large number of species, while in most other land organisms it includes genera or families but very seldom species.
In this dissertation I use the bipolar lichen Cetraria aculeata to give a first insight into the phylogeography of this biogeographic element in lichens. I discuss how and when the disjunct distribution of C. aculeata came to be, and try to partial out the roles that historical and ecological processes played in shaping its distribution.
Sampling was designed to cover a wide geographic extension. The main e"ort was made to collect in boreal, temperate and tropical mountain ranges in North and South America, as well to include Mediterranean populations in which specimens with deviant morphologies are observed.
I found that Cetraria aculeata forms a genetically congruent taxon. Although whether it should include C. muricata remains unsolved, I excluded all specimens identified as the latter from our analyses. Thee populations of both algal and fungal symbionts have a strong geographic structure. The study of the lichen fungus suggested that the species originated in the Eurasian continent and later expanded to acquire its current distribution during the Pleistocene. The results showed that all American populations originated from an ancestral population, more similar to the extant Arctic populations than to the Mediterranean ones.
The comparison between the structure of fungal and algal populations showed a high degree of coherence between them. However, the similarity in photobiont use between Arctic and Antarctic populations suggests that photobiont use responds not only to a history of codispersal in vegetative propagula, but it is also a result of a selective process related to climate. Since this climatic pattern of similarity is also found in the community of Alphaproteobacteria associated with C. aculeata, we concluded that lichens might be able to accommodate or to respond to different environmental conditions by selectively associating with different symbiotic partners.
Lastly, we found the Mediterranean populations of C. aculeata to be genetically differentiated in algal and fungal symbionts from the rest of the populations. While we found no grounds to believe that the overgrown morphs encountered in the region are due to the association with different algal lineages, I believe that a switch in photobiont use might be responsible for the pattern of genetic isolation encountered. Furthermore, I suggest that the Mediterranean and bipolar C. aculeata could be two different species, since both are ecologically, genetically and at least in part morphologically divergent.
The taxon Syndermata comprises the biologically interesting wheel animals (“Rotifera”: Bdelloidea + Monogononta + Seisonidea) and thorny-headed worms (Acanthocephala), and is central for testing superordinate phylogenetic hypotheses (Platyzoa, Gnathifera) in the metazoan tree of life. Recent analyses of syndermatan phylogeny suggested paraphyly of Eurotatoria (free-living bdelloids and monogononts) with respect to endoparasitic acanthocephalans. Data of epizoic seisonids, however, were absent, which may have affected the branching order within the syndermatan clade. Moreover, the position of Seisonidea within Syndermata should help in understanding the evolution of acanthocephalan endoparasitism. Here, we report the first phylogenomic analysis that includes all four higher-ranked groups of Syndermata. The analyzed data sets comprise new transcriptome data for Seison spec. (Seisonidea), Brachionus manjavacas (Monogononta), Adineta vaga (Bdelloidea), and Paratenuisentis ambiguus (Acanthocephala). Maximum likelihood and Bayesian trees for a total of 19 metazoan species were reconstructed from up to 410 functionally diverse proteins. The results unanimously place Monogononta basally within Syndermata, and Bdelloidea appear as the sister group to a clade comprising epizoic Seisonidea and endoparasitic Acanthocephala. Our results support monophyly of Syndermata, Hemirotifera (Bdelloidea + Seisonidea + Acanthocephala), and Pararotatoria (Seisonidea + Acanthocephala), rejecting monophyly of traditional Rotifera and Eurotatoria. This serves as an indication that early acanthocephalans lived epizoically or as ectoparasites on arthropods, before their complex lifecycle with arthropod intermediate and vertebrate definite hosts evolved.
We examined substrate-induced conformational changes in MjNhaP1, an archaeal electroneutral Na+/H+-antiporter resembling the human antiporter NHE1, by electron crystallography of 2D crystals in a range of physiological pH and Na+ conditions. In the absence of sodium, changes in pH had no major effect. By contrast, changes in Na+ concentration caused a marked conformational change that was largely pH-independent. Crystallographically determined, apparent dissociation constants indicated ∼10-fold stronger Na+ binding at pH 8 than at pH 4, consistent with substrate competition for a common ion-binding site. Projection difference maps indicated helix movements by about 2 Å in the 6-helix bundle region of MjNhaP1 that is thought to contain the ion translocation site. We propose that these movements convert the antiporter from the proton-bound, outward-open state to the Na+-bound, inward-open state. Oscillation between the two states would result in rapid Na+/H+ antiport.
Travelling waves are the physical basis of frequency discrimination in many vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, including mammals, birds, and some insects. In bushcrickets (Tettigoniidae), the crista acustica is the hearing organ that has been shown to use sound-induced travelling waves. Up to now, data on mechanical characteristics of sound-induced travelling waves were only available along the longitudinal (proximal-distal) direction. In this study, we use laser Doppler vibrometry to investigate in-vivo radial (anterior-posterior) features of travelling waves in the tropical bushcricket Mecopoda elongata. Our results demonstrate that the maximum of sound-induced travelling wave amplitude response is always shifted towards the anterior part of the crista acustica. This lateralization of the travelling wave response induces a tilt in the motion of the crista acustica, which presumably optimizes sensory transduction by exerting a shear motion on the sensory cilia in this hearing organ.
Background: Serotonin plays a pivotal role in regulating and modulating physiological and behavioral processes in both vertebrates and invertebrates. In the honeybee (Apis mellifera), serotonin has been implicated in division of labor, visual processing, and learning processes. Here, we present the cloning, heterologous expression, and detailed functional and pharmacological characterization of two honeybee 5-HT2 receptors.
Methods: Honeybee 5-HT2 receptor cDNAs were amplified from brain cDNA. Recombinant cell lines were established constitutively expressing receptor variants. Pharmacological properties of the receptors were investigated by Ca2+ imaging experiments. Quantitative PCR was applied to explore the expression patterns of receptor mRNAs.
Results: The honeybee 5-HT2 receptor class consists of two subtypes, Am5-HT2α and Am5-HT2β. Each receptor gene also gives rise to alternatively spliced mRNAs that possibly code for truncated receptors. Only activation of the full-length receptors with serotonin caused an increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration. The effect was mimicked by the agonists 5-methoxytryptamine and 8-OH-DPAT at low micromolar concentrations. Receptor activities were blocked by established 5-HT receptor antagonists such as clozapine, methiothepin, or mianserin. High transcript numbers were detected in exocrine glands suggesting that 5-HT2 receptors participate in secretory processes in the honeybee.
Conclusions: This study marks the first molecular and pharmacological characterization of two 5-HT2 receptor subtypes in the same insect species. The results presented should facilitate further attempts to unravel central and peripheral effects of serotonin mediated by these receptors.
Daphnien sind ein wichtiger Bestandteil des Süßwasserzooplanktons und in einer Vielzahl von biologischen Disziplinen als Modellorganismus etabliert. Ihr zyklisch parthenogenetischer Lebenszyklus und die hohen Raten von interspezischer Hybridisierung mancher Artkomplexe machen sie zu einem interessanten Forschungsobjekt. Die vorliegende Arbeit bietet Einblicke in die Populationsstruktur einer dieser Komplexe, des D. longispina-Artkomplexes, und testete ein neu entwickeltes Markersystem bei diesen Tieren auf gesamteuropäischer Ebene (33 Sammelorte, 1155 Individuen). Es wurden dazu molekulare Analysetechniken mit zwölf polymorphen Mikrosatelliten-Markern mit etablierten ITS-RFLP-Analysen verglichen.
Durch statistische Auswertemethoden mit den Programmen NewHybrids und Structure konnten Elternarten gut zugeordnet werden. Die Betrachtung der Kullback-Leibler Divergenzen in den Analysen durch NewHybrids deuten sogar darauf hin, dass die Anzahl der Mikrosatellitenmarker auf wenige besoders informative Loci reduziert werden kann, was bei Fragestellungen zur Art- und Hybrididentifizierung Zeit und Kosten spart. Ein Protokoll zur Vorgehensweise bei der Art- und Hybrididentifizierung wurde entwickelt.
Die Arten und Populationen selbst waren hoch differenziert. Zwischen den drei untersuchten Arten wurde ein FST von 0,29 gefunden. Ergebnisse aus einer AMOVA zeigten sogar, dass die Differenzierung zwischen den Populationen innerhalb der Arten leicht über dieser interspezifischen Differenzierung liegt (D galeata 0,40; D. longispina 0,52 und D. cucullata 0,42). Da auch keine isolation by distance gefunden wurde, lassen die Ergebnisse meiner Analysen auf „Provinzialismus“ schließen – ein Konzept, das genau dieses Muster voraussagt. Erklärt wird dieser Provinzialismus durch die Monopolisierungshypothese. Die Beobachtung, dass in der Regel in den untersuchten Populationen ein Heterozygotendefizit vorliegt, obwohl klonale Vermehrung oft zu einem Heterozygotenüberschuss führt (Meselson-Effekt), zeigt häufig vorkommende sexuelle Vermehrung an. Das Heterozygotendefizit deutet ebenfalls auf einen Wahlund-Effekt hin.
Es wurde weiterhin getestet, ob das Vorkommen von introgressiver, interspezifischer Hybridisierung in bestimmten Lokalitäten im Vergleich mit Lokalitäten, in denen ein Taxon allopatrisch lebt, einen Einfluss auf die Populationsstruktur hat. Die klonale Diversität sowie die beobachtete Heterozygotie standen dabei im Mittelpunkt der Analysen. Es wurde kein statistisch signifikanter Einfluss der Hybridisierung auf die Diversität gefunden.
Es ist wohl unumstritten, dass das Leben, wie wir es kennen, ohne die sauerstoffproduzierenden Organismen unserer Erde nicht möglich wäre. Zu ihnen gehören nicht nur die Landpflanzen, deren mannigfaltige Nutzung wichtiger Bestandteil unseres Alltags ist. Auch mikroskopisch kleine Algenarten leisten einen entscheidenden Beitrag zu den Stoffwechselkreisläufen dieser Welt. Unter ihnen befinden sich die Kieselalgen (Diatomeen), die mit einer Varietät von bis zu 10000 Spezies etwa 40 % der marinen Primärproduktion verantworten. Der Ursprung der heutigen zur oxygenen Photosynthese befähigten Eukaryoten geht auf Endosymbioseereignisse zurück, von denen aus sich diese Organismen ausgesprochen vielfältig entwickelt haben. Diese Vielfalt wird dabei nicht nur anhand ihrer äußeren Morphologie, sondern auch auf subzellulärer Ebene, deutlich. So zum Beispiel durch die unterschiedlichen Strukturen der Thyakoidmembranen, die sich in Kieselalgen wie Cyclotella meneghiniana in dreilagigen Bändern arrangieren. In Pflanzen wie Nicotiana tabacum (Tabak) hingegen bilden sie große, stapelartige Bereich aus, die zur räumlichen Separation der in den Thylakoiden eingebetteten Photosystemen beitragen. Auch die an die Photosysteme (PS) gebundenen Lichtsammelproteine (Lhcs) haben sich in Tabak und Cyclotella unterschiedlich entwickelt. Gemäß ihrem Namen zeichnen sie sich zwar allesamt durch die Sammlung und Weiterleitung der Lichtenergie an die Photosysteme aus, grenzen sich aber in Hinblick auf Proteingröße und Pigmentierung voneinander ab.
Die Lhcs der höheren Pflanzen werden entsprechend ihrer Zuordnung zu den Photosystemen in den aus zwei Heterodimeren bestehenden LHCI des PSI und die Lhcb-Antennenproteine des PSII unterschieden. Zu letzteren gehören der trimere Hauptantennenkomplex LHCII und die monomeren, minoren Antennenproteine. Die Lhcs binden die zur Lichtsammlung benötigten Pigmente, vor allem Chlorophyll a und Chlorophyll b, aber auch primäre Carotinoide wie Violaxanthin, Lutein und Neoxanthin, in unterschiedlichen Stöchiometrien. Es ist bereits bekannt, dass die Pigmentierung entscheidend zur Stabilität der Lichtsammelproteine beiträgt, wenngleich zum Teil auch eine gewisse Flexibilität in Bezug auf die Art der gebundenen Pigmente an den entsprechenden Bindestellen der Proteine besteht.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit liegt der Fokus auf der Fragestellung inwieweit die in der Regel nicht in Pflanzen vorkommenden Ketocarotinoide die Struktur und Funktion des LHCII aus einer Ketocarotinoide produzierenden N. tabacum - Transformante (bkt-Linie) beeinflussen und welche Auswirkungen sie auf dessen Photosyntheseapparat im Allgemeinen haben. Die bkt-Linie bildet dabei zum Teil auf Kosten ihrer primären Carotinoide sowohl das als antioxidativ und als anti-kanzerogen beschriebene Astaxanthin, als auch dessen Vorstufe Canthaxanthin und einige Derivate dieser Pigmente, die, nach vergleichenden HPLC-Analysen von Blättern und Thylakoidfraktionen, zu einem großen Teil mit der Thylakoidmembran assoziiert sind. Durch spektroskopische Untersuchungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese Ketocarotinoide in Hinblick auf die Energieweiterleitung zum Chlorophyll a nicht funktionell an den LHCII binden, ihre Produktion aber die Trimerisierung dieses Lichtsammelkomplexes in N. tabacum nachhaltig beeinträchtigt. Auch die Assemblierung der PSII-LHCII-Superkomplexe wird dadurch maßgeblich gestört. Elektronenmikroskopische Aufnahmen von Chloroplasten der bkt-Linie verdeutlichten zudem die Beeinträchtigung der Granathylakoid-Stapelung: Sie fällt ungeordneter aus als im Wildtyp, was durch den Mangel an intakten LHCII-Trimeren begründet sein kann.
In funktioneller Hinsicht stören die Ketocarotinoide die Energieweiterleitung innerhalb des PSII und bewirken die Reduktion der photoprotektorischen, nicht-photochemischen Fluoreszenzlöschung des Wirtsorganismus nachhaltig. Zeitgleich reduzieren sie durch einen abschirmenden Effekt auf Grund ihrer Assoziation mit der Thylakoidmembran und/oder durch einen eventuellen S1-S1-Energietransfer von Chl a auf die Ketocarotinoide aber auch die Menge der Lichtenergie, die über die Lhcs an die Photosysteme weitergeleitet wird. Dadurch kommt ihnen neben dem nachhaltig störenden Einfluss auf die Intaktheit des Photosyntheseapparats zugleich auch eine schützende Wirkung vor einem Übermaß an Lichtenergie zu.
Aus Cyclotella meneghiniana sind zwei Hauptantennenkomplexe bekannt: FCPa und FCPb. Im Gegensatz zu den Lhcs der Chl a/b-haltigen Organismen binden die Lichtsammelproteine der Diatomeen das Xanthophyll Fucoxanthin anstelle des Luteins, und Chlorophyll c anstelle des Chlorophyll b. Im Gegensatz zu der bereits sehr detailliert aufgeklärten Struktur des trimeren LHCII in höheren Pflanzen, existieren für den Aufbau des FCPb in C. meneghiniana bisher nur fundierte Modellvorschläge. Diese postulieren eine homotrimere Grundstruktur für den FCPb, die zu höheren Oligomeren assembliert.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte anhand elektronenmikroskopischer Aufnahmen und der anschließenden Einzelpartikelanalyse nun erstmalig die Struktur des etwa 6-7 nm großen, trimeren FCPb gezeigt und die Richtigkeit der bisher postulierten Modellvorschläge in Hinblick auf die Struktur des Trimers bewiesen werden. Nach den hier dargelegten Erkenntnissen gleicht die Anordnung der Untereinheiten des FCPb-Trimers der des LHCII. Zudem ergibt sich aus dem Zusammenhang der hier erhobenen Daten und den in der Fachliteratur veröffentlichten Ergebnissen zum Thema FCPb ein klares Bild über die Anordnung der höheren Oligomere in Form von Nonameren. Auch diese Erkenntnisse unterstützen das ursprünglich von C. Büchel vorgeschlagene Modell für die oligomere Struktur des FCPb in C. meneghiniana.
Aging of biological systems is controlled by various processes which have a potential impact on gene expression. Here we report a genome-wide transcriptome analysis of the fungal aging model Podospora anserina. Total RNA of three individuals of defined age were pooled and analyzed by SuperSAGE (serial analysis of gene expression). A bioinformatics analysis identified different molecular pathways to be affected during aging. While the abundance of transcripts linked to ribosomes and to the proteasome quality control system were found to decrease during aging, those associated with autophagy increase, suggesting that autophagy may act as a compensatory quality control pathway. Transcript profiles associated with the energy metabolism including mitochondrial functions were identified to fluctuate during aging. Comparison of wild-type transcripts, which are continuously down-regulated during aging, with those down-regulated in the long-lived, copper-uptake mutant grisea, validated the relevance of age-related changes in cellular copper metabolism. Overall, we (i) present a unique age-related data set of a longitudinal study of the experimental aging model P. anserina which represents a reference resource for future investigations in a variety of organisms, (ii) suggest autophagy to be a key quality control pathway that becomes active once other pathways fail, and (iii) present testable predictions for subsequent experimental investigations.
Role of N-cadherin cis and trans interfaces in the dynamics of adherens junctions in living cells
(2013)
Cadherins, Ca2+-dependent adhesion molecules, are crucial for cell-cell junctions and remodeling. Cadherins form inter-junctional lattices by the formation of both cis and trans dimers. Here, we directly visualize and quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of wild-type and dimer mutant N-cadherin interactions using time-lapse imaging of junction assembly, disassembly and a FRET reporter to assess Ca2+-dependent interactions. A trans dimer mutant (W2A) and a cis mutant (V81D/V174D) exhibited an increased Ca2+-sensitivity for the disassembly of trans dimers compared to the WT, while another mutant (R14E) was insensitive to Ca2+-chelation. Time-lapse imaging of junction assembly and disassembly, monitored in 2D and 3D (using cellular spheroids), revealed kinetic differences in the different mutants as well as different behaviors in the 2D and 3D environment. Taken together, these data provide new insights into the role that the cis and trans dimers play in the dynamic interactions of cadherins.
Long-distance seed dispersal is a crucial process allowing the dispersal of fleshy-fruited tree species among forest fragments. In particular, large frugivorous bird species have a high potential to provide inter-patch and long-distance seed transport, both important for maintaining fundamental genetic and demographic processes of plant populations in isolated forest fragments. In the face of increasing worldwide forest fragmentation, the investigation of long-distance seed dispersal and the factors influencing seed dispersal processes has recently become a central issue in ecology. In my thesis, I studied the movement behaviour and the seed dispersal patterns of the trumpeter hornbill (Bycanistes bucinator), a large obligate frugivorous bird, in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. I investigated (i) the potential of trumpeter hornbills to provide long-distance seed dispersal within different landscape structures, (ii) seasonal variations in ranging behaviour of this species, and (iii) the potential of this species to enhance the functional connectivity of a fragmented landscape. I used highresolution GPS-data loggers to record temporally and spatially fine-scaled movement data of trumpeter hornbills within both continuous forests and fragmented agricultural landscapes during the breeding- and the non-breeding season. First, combining these data with data on seed-retention times, I calculated seed dispersal kernels, able to distinguish between seed dispersal kernels from the continuous forests and those from the fragmented agricultural landscapes. The seed dispersal distributions showed a generally high ability of trumpeter hornbills to generate seed transport over a distance of more than 100 m and for potential dispersal distances of up to 14.5 km. Seed dispersal distributions were considerably different between the two landscape types, with a bimodal distribution showing larger dispersal distances for fragmented agricultural landscapes and a unimodal one for continuous forests. My results showed that the landscape structure strongly influenced the movement behaviour of trumpeter hornbills, and this variation in behaviour is likely reflected in the shape of the seed dispersal distributions. Second, for each individual bird I calculated daily ranges and investigated differences in daily ranging behaviour and in the process of range expansion comparatively between the breeding- and the non-breeding season. I considered differences in habitat use and possible consequences resulting for seed dispersal function during different seasons. I found that within the breeding season multi-day ranges were built from strongly overlapping and nearly stationary daily ranges which were almost completely restricted to continuous forest. In the non-breeding season, however, birds assembled multi-day ranges by shifting their range site to a generally different area, frequently utilizing the fragmented agricultural landscape. Thereby, several small daily ranges and few large daily ranges composed larger multi-day ranges within the non-breeding season. Seasonal differences in ranging behaviour and range assembly processes resulted in important consequences for seed dispersal function, with short distances and less spatial variation during the breeding season and more inter-patch dispersal across the fragmented landscape during the non-breeding season. Last, I used a projection of simulated seed dispersal events on a high-resolution habitat map to assess the extent to which trumpeter hornbills potentially facilitate functional connectivity between plant populations of isolated forest fragments. About 7% of dispersal events resulted in potential between-patch dispersal and trumpeter hornbills connected a network of about 100 forest patches with an overall extent of about 50 km. Trumpeter hornbills increased the potential of functional connectivity of the landscape more than twofold and seed dispersal pathways revealed certain forest patches as important stepping-stones for seed dispersal among forest fragments. Overall, my study highlights the overriding role that large frugivorous bird species, like trumpeter hornbills, play in seed dispersal in fragmented landscapes. In addition, it shows the importance of fine-scaled movement data combined with high-resolution habitat data and consideration of different landscape structures and seasonality for a comprehensive understanding of seed dispersal function.
Adaptive Radiation und Zoogeographie anisakider Nematoden verschiedener Klimazonen und Ozeane
(2013)
Anisakide Nematoden sind Parasiten aquatischer Organismen und weltweit in marinen Habitaten verbreitet. Ihre Übertragungswege sind tief im marinen Nahrungsnetz verwurzelt und schließen ein breites Spektrum pelagisch/benthischer Invertebraten (z.B. Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, Crustacea, Polychaeta) und Vertebraten (z.B. Teleostei, Elasmobranchia, Cetacea, Pinnipedia, Aves) als Zwischen- bzw. Endwirte ein. Aufgrund der hohen Befallszahlen u.a. in der Muskulatur und Viszera kommerziell intensiv genutzter Fischarten (z.B. Clupea harengus, Gadus morhua, Salmo salar) sowie ihrer Rolle als Auslöser der menschlichen Anisakiasis nehmen die Vertreter der Gattung Anisakis unter den anisakiden Nematoden eine Sonderstellung ein. Anhand der verbesserten Diagnostik und der Etablierung sowie Weiterentwicklung molekularbiologischer Methoden ist es in den letzten zwei Dekaden gelungen, die bestehende Taxonomie und Systematik der Gattung Anisakis zu erweitern bzw. zu revidieren. Aktuelle molekulare Analysen weisen auf die Existenz von insgesamt neun distinkten Arten hin, welche eine hohe genetische Heterogenität und Wirtsspezifität aufweisen, äußerlich jedoch nahezu identisch sind (sog. kryptische Arten). Trotz kontinuierlicher Forschung auf dem Gebiet ist das Wissen über die Biologie von Anisakis immer noch unzureichend.
Die vorliegende Dissertation ist in kumulativer Form verfasst und umfasst drei (ISI-) Einzelpublikationen. Die Zielsetzung der durchgeführten Studien bestand unter anderem darin, unter Verwendung molekularbiologischer und computergestützter Analyseverfahren, Fragestellungen zur Zoogeographie, (Co-)Phylogenie, Artdiagnostik, Lebenszyklus-Ökologie sowie des bioindikatorischen Potentials dieser Gattung zu bearbeiten und bestehende Wissenslücken zu schließen.
Die Verbreitung von Anisakis, welche bisher ausschließlich anhand von biogeographischen Einzelnachweisen abgeschätzt wurde, konnte durch den angewandten Modellierungsansatz erstmalig interpoliert und in Kartenform vergleichend dargestellt werden. Dabei wurde gezeigt, dass die Verbreitung von Anisakis spp. in den Ozeanen und Klimazonen nicht gleichmäßig ist. Die Analysen deuten auf die Existenz spezies-spezifischer horizontaler und vertikaler Verbreitungsmuster hin, welche neben abiotischen Faktoren durch die Verbreitung und Abundanz der jeweiligen Zwischen- und Endwirte sowie deren Tiefenverteilung und Nahrungspräferenzen geprägt sind.
Durch die umfangreiche Zusammenstellung und anschließende Kategorisierung der (mit molekularen Methoden) geführten Zwischenwirtsnachweise konnten indirekte Rückschlüsse über die vertikale Verbreitung von Anisakis spp. entlang der Tiefenhabitate gezogen werden.
Während Anisakis auf Gattungsebene in der gesamten Wassersäule entlang verschiedener Tiefenhabitate abundant ist, wurde für die stenoxene Art Anisakis paggiae ein meso-/bathypelagisch orientierter Lebenszyklus postuliert. Durch den Einbezug eines breiten Spektrums (paratenischer) Zwischen- und Transportwirte aus unterschiedlichen trophischen Ebenen werden Transmissionslücken im Lebenszyklus der Gattung weitestgehend minimiert und der Transmissionserfolg auf den Endwirt, und damit die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer erfolgreichen Reproduktion, erhöht. Ausgeprägte Wirtspräferenzen sowie phylogenetische Analysen des ribosomalen ITS-Markers stützen eine Theorie zur co-evolutiven Anpassung der Parasiten an ihre Endwirte. Anisakis eignet sich daher unter Einschränkungen als Bioindikator für die vertikale und horizontale Verbreitung und Abundanz der Endwirte und lässt Rückschlüsse auf trophische Interaktionen im Nahrungsnetz zu. Durch die weitere Beprobung von Zwischenwirten aus verschiedenen trophischen Ebenen in zukünftigen Studien, kann eine genauere Bewertung potentiell abweichender Lebenszyklus-Strategien gewährleistet werden. Insbesondere ist die Datenlage zur Prävalenz und Abundanz anisakider Nematoden in Cephalopoda und Crustacea noch unzureichend. Die Probennahme sollte dabei unter besonderer Berücksichtigung bislang wenig oder unbeprobter geographischer Regionen, Tiefenhabitate und Wirtsarten durchgeführt werden.
Natural products (NPs) have been a rich source for pharmaceutically used anti-infectives and other drugs. However, the application of anti-infectives inevitably causes the development of resistant and multiresistant pathogens, which have to be treated with novel anti-infectives. The industrial research for novel anti-infectives has been concentrating on members of the bacterial Actinomycetales for a long time. Due to several reasons, e.g. the rediscovery of already known NPs, pharmaceutical companies abandoned their NP-research and focused on drug development based on combinatorial chemistry. However, the limited structural diversity of merely synthetic compound libraries has not been a fruitful source for bioactive compounds. Hence the discovery of novel bioactive NPs as a source for anti-infectives is still of economical and humanitarian interest and will remain to be an important branch of research in the future. One strategy to circumvent the rediscovery of bioactive NPs is the analysis of yet unexplored bacterial taxa. Based on this assumption, this work aimed at the discovery of novel NPs from the entomopathogenic bacterial genera Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus and other promising taxa, as well as the investigation of their biosynthesis. ...
Es gibt für die Orientierung von Vögel ein allgemeingültiges Konzept, das Karte-Kompass-Prinzip (Kramer 1953, 1957): Der Karten-Schritt besteht darin, den eigenen Standort zu ermitteln und mit dem Ziel in Beziehung zu setzten. Damit wird die geografische Richtung bestimmt, die im Kompass-Schritt in eine konkrete Richtung umgesetzt wird. Für Beides nutzen Vögel auch das Magnetfeld der Erde; in der Karte als einen Faktor den Verlauf der Intensität, im Magnetkompass die Achse der Feldlinien. Der Magnetrezeptor, der die Karte mit Informationen versorgt, ist im Schnabel lokalisiert, der des Kompasses im Auge. Ich habe mich in meiner Arbeit darauf konzentriert, die zwei potenziellen Magnetrezeptoren der Vögel feinstrukturell und immunhistologisch weiter zu charakterisieren.
Für den Magnetkompass wird auf Grund des Radikalpaar-Modells angenommen, dass Cryptochrome die Rezeptormoleküle sein könnten (Ritz et al. 2000). Bei Vögeln sind vier Cryptochrome bekannt, allerdings muss das Rezeptormolekül des Magnetkompasses auch in seiner Lokalisation bestimmte Kriterien erfüllen. Die für meine Arbeit bedeutsamen Kriterien sind: (1) die gleiche Ausrichtung der Proteine in einer Rezeptorzelle und (2), dass die einzelnen Rezeptorzellen alle Raumrichtungen abdecken. Ich habe in meiner Arbeit Cryptochrom 1a (Cry1a) und Cryptochrom 1b (Cry1b) auf ihr Vorkommen in der Retina von Rotkehlchen (Erithacus rubecula) und Hühnern (Gallus gallus) untersucht. Cry1b befindet sich bei Rotkehlchen während der Zugzeit in den Ganglienzellen, in denen es teilweise an Membranen gebunden vorliegt, die jedoch keine bevorzugte Richtung haben. Somit erscheint mir Cry1b als Rezeptormolekül für den Magnetkompass als eher ungeeignet. Cry1b könnte, wie viele Cryptochrome, an der Steuerung von circadianen Rhythmen beteiligt sein. Cry1a hingegen ist bei beiden untersuchten Vogelarten in den UV/V-Zapfen an die Diskmembranen gebunden, was eine Ausrichtung ermöglicht. Die UV/V-Zapfen sind über die gesamte Retina gleichmäßig verteilt, und durch die sphärische Form des Auges decken die einzelnen Rezeptoren jede Raumrichtung ab. Somit erfüllt Cry1a die Bedingungen des Radikalpaar-Modells, und ich schließe daraus, dass es sich hierbei um das Rezeptormolekül des Magnetkompasses handeln könnte. Cry1a ändert nach Lichtabsorption wie viele Cryptochrome seine Konformation. Der von mir verwendete Antikörper bindet nur die lichtaktivierte Form des Proteins. In Versuchen, in denen Hühner verschiedenen monochromatischen Lichtern ausgesetzt wurden, zeigt sich, dass sich Cry1a in UV bis Gelb in lichtaktiviertem Zustand befindet. Dies stimmt sowohl mit der spektralen Empfindlichkeit des Magnetkompasses der Vögel als auch mit der des Flavins, des lichtsensitiven Teils des Cryptochroms, überein. Versuche mit grünem Licht lassen vorsichtige Rückschlüsse auf das für den Magnetkompass relevante Radikalpaar zu: so ist das Flavin erst im zweiten Oxidationsschritt grünlicht-sensitiv, und Cry1a ist nur nachweisbar, also lichtaktiviert, wenn der erste Schritt bereits im Hellen abgelaufen ist. Versuche in denen die Tiere vorab im Dunkeln waren, führen nicht zur erneuten Lichtaktivierung unter grünem Licht. Dies macht nur eines der beiden im Flavinzyklus entstehenden Radikalpaare wahrscheinlich, nämlich das in der Reoxidation entstehende, da das Radikalpaar im ersten Schritt der Oxidation unter Grün nicht entsteht.
In Bezug auf den Magnetrezeptor im Schnabel konnte bereits bei Tauben eine detaillierte Struktur beschrieben werden, die als Magnetrezeptor geeignet ist, nämlich Magnetit- bzw. Maghemit-Teilchen in Dendriten der Nerven (Fleissner et al. 2003). Auch Hühner haben eisenhaltige Strukturen im Oberschnabel, die in ihrer Eisenoxid-Zusammensetzung denen der Tauben entsprechen (Falkenberg et al. 2010). Ich konnte in meiner Arbeit zeigen, dass die eisenhaltigen Strukturen im Oberschnabel der adulten Hühner an oder in Nervenfasern liegen. Elektronenoptisch bestehen diese eisenhaltigen Strukturen im Nervengewebe bei Hühnern, wie bei Tauben beschrieben, aus einem 3-5 µm großen Vesikel, der von eisenhaltigen ‘Schuppen’ besetzt ist, aus circa 1 µm langen Plättchen und Kugeln mit einem Durchmesser von etwa 1 µm. Sie sind in Feldern angeordnet, in denen diese Zellstrukturen gleich ausgerichtet sind. In der Anzahl und Lokalisation der Felder der eisenhaltigen Dendriten gibt es Unterschiede zwischen Hühnern und Tauben, allerdings ist unklar, inwie¬weit dies zu Unterschieden in der Verarbeitung im Gehirn führt. Die Entwicklung der eisenhaltigen Dendriten der Hühner beginnt erst nach dem Schlupf, am Tag des Schlupfes haben Küken noch keine eisenhaltigen Strukturen, abgesehen von roten Blutkörperchen. In den ersten 5 Tagen werden eisenhaltige Makrophagen im frontalen Bereich des Schnabels gebildet, die anschließend wieder reduziert werden. Bei 12 Tage alten Hühnern werden diese auch im lateralen Bereich des Oberschnabels angelegt und ebenfalls dort bis Tag 21 wieder reduziert. 21 Tage alte Hühner haben nur noch wenige eisenhaltige Makrophagen, allerdings ein erstes Feld von eisenhaltigen Dendriten. Die Röntgenabsorption zeigt einen Unterschied in der Eisenoxid-Zusammensetzung zwischen eisenhaltigen Makrophagen und eisenhaltigen Dendriten. Es könnte sein, dass die eisenhaltigen Makrophagen an der Synthese der eisenhaltigen Dendriten beteiligt sind, da sie Eisen aufnehmen, aber auch wieder abgeben können und in demselben Zeitraum reduziert werden, wie die eisenhaltigen Dendriten aufgebaut werden.
Sowohl Tauben als auch Rotkehlchen haben sich phylogenetisch bereits vor 95 Millionen Jahren von den Hühnern abgespalten. Es gibt sowohl in der Lokalisation von Cry1a als auch in der Struktur der einzelnen eisenhaltigen Dendriten keine Unterschiede, so dass es sich bei den beiden Magnetrezeptoren der Vögel vermutlich um sehr alte Mechanismen handelt, die sich in der Evolution kaum verändert haben. Vermutlich sind sie vogelspezifisch, da es in dieser Hinsicht keine erkennbare Gemeinsamkeit mit anderen Wirbeltieren gibt.
Die phylogenetisch hochkonservierte Jak/Stat‐Signaltransduktionskaskade repräsentiert eines der zentralen Säulen zellulärer Signalübertragung eukaryotischer Organismen. Ubiquitär im Organismus exprimiert und über eine Vielzahl von Zytokinen, Hormonen und Wachstumsfaktoren aktiviert, sind Stat‐Transkriptionsfaktoren maßgeblich an dem Erhalt der Physiologie und Homöostase von Organen und Geweben beteiligt. So sind die Mitglieder Stat5A und Stat5B (als homologe Proteine im Verbund als Stat5 bezeichnet) entscheidende Regulatoren des Immunsystems und der Hämatopoese, der Funktion und Entwicklung des Prostata‐ und Brustdrüsengewebes (Mammogenese) oder bestimmter Funktionen der Leber. Wie auch Stat3, konnten Stat5 Proteine in aberrant aktiver Form in verschiedensten Typen und Stadien humaner Tumore nachgewiesen werden, wo sie über die Expression ihrer Zielgene sowie über weitere nicht‐kanonische Funktionen im Zytoplasma und im Zellkern einer fortschreitend malignen Entartung entscheidend beitragen. Als Folge der Unterstützung essentieller Tumorgenese‐
Mechanismen, wie gesteigertes Zellwachstum, Apoptosehemmung, Migration und Metastasierung, Sauerstoff‐unabhängiger Energiestoffwechsel, Angiogenese oder Umgehung der Immunabwehr, entwickeln Tumore häufig eine Abhängigkeit gegenüber der gesteigerten Aktivität dieser Vertreter der Stat‐Proteinfamilie und reagieren mit einem Wachstumsstopp und Apoptoseinduktion auf ihre Inhibierung. Perspektivisch stellt die gezielte Interferenz mit aberranten, Tumortyp‐spezifischen Stat5‐Aktivitäten einen relevanten Ansatz in der personalisierten Therapie Stat5‐abhängiger Tumore, vorrangig leukämischen Ursprungs, dar. ...
Background: Within the complex metazoan phylogeny, the relationships of the three lophophorate lineages, ectoprocts, brachiopods and phoronids, are particularly elusive. To shed further light on this issue, we present phylogenomic analyses of 196 genes from 58 bilaterian taxa, paying particular attention to the influence of compositional heterogeneity.
Results: The phylogenetic analyses strongly support the monophyly of Lophophorata and a sister-group relationship between Ectoprocta and Phoronida. Our results contrast previous findings based on rDNA sequences and phylogenomic datasets which supported monophyletic Polyzoa (= Bryozoa sensu lato) including Ectoprocta, Entoprocta and Cycliophora, Brachiozoa including Brachiopoda and Phoronida as well as Kryptrochozoa including Brachiopoda, Phoronida and Nemertea, thus rendering Lophophorata polyphyletic. Our attempts to identify the causes for the conflicting results revealed that Polyzoa, Brachiozoa and Kryptrochozoa are supported by character subsets with deviating amino acid compositions, whereas there is no indication for compositional heterogeneity in the character subsets supporting the monophyly of Lophophorata.
Conclusion: Our results indicate that the support for Polyzoa, Brachiozoa and Kryptrochozoa gathered so far is likely an artifact caused by compositional bias. The monophyly of Lophophorata implies that the horseshoe-shaped mesosomal lophophore, the tentacular feeding apparatus of ectoprocts, phoronids and brachiopods is, indeed, a synapomorphy of the lophophorate lineages. The same may apply to radial cleavage. However, among phoronids also spiral cleavage is known. This suggests that the cleavage pattern is highly plastic and has changed several times within lophophorates. The sister group relationship of ectoprocts and phoronids is in accordance with the interpretation of the eversion of a ventral invagination at the beginning of metamorphosis as a common derived feature of these taxa.
The spider genus Eusparassus Simon, 1903 (Araneae: Sparassidae: Eusparassinae; stone huntsman spider) is revised worldwide to include 30 valid species distributed exclusively in Africa and Eurasia. The type species E. dufouri Simon, 1932 is redescribed and a neotype is designated from Portugal. An extended diagnosis for the genus is presented. Eight new species are described: Eusparassus arabicus Moradmand, 2013 (male, female) from Arabian Peninsula, E. educatus Moradmand, 2013 (male, female) from Namibia, E. reverentia Moradmand, 2013 (male, female) from Burkina Faso and Nigeria, E. jaegeri Moradmand, 2013 (male, female) from South Africa and Botswana, E. jocquei Moradmand, 2013 (male, female) from Zimbabwe, E. borakalalo Moradmand, 2013 (female) from South Africa, E. schoemanae Moradmand, 2013 (male, female) from South Africa and Namibia and E. mesopotamicus Moradmand and Jäger, 2012 (male and female) from Iraq, Iran and Turkey. 22 species are re-described six of them are transferred from the genus Olios Walckenaer, 1837. Six species-groups are proposed: the dufouri-group [8 species: E. dufouri, E. levantinus Urones, 2006, E. barbarus (Lucas, 1846), E. atlanticus Simon, 1909, E. syrticus Simon, 1909, E. oraniensis (Lucas, 1846), E. letourneuxi (Simon, 1874), E. fritschi (Koch, 1873); Iberian Peninsula to parts of north-western Africa], walckenaeri-group [3 species: E. walckenaeri (Audouin, 1826), E. laevatus (Simon, 1897), E. arabicus; eastern Mediterranean to Arabia and parts of north-eastern Africa], doriae-group [7 species: E. doriae (Simon, 1874), E. kronebergi Denis, 1958, E. maynardi (Pocock, 1901), E. potanini (Simon, 1895), E. fuscimanus Denis, 1958, E. oculatus (Kroneberg, 1846) and E. mesopotamicus; Middle East to Central and South Asia], vestigator-group (3 species: E. vestigator (Simon, 1897), E. reverentia, E. pearsoni (Pocock, 1901); central to eastern Africa and an isolated area in NW India], jaegeri-group [4 species: E. jaegeri, E. jocquei, E. borakalalo, E. schoemanae; southern and south-eastern Africa], tuckeri-group [2 species: E. tuckeri (Lawrence, 1927), E. educatus; south-western Africa). Two species, E. pontii Caporiacco, 1935 and E. xerxes (Pocock, 1901) cannot be placed in any of the above groups. Two species are transferred from Eusparassus to Olios: O. flavovittatus (Caporiacco, 1935) and O. quesitio Moradmand, 2013. 14 species are recognized as misplaced in Eusparassus, thus nearly half of the described species prior to this revision were placed mistakenly in this genus. Neotypes are designated for E. walckenaeri from Egypt, E. barbarus, E. oraniensis and E. letourneuxi (all three from Algeria) to establish their identity. The male and female of Cercetius perezi Simon, 1902, which was known only from the immature holotype, are described for the first time. It is recognized that the monotypic and little used generic name Cercetius Simon, 1902 — a species, which had been known only from the immature holotype — as a synonym of the widely used name Eusparassus. The case proposal 3596 (conservation of name Eusparassus) is under consideration by ICZN.
The first comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the family Sparassidae with focus on the genus Eusparassus is investigated using four molecular markers (mitochondrial COI and 16S; nuclear H3 and 28S). The monophyly of Eusparassus and the dufouri, walckenaeri and doriae species-groups are recovered with the latter two groups more closely related. The monophyly of the tuckeri-group is not supported and the position of E. jaegeri as the only available member of the jaegeri-group is not resolved within the Eusparassus clade. DNA samples of the vestigator-group were not accessible for this study. The origination of the genus Eusparassus around 70 million years ago (MA) is estimated according to molecular clock analyses. Using this recent result in combination with some biogeographic and geological data, the Namib Desert is proposed as the place of ancestral origin for Eusparassus and putative Eusparassinae genera.
Further analyses are done on the phylogenetic relationships of Sparassidae and its subfamilies. The Eusparassinae are not confirmed as monophyletic, with the two original genera Eusparassus and Pseudomicrommata in separate clades and only the latter clusters with most other assumed Eusparassinae, here termed the "African clade". Monophyly of the subfamilies Sparianthinae, Heteropodinae sensu stricto, Palystinae and Deleninae is recovered. The Sparianthinae are supported as the most basal clade, diverging considerably early (143 MA) from all other Sparassidae. The Sparassinae and genus Olios are found to be polyphyletic. The Sparassidae are confirmed as monophyletic and as most basal group within the RTA-clade. The divergence time of Sparassidae from the RTA-clade is estimated with 186 MA in the Jurassic. No affiliation of Sparassidae to other members of the "Laterigradae" (Philodromidae, Selenopidae and Thomisidae) is observed, thus the crab-like posture of this group was proposed a result of convergent evolution. Only the families Philodromidae and Selenopidae are found members of a supported clade. Including a considerable amount of RTA-clade representatives, the higher-level clade Dionycha is not but monophyly of the RTA-clade itself is supported.
Photorhabdus is a genus of Gram-negative entomopathogenic bacteria that also maintain a mutualistic association with nematodes from the family Heterorhabditis. Photorhabdus has an extensive secondary metabolism that is required for the interaction between the bacteria and the nematode. A major component of this secondary metabolism is a stilbene molecule, called ST. The first step in ST biosynthesis is the non-oxidative deamination of phenylalanine resulting in the production of cinnamic acid. This reaction is catalyzed by phenylalanine-ammonium lyase, an enzyme encoded by the stlA gene. In this study we show, using a stlA-gfp transcriptional fusion, that the expression of stlA is regulated by nutrient limitation through a regulatory network that involves at least 3 regulators. We show that TyrR, a LysR-type transcriptional regulator that regulates gene expression in response to aromatic amino acids in E. coli, is absolutely required for stlA expression. We also show that stlA expression is modulated by σS and Lrp, regulators that are implicated in the regulation of the response to nutrient limitation in other bacteria. This work is the first that describes pathway-specific regulation of secondary metabolism in Photorhabdus and, therefore, our study provides an initial insight into the complex regulatory network that controls secondary metabolism, and therefore mutualism, in this model organism.
A quantitative analysis of photoreceptor properties was performed in the retina of the nocturnal deer mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus, using pigmented (wildtype) and albino animals. The aim was to establish whether the deer mouse is a more suitable model species than the house mouse for photoreceptor studies, and whether oculocutaneous albinism affects its photoreceptor properties. In retinal flatmounts, cone photoreceptors were identified by opsin immunostaining, and their numbers, spectral types, and distributions across the retina were determined. Rod photoreceptors were counted using differential interference contrast microscopy. Pigmented P. maniculatus have a rod-dominated retina with rod densities of about 450.000/mm(2) and cone densities of 3000 - 6500/mm(2). Two cone opsins, shortwave sensitive (S) and middle-to-longwave sensitive (M), are present and expressed in distinct cone types. Partial sequencing of the S opsin gene strongly supports UV sensitivity of the S cone visual pigment. The S cones constitute a 5-15% minority of the cones. Different from house mouse, S and M cone distributions do not have dorsoventral gradients, and coexpression of both opsins in single cones is exceptional (<2% of the cones). In albino P. maniculatus, rod densities are reduced by approximately 40% (270.000/mm(2)). Overall, cone density and the density of cones exclusively expressing S opsin are not significantly different from pigmented P. maniculatus. However, in albino retinas S opsin is coexpressed with M opsin in 60-90% of the cones and therefore the population of cones expressing only M opsin is significantly reduced to 5-25%. In conclusion, deer mouse cone properties largely conform to the general mammalian pattern, hence the deer mouse may be better suited than the house mouse for the study of certain basic cone properties, including the effects of albinism on cone opsin expression.
Im Zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS) kommunizieren neuronale Synapsen über eine Kombination von chemischen und elektrischen Signalen, die in ihrer Umgebung eine spezifische Komposition von Ionen benötigen. Um eine strenge Kontrolle des ZNS-Milieus zu gewährleisten, hat sich in Säugetieren eine endotheliale Blut-Hirn-Schranke (BHS) entwickelt. Die BHS limitiert den parazellulären Molekül Transport und wird von den Kapillargefässen des Gehirns gebildet, wobei die physische Barrier von den Tight Junctions (TJs) des vaskulären Endothels generiert wird. Das Gehirnendothel ist Teil einer neurovaskulären Einheit (NVE), zu der auch Perizyten (PZ), Astrozyten (AZ), Mikroglia und Interneurone zählen. Fehlkommunikation oder defekte zelluläre Komponenten in der NVE führen in der Regel zu Störungen in der BHS Funktion und können schwerwiegende neuronale Erkrankungen zur Folge haben.
Vor einigen Jahren haben wir und andere Forschungsgruppen herausgefunden, dass der Wnt/β-Catenin Signalweg essentiell für die Vaskularisierung des Gehirns während der Embryonalentwicklung ist und darüber hinaus auch eine bedeutende Rolle in der Induktion der BHS spielt. Des Weiteren konnte im Zebrafischmodell eine Aktivierung des kanonischen Wnt Signalweges auch im adulten Organismus nachgewiesen werden. Allerdings ist die Quelle der Wnt Wachstumsfaktoren bis dato unbekannt. Der Wnt Signalweg ist eine hoch konservierte und komplexe zelluläre Signalkaskade, die in allen mehrzelligen Organismen vorkommt. Wnt Wachstumsfaktoren sind sekretierte, hydrophobe Signalmoleküle, die sowohl über lange als auch kurze Strecken entweder den β-Catenin-abhängingen („kanonischen“) oder β-Catenin-unabhängingen („nicht-kanonischen“) Wnt Signalweg aktivieren können.
Da die meisten ZNS Erkrankungen mit einem Zusammenbruch der BHS-Funktion assoziiert sind, ist die Forschung bestrebt die Mechanismen, die der Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung der BHS zugrunde liegen, zu ermitteln und zu verstehen. Das Ziel meiner Doktorarbeit war es herauszufinden, ob AZ Wnts produzieren und ob deren Wirkung auf das Gehirnendothel an der Aufrechterhaltung der BHS beteiligt ist. Zu diesem Zweck, habe ich ein in vitro BHS Kokultivierungs-Modellsystem etabliert das erstmalig ausschliesslich auf der Verwendung von murinen AZ und Gehirnendothelzellen basiert. Zu Beginn der Studie wurden sowohl primäre AZ als auch eine murine Gehirnendothel-zelllinie (MBE) bezüglich ihrer zell-spezifischen Eigenschaften charakterisiert. Dabei konnte belegt werden, dass sowohl die primären AZ als auch die MBE Zelllinie, aufgrund ihrer Proteinexpressionsprofile als repräsentative Vertreter ihres Zelltyps eingestuft werden können. Die darauffolgenden Untersuchungen konnten zeigen, dass primäre AZ über mehrere Passagen hinweg fast alle 19 Wnt Liganden auf mRNA Ebene exprimierten. Ferner konnte in primären Gehirnendothelzellen und zwei Gehirnendothelzelllinien die korrespondierenden Frizzled (FZD) Rezeptoren und low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) Korezeptoren nachgewiesen werden. Dieser Befund legte Nahe, dass AZ und Gehirnendothelzellen die basalen Eigenschaften besitzen, um über den Wnt Signalweg miteinander zu kommunizieren. Die Stimulation von pMBEs mit Astrozyten konditioniertem Medium (AKM) induzierte die Hochregulation von Claudin-3 einem bekannten kanonischen Wnt Zielgens. Interessanterweise konnte diese Regulation teilweise durch die Zugabe von dickkopf 1 (Dkk1), einem Wnt/β-Catenin Antagonisten, inhibiert werden.
Um die physiologische Rolle der Wnt Liganden zu bestimmen, habe ich mir die Eigenschaft des universellen Sekretionsmechanismus der Wachstumsfaktoren, welcher von dem Transmembranprotein evenness interrupted (Evi) abhängig ist, zu Nutze gemacht. Die Verpaarung von Evifl/fl mit hGFAP-Cre Mäusen erlaubt die AZ-spezifische Deletion des Evi Proteins (Evi KO), was zur Folge hat, dass die Astrozyten der Nachkommen keine Wnt Wachstumsfaktoren sekretieren können.
In vitro führte der Verlust von Wnts in AKM zu einer teilweisen Delokalisierung von Junction Proteinen. Während die Kokultivierung mit Evi WT AZ einen straken Anstieg im TEER und reduzierte Permeabilitätsmesswerte induzierten, konnten diese pro-BHS Eigenschaften bei Evi KO AZ nicht beobachtet werden. Diese Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich, dass Wnts sekretiert von AZ den BHS Phenotyp positive beeinflussen, indem sie die Zell-Zell-Verbindung verstärken, was wiederum zu erhöhtem Zellwiderstand und reduzierter transzellulärer Permeabilität führt. Die Analyse des in vivo Phänotyps von Evi KO Mäusen ergab, dass mit fortschreitendem, postnatalem Alter makroskopisch erkennbare zerebrale Blutungen auftraten. Ausserdem konnte ich zeigen, dass eine Subpopulation von Blutgefässen Malformationen aufwies, die mit reduzierter Astrozytenendfuss-Assoziierung einhergingen.
Das Wissen um die Beteiligung des Wnt Signalweges an der Regulation der BHS auch im adulten Organismus kann in Zukunft von wichtiger Bedeutung sein, da es potentielle therapeutische Anwendungen ermöglicht.
Translation is an important step in gene expression. The initiation of translation is phylogenetically diverse, since currently five different initiation mechanisms are known. For bacteria the three initiation factors IF1 – IF3 are described in contrast to archaea and eukaryotes, which contain a considerably higher number of initiation factor genes. As eukaryotes and archaea use a non-overlapping set of initiation mechanisms, orthologous proteins of both domains do not necessarily fulfill the same function. The genome of Haloferax volcanii contains 14 annotated genes that encode (subunits of) initiation factors. To gain a comprehensive overview of the importance of these genes, it was attempted to construct single gene deletion mutants of all genes. In 9 cases single deletion mutants were successfully constructed, showing that the respective genes are not essential. In contrast, the genes encoding initiation factors aIF1, aIF2γ, aIF5A, aIF5B, and aIF6 were found to be essential. Factors aIF1A and aIF2β are encoded by two orthologous genes in H. volcanii. Attempts to generate double mutants failed in both cases, indicating that also these factors are essential. A translatome analysis of one of the single aIF2β deletion mutants revealed that the translational efficiency of the second ortholog was enhanced tenfold and thus the two proteins can replace one another. The phenotypes of the single deletion mutants also revealed that the two aIF1As and aIF2βs have redundant but not identical functions. Remarkably, the gene encoding aIF2α, a subunit of aIF2 involved in initiator tRNA binding, could be deleted. However, the mutant had a severe growth defect under all tested conditions. Conditional depletion mutants were generated for the five essential genes. The phenotypes of deletion mutants and conditional depletion mutants were compared to that of the wild-type under various conditions, and growth characteristics are discussed.
Tumour cells show a varying susceptibility to radiation damage as a function of the current cell cycle phase. While this sensitivity is averaged out in an unperturbed tumour due to unsynchronised cell cycle progression, external stimuli such as radiation or drug doses can induce a resynchronisation of the cell cycle and consequently induce a collective development of radiosensitivity in tumours. Although this effect has been regularly described in experiments it is currently not exploited in clinical practice and thus a large potential for optimisation is missed. We present an agent-based model for three-dimensional tumour spheroid growth which has been combined with an irradiation damage and kinetics model. We predict the dynamic response of the overall tumour radiosensitivity to delivered radiation doses and describe corresponding time windows of increased or decreased radiation sensitivity. The degree of cell cycle resynchronisation in response to radiation delivery was identified as a main determinant of the transient periods of low and high radiosensitivity enhancement. A range of selected clinical fractionation schemes is examined and new triggered schedules are tested which aim to maximise the effect of the radiation-induced sensitivity enhancement. We find that the cell cycle resynchronisation can yield a strong increase in therapy effectiveness, if employed correctly. While the individual timing of sensitive periods will depend on the exact cell and radiation types, enhancement is a universal effect which is present in every tumour and accordingly should be the target of experimental investigation. Experimental observables which can be assessed non-invasively and with high spatio-temporal resolution have to be connected to the radiosensitivity enhancement in order to allow for a possible tumour-specific design of highly efficient treatment schedules based on induced cell cycle synchronisation.
Author Summary: The sensitivity of a cell to a dose of radiation is largely affected by its current position within the cell cycle. While under normal circumstances progression through the cell cycle will be asynchronous in a tumour mass, external influences such as chemo- or radiotherapy can induce a synchronisation. Such a common progression of the inner clock of the cancer cells results in the critical dependence on the effectiveness of any drug or radiation dose on a suitable timing for its administration. We analyse the exact evolution of the radiosensitivity of a sample tumour spheroid in a computer model, which enables us to predict time windows of decreased or increased radiosensitivity. Fractionated radiotherapy schedules can be tailored in order to avoid periods of high resistance and exploit the induced radiosensitivity for an increase in therapy efficiency. We show that the cell cycle effects can drastically alter the outcome of fractionated irradiation schedules in a spheroid cell system. By using the correct observables and continuous monitoring, the cell cycle sensitivity effects have the potential to be integrated into treatment planing of the future and thus to be employed for a better outcome in clinical cancer therapies.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Diplomarbeit wurde die Rolle der putativen mitochondrialen Kinase PINK1 untersucht. Die Mutationen in diesem Gen sind für die PARK6 Form von Morbus Parkinson ursächlich. Dies ist eine neurodegenerative Erkrankung, welche die Lebensqualität der Betroffenen weitgehend beeinträchtigt. Sie wird mit Dopamin-Ersatzmitteln und DBS (Deep Brain Stimulation) behandelt, beide nicht frei von Nebenwirkungen. Levodopa können bekannterweise zu schweren Fällen von Dyskinesie führen. Die Aufklärung der physiologischen Rolle von PINK1 würde den Wissenschaftlern auf dem Weg zur Früherkennung und anderen Therapiemöglichkeiten verhelfen. Die PARK6 Form der Parkinson Erkrankung wird derzeit anhand von verschiedenen Modellorganismen (M. musculus, D. melanogaster, D. rerio, C. elegans), sowie von verschiedenen Zellmodellen (HeLa, PC12, Fibroblasten aus PARK6 Patienten) untersucht. Als neuronale Zelllinie eignen sich die SH-SY5Y Zellen besonders gut für die Forschung an der durch den Verlust von dopaminergen Neuronen gekennzeichneten Parkinson-Erkrankung und sind diesbezüglich als ein relevantes Zellmodell breit akzeptiert (Xie et al.2010). In der vorliegenden Diplomarbeit wurden mit einem adenoviralen Konstrukt generierte PINK1 knockdown SH-SY5Y Zellen (M. Klinkenberg) als ein potentielles Zellmodell für die PARK6 Form von M. Parkinson analysiert. Als Kontrolle für die PINK1- abhängigen Effekte wurden NT (non target) Zellen herangezogen. Ausschlaggebend für die Wahl dieses Zellmodells war die Beobachtung, dass die PINK1 KD SH-SY5Y Zellen bei einer Reduktion des Serumgehaltes im Medium wesentlich langsamer wachsen als die NT Zellen (M. Jendrach). Die Serumdeprivation schien also der notwendige Stressfaktor zu sein, welcher zur Auslösung eines PINK1-abhängigen Phänotyps führen könnte. Daraus ergab sich die Frage, welche anderen PINK1-abhängigen Veränderungen unter Serumentzug zur Ausprägung kommen. Im Rahmen dieser Diplomarbeit wurde zunächst die relative Genexpression der PINK1 KD SH-SY5Y Zellen in Bezug auf die NT Zellen untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass der PINK1 KD bei reduziertem Serumgehalt zur Herunterregulation weiterer Parkinsonrelevanter Gene führt, deren Produkte an verschiedenen zellulären Prozessen beteiligt sind. Die Effekte traten nur bei stabil transfizierten Zellen auf und waren durch einen transienten PINK1 KD nicht reproduzierbar. Viele dieser Gene sind für die Aufrechterhaltung der mitochondrialen Homöostase bedeutsam und deshalb wurde die mitochondriale Funktion und Erscheinung in den PINK1 KD SH-SY5Y Zellen genauer erforscht. Im Gegensatz zu früheren Befunden (Mai et al. 2010) wurde eine Herunterregulation des für die mitochondriale Teilung zuständigen Fis1-Proteins ermittelt, darüber hinaus aber keine Änderung der mitochondrialen Morphologie auch nach induziertem Zellstress beobachtet (Dagda et al. 2009, Lutz et al. 2009). Ein Defizit in der mitochondrialen Atmung wurde festgestellt, nachdem die Zellen bei 1g/L Glucose kultiviert und für 24h auf ein Galaktose-haltiges Medium transferiert wurden. Außerdem wurde ähnlich zu Amo et. 2010 al eine leicht verminderte Energieladung der betreffenden Zellen gefunden. Keine Beeinträchtigung der mtDNA-Integrität oder der Überlebensrate bei H2O2-induziertem oxidativen Stress wurde beobachtet. Weiterhin wurde untersucht, inwiefern die in den PINK1 KD SH-SY5Y Zellen beobachteten Veränderungen in der Genexpression auf weitere Zellmodelle (PINK1 KD HeLa, kortikale Neurone aus PINK1 KO und PINK1 KO / A53T alpha Synuclein überexprimierenden Mäusen) übertragbar sind. Dabei wurden einige Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen den PINK1 KD SH-SY5Y Zellen und den PINK1 KO /A53T α Synuclein überexprimierenden kortikalen Neuronen ermittelt. Angesichts des Verlustes von dopaminergen Neuronen in M. Parkinson wäre es bedeutsam nachzuvollziehen, ob und wie die verminderte Expression Parkinson-relevanter Gene in diesen PINK1 KD Zellmodellen kompensiert wird, so dass die Zellen trotz der genetischen Einschränkung bei idealisierten in vitro Bedingungen gut überleben können. Hier ist es vorstellbar, dass zusätzlicher Zellstress die Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen den PINK1 KD SH-SY5Y Zellen und den PINK1 KO / A53T SNCA überexprimierenden Neuronen erweitern könnte. Diesbezüglich wäre es auch relevant zu erforschen, unter welchen Umständen die potentiellen Kompensationsmechanismen versagen, so dass das Zellüberleben nicht mehr gewährleistet wird. Im Licht des altersbedingten Ausbruchs der Symptome bei M. Parkinson würden diese neuen Erkenntnisse dazu beitragen, die möglichen auslösenden Faktoren zu erfassen und so ein tieferes Verständnis der molekularen Mechanismen dieser schwerwiegenden Erkrankung zu erhalten.
Sixteen ovarian tumor (OTU) family deubiquitinases (DUBs) exist in humans, and most members regulate cell-signaling cascades. Several OTU DUBs were reported to be ubiquitin (Ub) chain linkage specific, but comprehensive analyses are missing, and the underlying mechanisms of linkage specificity are unclear. Using Ub chains of all eight linkage types, we reveal that most human OTU enzymes are linkage specific, preferring one, two, or a defined subset of linkage types, including unstudied atypical Ub chains. Biochemical analysis and five crystal structures of OTU DUBs with or without Ub substrates reveal four mechanisms of linkage specificity. Additional Ub-binding domains, the ubiquitinated sequence in the substrate, and defined S1’ and S2 Ub-binding sites on the OTU domain enable OTU DUBs to distinguish linkage types. We introduce Ub chain restriction analysis, in which OTU DUBs are used as restriction enzymes to reveal linkage type and the relative abundance of Ub chains on substrates.
The antibacterial properties of nanosilver have led to a versatile application spectrum including medical purposes and personal care products. However, the increasing use of nanosilver has raised concerns about its environmental impacts. Long-term exposure studies with aquatic invertebrates are essential to assess possible adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems. In the present study, acute (48 h), chronic (21 d) and long-term effects of nanosilver (primary size 15 nm) on five successive generations of three Daphnia species (D. magna, D. pulex, and D. galeata) were investigated. Acute EC50 values of nanosilver were 121 µg Ag L−1 for D. magna being the least sensitive species and 8.95 and 13.9 µg Ag L−1 for D. pulex and D. galeata, respectively. Chronic exposure provided EC10 values of 0.92 µg Ag L−1 for D. magna showing the most sensitive chronic reaction and 2.25 and 3.45 µg Ag L−1 for D. pulex and D. galeata, respectively. Comparative exposure to AgNO3 revealed a generally higher toxicity of the soluble form of silver. The multi-generation experiments resulted in effects on the population level for all tested species. Exposure of D. magna indicated an increased toxicity of nanosilver in the fifth generation of animals exposed to 10 µg Ag L−1. Neonates from pre-exposed parental daphnids did not completely recover when transferred into clean water. Exposure of D. pulex and D. galeata revealed not only increasing toxicity in some generations, but also greater tolerance to nanosilver. This study contributes to the assessment of the risk potential of nanosilver on aquatic ecosystems. It shows that effects of nanosilver vary within one genus and change with exposure duration. Therefore, long-term studies considering different aquatic species are needed to better understand the possible effects of nanosilver on aquatic ecosystems.
Gene homologs of GlnK PII regulators and AmtB-type ammonium transporters are often paired on prokaryotic genomes, suggesting these proteins share an ancient functional relationship. Here, we demonstrate for the first time in Archaea that GlnK associates with AmtB in membrane fractions after ammonium shock, thus, providing a further insight into GlnK-AmtB as an ancient nitrogen sensor pair. For this work, Haloferax mediterranei was advanced for study through the generation of a pyrE2-based counterselection system that was used for targeted gene deletion and expression of Flag-tagged proteins from their native promoters. AmtB1-Flag was detected in membrane fractions of cells grown on nitrate and was found to coimmunoprecipitate with GlnK after ammonium shock. Thus, in analogy to bacteria, the archaeal GlnK PII may block the AmtB1 ammonium transporter under nitrogen-rich conditions. In addition to this regulated protein–protein interaction, the archaeal amtB-glnK gene pairs were found to be highly regulated by nitrogen availability with transcript levels high under conditions of nitrogen limitation and low during nitrogen excess. While transcript levels of glnK-amtB are similarly regulated by nitrogen availability in bacteria, transcriptional regulators of the bacterial glnK promoter including activation by the two-component signal transduction proteins NtrC (GlnG, NRI) and NtrB (GlnL, NRII) and sigma factor σN (σ54) are not conserved in archaea suggesting a novel mechanism of transcriptional control.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Rolle der i-AAA Protease in P. anserina, besonders während des Alterns des Ascomyceten. Die dazu durchgeführten Untersuchungen führten zu folgenden Ergebnissen:
1. Unter Standardbedingungen ist der PaIap-Deletionsstamm langlebiger als der Wildstamm, ohne feststellbare physiologische Beeinträchtigungen aufzuweisen. Dass dies auf den Verlust von PaIap zurückzuführen ist, bestätigen die PaIap-Revertantenstämme, in denen das Gen wieder eingeführt wurde, wodurch deren Lebensspanne wieder Wildtyp-artig ist. Dies zeigt, dass PaIAP zelluläre Prozesse beeinflusst, die die Lebensspanne kontrollieren.
2. Bei Hitzestress weist der PaIap-Deletionsstamm dagegen eine höhere Hitzesensitivität auf als der Wildstamm, was sich in einer verkürzten Lebensspanne und der Störung vitaler Funktionen äußert. Dies deutet auf eine mögliche Rolle von PaIAP bei der Hitzestressantwort hin.
3. Im Einklang mit dem hitzesensitiven Phänotyp des PaIap-Deletionsstamms konnte in mitochondrialen Extrakten des Wildtyps gezeigt werden, dass die Proteinmenge von PaIAP durch Hitzestress signifikant zunimmt. Gleichzeitig weisen mitochondriale Proteinextrakte von PaIap-Deletionsstämmen nach Hitzestress signifikant geringere Mengen an PaHSP60 und PaCLPP auf, zwei weiteren Komponenten der mitochondrialen Proteinqualitätskontrolle. Dies unterstreicht die Beteiligung von PaIAP an der Hitzestressantwort von P. anserina.
4. Darüber hinaus beeinflusst der Verlust von PaIap die Zusammensetzung der mitochondrialen Atmungskette und führt bei 27°C zu einer vermehrten Organisation der Komplexe in stabilere Superkomplexe. Dieser Mechanismus wird beim Wildstamm erst nach Hitzestress beobachtet, wogegen der PaIap-Deletionsstamm die Superkomplexmenge nicht mehr weiter steigern kann.
5. Die Genexpression von proteolytisch inaktiven Varianten von PaIAP (PaIAPE540Q bzw. PaIAPE540QG) kann den Phänotyp des PaIap-Deletionsstamms bei 27°C nicht komplementieren und führt ebenfalls zu einer Verlängerung der Lebensspanne von P. anserina. Dies liefert wichtige Informationen über den Mechanismus wie PaIAP die Lebensspanne von P. anserina beeinflusst, da dazu die proteolytische Aktivität von PaIAP benötigt wird.
6. Darüber hinaus zeigt die Analyse des PaIap/PaClpP-Deletionsstamms, dass sich die Mechanismen, wie PaIAP und PaCLPP die Lebensspanne von P. anserina beeinflussen, unterscheiden. Die unterschiedlichen zellulären Aufgaben werden auch bei Hitzestress deutlich, wovon der PaIap/PaClpP-Deletionsstamm noch stärker betroffen ist als durch die Deletion von PaIap bzw. PaClpP. Dies verdeutlicht, dass sich die Effekte der Deletionen der beiden Gene addieren.
Insgesamt konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass die i-AAA Protease PaIAP auch bei P. anserina wichtige zelluläre Funktionen besitzt, die sich auf den Alterungsprozess des Ascomyceten auswirken. Dabei war es möglich verschiedene neue Mechanismen zu identifizieren, wie die i-AAA Protease diese Funktionen ausübt. Dazu gehören z.B. der Einfluss der proteolytischen Aktivität auf die Lebensspanne, die durch die Abwesenheit der i-AAA Protease ausgelöste Reorganisation der Atmungskettenkomplexe in stabile Superkomplexe, und die Induktion der Hitzestressantwort durch PaIAP. Diese Befunde tragen zum besseren Verständnis der zellulären Funktion der i-AAA Protease bei und stellen einen entscheidenden Ausgangspunkt für weiterführende Analysen der bislang wenig verstandenen Aufgaben der Protease dar.
Der programmierte Zelltod (Apoptose) ist ein wichtiger Mechanismus zur Eliminierung von beschädigtem Gewebe und entarteten Zellen. Die Deregulierung der Apoptose führt zu zahlreichen Erkrankungen wie neuro-degenerativen Störungen und Krebs. Insbesondere in Tumoren wird der programmierte Zelltod mit Hilfe von hochregulierten, anti-apoptotischen Proteinen umgangen und es entstehen Resistenzen gegen Chemotherapien. Um innovative therapeutische Ansätze zu finden, wurden in diesem Projekt mit Hilfe eines Hefe-Survival-Screens neue, potentiell anti-apoptotische Proteine im Pankreaskarzinom identifiziert. Von den insgesamt 38 identifizierten Genprodukten wurden zwei für eine weiterführende Analyse ausgewählt.
Eins der näher untersuchten Proteine ist die Pyruvoyl-tetrahydrobiopterin-Synthase (PTS), ein wichtiges Enzym für die Biosynthese von Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4). BH4 ist ein Kofaktor, der von mehreren Enzymen der Zelle für ihre Funktionen benötigt wird. In Zellkultur-Experimenten konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Überexpression von PTS die Zellen vor Apoptose schützen kann, während eine Herunterregulation durch genetischen knockdown die Zellen gegenüber Apoptose-Stimuli sensibilisiert und ihr Wachstum beeinträchtigt. In Xenograft-Experimenten mit NOD/SCID-Mäusen konnte zudem gezeigt werden, dass Tumore mit einem PTS-Knockdown signifikant langsamer wachsen als die der Kontrollgruppe. Zusammengenommen deuten diese Ergebnisse auf eine Rolle von PTS bei der Apoptose-Regulation und beim Tumorwachstum hin, was das Protein zu einem attraktiven Target für die Krebstherapie macht.
Als zweites wurde ein Protein analysiert, das eine Untereinheit des respiratorischen Komplex I bildet: NDUFB5 (NADH-Dehydrogenase 1 beta Subcomplex, 5). Das besondere an diesem Protein sind die verschiedenen Isoformen, die durch alternatives Splicing zustandekommen. Eine Isoform, der die Exone 2 und 3 fehlen, wurde im Hefe-Survival-Screen identifiziert. Bei Überexpression in Zelllinien konnte sie im Gegensatz zum Volllänge-Protein die Apoptoserate reduzieren. Und auch Ergebnisse aus Versuchen mit Isoformen-spezifischem knockdown deuten an, dass hauptsächlich die verkürzte Isoform sNDUFB5 für die Regulation von Apoptose und Proliferation verantwortlich ist. Diese Beobachtungen konnten mit denselben Zellen im Xenograft-Tiermodell jedoch nicht bestätigt werden. Die Ursachen dafür blieben unklar. Zusätzlich wurden immunhistochemische Analysen von Pankreaskarzinomen und normalem Pankreasgewebe durchgeführt. Sie ergaben, dass die kurze Isoform sNDUFB5 im Tumor stark überexpremiert ist, während die Expression des Volllänge-Proteins in normalem und Tumorgewebe ähnlich hoch ausfällt. Dieser Befund macht NDUFB5 zu einem interessanten therapeutischen Target.
Die näher untersuchten Kandidaten-Gene zeigen beide Potential als neue Angriffspunkte für eine molekulare Krebstherapie. Andere in dem Hefe-Survival-Screen identifizierte Proteine wurden bereits als anti-apoptotisch und/oder in Krebszellen überexprimiert beschrieben. Diese Ergebnisse demonstrieren, dass ein funktionelles, Hefe-basiertes Screeningsystem geeignet ist, neue bisher unbekannte Proteine mit anti-apoptotischer Funktion zu identifizieren. Auch zeigen die Befunde, dass bereits bekannte Proteine weitere bisher unbekannte Funktionen wie z.B. die Inhibition von Apoptose aufweisen können. Basierend auf solchen mehrfachen Proteinfunktionen lassen sich weitere therapeutische Möglichkeiten ableiten.
Typ I Interferone sind bekannt für die durch sie vermittelten immunaktivierenden bzw. antiviralen Effekte. Nach ihrer Induktion, im Rahmen der angeborenen Immunantwort, vermitteln Interferone nicht nur einen systemischen anti-viralen Status, sondern können auch wichtige Effektormechanismen der adaptiven Immunität dahingehend beeinflussen, dass sie diese verstärken bzw. ermöglichen. Im Allgemeinen kann diese Eigenschaft als pro-inflammatorische Aktivität der Interferone bezeichnet werden. Allerdings gehört es ebenfalls zu den Eigenschaften der Interferone eine Verminderung der adaptiven Immunität bewirken zu können, was als anti-inflammatorische Aktivität verstanden werden kann. Insgesamt kann man die durch Interferone induzierten Effekte also als ambivalent bezeichnen.
Die Leber als Immunorgan besitzt, ähnlich wie die Interferone, eine zentrale Rolle in der Immunität und sollte in ihrer Funktion als Vermittler zwischen Immunaktivierung und Immuntoleranz nicht unterschätzt werden. Die Aufgaben der Leber können ebenfalls als ambivalent bezeichnet werden, da sie zum einen eine unnötige Aktivierung des Immunsystems verhindern muss um eine Schädigung der Leberzellen zu vermeiden (Immuntoleranz). Zum anderen muss auch in der Leber eine Immunaktivierung stattfinden können, um den Schutz vor Pathogenen zu gewährleisten.
In einem Leberschadenmodell, das künstliche Doppelstrang-RNA (poly(I:C)) zur Induktion von Typ I Interferonen verwendet, sollen im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit Immunmodulationen, insbesondere in der Leber, untersucht werden. Hierbei liegt das Hauptaugenmerk auf den Interferon-vermittelten Effekten, die eine Schädigung der Leber verhindern.
Werden Interferonrezeptor-defiziente Tiere (IFNAR-/-) intraperitoneal mit poly(I:C) behandelt kann eine ausgeprägte Schädigung der Leber sowie Hepatitis in diesen Tieren beobachtet werden. Wildtyp (WT) Mäuse zeigen hingegen keinerlei Schädigungen der Leber, was für einen protektiven bzw. anti-inflammatorischen Effekt spricht, der über den IFNAR und damit über Typ I Interferone vermittelt wird. Unter Verwendung von Mäusen, die eine selektive Deletion des IFNAR auf bestimmten Immunzellen tragen (alle anderen Zellen der Maus exprimieren jedoch weiterhin den IFNAR), konnte der Immunzelltyp ermittelt werden, der beim IFNAR-vermittelten Schutz der Leber eine Schlüsselrolle übernimmt. Aus diesen Experimenten wird deutlich, dass es myeloide Zellen sind, die über den IFNAR durch Typ I Interferone stimuliert werden müssen, um im poly(I:C)-induzierten Leberschadenmodell einen Schutz der Leber zu bewirken. Ergänzend dazu konnte gezeigt werden, dass CD11b- und F4/80-doppelt positive Makrophagen nach poly(I:C)-Behandlung in die Leber von WT Mäusen infiltrieren. Zudem wurde in Experimenten mit Interferon-Reporter Mäusen deutlich, dass diese infiltrierenden Makrophagen über den IFNAR durch Typ I Interferone stimuliert sind. Nach poly(I:C)-Behandlung konnte gezeigt werden, dass Leber-infiltrierende Zellen in WT Mäusen anti-inflammatorischen Interleukin-1 Rezeptor Antagonisten (IL-1RA) sekretieren. In Abwesenheit eines funktionalen Interferonsystems hingegen (in IFNAR-/- Mäusen) konnte eine gestörte IL-1beta- und IL-1RA-Balance festgestellt werden. Für diese Zytokine, die sich gegenseitig regulieren, indem der anti-inflammatorische IL-1RA mit dem pro-inflammatorischen IL-1beta um die Bindung an den IL-1 Rezeptor konkurriert, konnte gezeigt werden, dass ihre Expression in der Leber Interferon-abhängig reguliert wird. In IFNAR-/- Mäusen und in Mäusen, deren IFNAR selektiv auf myeloiden Zellen deletiert war, konnte keine IL-1RA-Expression durch infiltrierende Zellen detektiert werden. Da in diesen Tieren nach poly(I:C)-Behandlung massive Leberschäden beobachtet wurden, kann vermutet werden, dass das Vorhandensein des anti-inflammatorischen IL-1RA unerlässlich für den Schutz der Leber ist.
Abschließend kann zusammengefasst werden, dass die Interferon-vermittelten Effekte, die eine Schädigung der Leber verhindern, zum einen auf der Stimulation und Rekrutierung von Makrophagen beruhen. Zum anderen beruhen diese Effekte auf der Induktion des anti-inflammatorischen Zytokins IL-1RA, und der dadurch blockierten Wirkung des pro-inflammatorischen IL-1beta.
Durch diese Ergebnisse werden neue Einblicke in die Interferon-vermittelte Hemmung von Virus- und Autoimmun-induzierten Erkrankungen der Leber ermöglicht. Genutzt werden könnten diese für die Optimierung IFN-basierter Therapien. Beispielsweise kann durch die gezielte Induktion anti-inflammatorischer Zytokine über IFNAR-induzierte Signalwege oder die direkte Gabe anti-inflammatorischer Zytokine (z.B. IL-1RA) eine Therapie entwickelt werden, die neben den vorteilhaften Eigenschaften der Zytokine eine verbesserte Aktivierung von Immunzellen ermöglicht.
Metabolic changes in summer active and anuric hibernating free-ranging brown bears (ursus arctos)
(2013)
The brown bear (Ursus arctos) hibernates for 5 to 6 months each winter and during this time ingests no food or water and remains anuric and inactive. Despite these extreme conditions, bears do not develop azotemia and preserve their muscle and bone strength. To date most renal studies have been limited to small numbers of bears, often in captive environments. Sixteen free-ranging bears were darted and had blood drawn both during hibernation in winter and summer. Samples were collected for measurement of creatinine and urea, markers of inflammation, the calcium-phosphate axis, and nutritional parameters including amino acids. In winter the bear serum creatinine increased 2.5 fold despite a 2-fold decrease in urea, indicating a remarkable ability to recycle urea nitrogen during hibernation. During hibernation serum calcium remained constant despite a decrease in serum phosphate and a rise in FGF23 levels. Despite prolonged inactivity and reduced renal function, inflammation does not ensue and bears seem to have enhanced antioxidant defense mechanisms during hibernation. Nutrition parameters showed high fat stores, preserved amino acids and mild hyperglycemia during hibernation. While total, essential, non-essential and branched chain amino acids concentrations do not change during hibernation anorexia, changes in individual amino acids ornithine, citrulline and arginine indicate an active, although reduced urea cycle and nitrogen recycling to proteins. Serum uric acid and serum fructose levels were elevated in summer and changes between seasons were positively correlated. Further studies to understand how bears can prevent the development of uremia despite minimal renal function during hibernation could provide new therapeutic avenues for the treatment of human kidney disease.
Unmasking a temperature-dependent effect of the P. anserina i-AAA protease on aging and development
(2011)
Different molecular pathways involved in maintaining mitochondrial function are of fundamental importance to control cellular homeostasis. Mitochondrial i-AAA protease is part of such a surveillance system, and PaIAP is the putative ortholog in the fungal aging model Podospora anserina. Here, we investigate the role of PaIAP in aging and development. Deletion of the gene encoding PaIAP resulted in a specific phenotype. When incubated at 27°C, spore germination and fruiting body formation are not different from that of the corresponding wild-type strain. Unexpectedly, the lifespan of the deletion strain is strongly increased. In contrast, cultivation at an elevated temperature of 37°C leads to impairments in spore germination and fruiting body formation and to a reduced lifespan. The higher PaIAP abundance in wild-type strains of the fungus grown at elevated temperature and the phenotype of the deletion strain unmasks a temperature-related role of the protein. The protease appears to be part of a molecular system that has evolved to allow survival under changing temperatures, as they characteristically occur in nature.
We report here the effects of temperature on the p1 neuromuscular system of the stomatogastric system of the lobster (Panulirus interruptus). Muscle force generation, in response to both the spontaneously rhythmic in vitro pyloric network neural activity and direct, controlled motor nerve stimulation, dramatically decreased as temperature increased, sufficiently that stomach movements would very unlikely be maintained at warm temperatures. However, animals fed in warm tanks showed statistically identical food digestion to those in cold tanks. Applying dopamine, a circulating hormone in crustacea, increased muscle force production at all temperatures and abolished neuromuscular system temperature dependence. Modulation may thus exist not only to increase the diversity of produced behaviors, but also to maintain individual behaviors when environmental conditions (such as temperature) vary.
Perspectives on deciphering mechanisms underlying plant heat stress response and thermotolerance
(2013)
Global warming is a major threat for agriculture and food safety and in many cases the negative effects are already apparent. The current challenge of basic and applied plant science is to decipher the molecular mechanisms of heat stress response (HSR) and thermotolerance in detail and use this information to identify genotypes that will withstand unfavorable environmental conditions. Nowadays X-omics approaches complement the findings of previous targeted studies and highlight the complexity of HSR mechanisms giving information for so far unrecognized genes, proteins and metabolites as potential key players of thermotolerance. Even more, roles of epigenetic mechanisms and the involvement of small RNAs in thermotolerance are currently emerging and thus open new directions of yet unexplored areas of plant HSR. In parallel it is emerging that although the whole plant is vulnerable to heat, specific organs are particularly sensitive to elevated temperatures. This has redirected research from the vegetative to generative tissues. The sexual reproduction phase is considered as the most sensitive to heat and specifically pollen exhibits the highest sensitivity and frequently an elevation of the temperature just a few degrees above the optimum during pollen development can have detrimental effects for crop production. Compared to our knowledge on HSR of vegetative tissues, the information on pollen is still scarce. Nowadays, several techniques for high-throughput X-omics approaches provide major tools to explore the principles of pollen HSR and thermotolerance mechanisms in specific genotypes. The collection of such information will provide an excellent support for improvement of breeding programs to facilitate the development of tolerant cultivars. The review aims at describing the current knowledge of thermotolerance mechanisms and the technical advances which will foster new insights into this process.
A range-wide synthesis and timeline for phylogeographic events in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
(2013)
Background: Many boreo-temperate mammals have a Pleistocene fossil record throughout Eurasia and North America, but only few have a contemporary distribution that spans this large area. Examples of Holarctic-distributed carnivores are the brown bear, grey wolf, and red fox, all three ecological generalists with large dispersal capacity and a high adaptive flexibility. While the two former have been examined extensively across their ranges, no phylogeographic study of the red fox has been conducted across its entire Holarctic range. Moreover, no study included samples from central Asia, leaving a large sampling gap in the middle of the Eurasian landmass.
Results: Here we provide the first mitochondrial DNA sequence data of red foxes from central Asia (Siberia), and new sequences from several European populations. In a range-wide synthesis of 729 red fox mitochondrial control region sequences, including 677 previously published and 52 newly obtained sequences, this manuscript describes the pattern and timing of major phylogeographic events in red foxes, using a Bayesian coalescence approach with multiple fossil tip and root calibration points. In a 335 bp alignment we found in total 175 unique haplotypes. All newly sequenced individuals belonged to the previously described Holarctic lineage. Our analyses confirmed the presence of three Nearctic- and two Japan-restricted lineages that were formed since the Mid/Late Pleistocene.
Conclusions: The phylogeographic history of red foxes is highly similar to that previously described for grey wolves and brown bears, indicating that climatic fluctuations and habitat changes since the Pleistocene had similar effects on these highly mobile generalist species. All three species originally diversified in Eurasia and later colonized North America and Japan. North American lineages persisted through the last glacial maximum south of the ice sheets, meeting more recent colonizers from Beringia during postglacial expansion into the northern Nearctic. Both brown bears and red foxes colonized Japan’s northern island Hokkaido at least three times, all lineages being most closely related to different mainland lineages. Red foxes, grey wolves, and brown bears thus represent an interesting case where species that occupy similar ecological niches also exhibit similar phylogeographic histories.
Genomic basis of ecological niche divergence among cryptic sister species of non-biting midges
(2013)
Background: There is a lack of understanding the evolutionary forces driving niche segregation of closely related organisms. In addition, pinpointing the genes driving ecological divergence is a key goal in molecular ecology. Here, larval transcriptome sequences obtained by next-generation-sequencing are used to address these issues in a morphologically cryptic sister species pair of non-biting midges (Chironomus riparius and C. piger).
Results: More than eight thousand orthologous open reading frames were screened for interspecific divergence and intraspecific polymorphisms. Despite a small mean sequence divergence of 1.53% between the sister species, 25.1% of 18,115 observed amino acid substitutions were inferred by α statistics to be driven by positive selection. Applying McDonald-Kreitman tests to 715 alignments of gene orthologues identified eleven (1.5%) genes driven by positive selection.
Conclusions: Three candidate genes were identified as potentially responsible for the observed niche segregation concerning nitrite concentration, habitat temperature and water conductivity. Additionally, signs of positive selection in the hydrogen sulfide detoxification pathway were detected, providing a new plausible hypothesis for the species’ ecological differentiation. Finally, a divergently selected, nuclear encoded mitochondrial ribosomal protein may contribute to reproductive isolation due to cytonuclear coevolution.
Background: The production of bioethanol from lignocellulose hydrolysates requires a robust, D-xylose-fermenting and inhibitor-tolerant microorganism as catalyst. The purpose of the present work was to develop such a strain from a prime industrial yeast strain, Ethanol Red, used for bioethanol production.
Results: An expression cassette containing 13 genes including Clostridium phytofermentans XylA, encoding D-xylose isomerase (XI), and enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway was inserted in two copies in the genome of Ethanol Red. Subsequent EMS mutagenesis, genome shuffling and selection in D-xylose-enriched lignocellulose hydrolysate, followed by multiple rounds of evolutionary engineering in complex medium with D-xylose, gradually established efficient D-xylose fermentation. The best-performing strain, GS1.11-26, showed a maximum specific D-xylose consumption rate of 1.1 g/g DW/h in synthetic medium, with complete attenuation of 35 g/L D-xylose in about 17 h. In separate hydrolysis and fermentation of lignocellulose hydrolysates of Arundo donax (giant reed), spruce and a wheat straw/hay mixture, the maximum specific D-xylose consumption rate was 0.36, 0.23 and 1.1 g/g DW inoculum/h, and the final ethanol titer was 4.2, 3.9 and 5.8% (v/v), respectively. In simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of Arundo hydrolysate, GS1.11-26 produced 32% more ethanol than the parent strain Ethanol Red, due to efficient D-xylose utilization. The high D-xylose fermentation capacity was stable after extended growth in glucose. Cell extracts of strain GS1.11-26 displayed 17-fold higher XI activity compared to the parent strain, but overexpression of XI alone was not enough to establish D-xylose fermentation. The high D-xylose consumption rate was due to synergistic interaction between the high XI activity and one or more mutations in the genome. The GS1.11-26 had a partial respiratory defect causing a reduced aerobic growth rate.
Conclusions: An industrial yeast strain for bioethanol production with lignocellulose hydrolysates has been developed in the genetic background of a strain widely used for commercial bioethanol production. The strain uses glucose and D-xylose with high consumption rates and partial cofermentation in various lignocellulose hydrolysates with very high ethanol yield. The GS1.11-26 strain shows highly promising potential for further development of an all-round robust yeast strain for efficient fermentation of various lignocellulose hydrolysates.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass bestimmte neuronale microRNAs im Rückenmark und in den Spinalganglien konstitutiv exprimiert und nach peripherer Entzündung mit Formalin oder Zymosan differenziell reguliert werden. Bei der SNI-induzierten Neuropathie konnte indessen keine signifikante Regulation der untersuchten microRNAs nachgewiesen werden. Aufgrund der Lokalisation in den Neuronen der Schmerz-verarbeitenden Laminae I und II des Dorsalhorns des Rückenmarks und angesichts der Regulation in entzündlich stimulierten Neuronen und Mikroglia wurde der Fokus der Arbeit auf die Untersuchung von microRNA-124a gelegt. Anhand von Expressionsanalysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine periphere entzündliche Stimulation mit Formalin oder Zymosan microRNA-124a im Rückenmark inhibiert, die Expression pro-inflammatorischer und pro-nozizeptiver Gene hiernach ermöglicht und ein vermehrtes Schmerzverhalten bewirkt. Die funktionelle Relevanz von microRNA-124a wurde in vivo mittels intravenöser Applikation von microRNA-124a-Modulatoren bei einem Modell für entzündliche Schmerzen, dem Formalin-Modell untersucht. Dabei führte die Hemmung von microRNA-124a zu einem verstärkten Schmerzverhalten, welches mit einer Hochregulation verschiedener Entzündungsmarker einherging. Die Überexpression von microRNA-124a dagegen antagonisierte die Hochregulation entzündlicher Mediatoren und führte zu einer Schmerzhemmung. Darüber hinaus konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit der antinozizeptive Effekt von microRNA-124a mit der Regulation der Epigenetik-regulierenden Targets MeCP2, HDAC5 und MYST2 assoziiert werden und u.a. über die Hemmung des neuromodulierenden, pro-inflammatorischen Peptids BDNF verifiziert werden. Die spezielle Darreichung von microRNA-124a könnte demzufolge einen vielversprechenden Ansatz zur Therapie chronisch-entzündlicher Schmerzen liefern. Zukünftig werden weitere Studien notwendig sein um die eindeutige Funktion, die individuelle Wirkung sowie die therapeutische Relevanz von microRNA-124a zu analysieren. Darüber hinaus müssten Dosis-Wirkungs-Beziehungen und Nebenwirkungsprofile für microRNA-124a erstellt werden, um potenzielle Risiken, Chancen und Vorteile der microRNA-Modulation hinsichtlich einer humanen Schmerztherapie bewerten zu können.
Functional modules of metabolic networks are essential for understanding the metabolism of an organism as a whole. With the vast amount of experimental data and the construction of complex and large-scale, often genome-wide, models, the computer-aided identification of functional modules becomes more and more important. Since steady states play a key role in biology, many methods have been developed in that context, for example, elementary flux modes, extreme pathways, transition invariants and place invariants. Metabolic networks can be studied also from the point of view of graph theory, and algorithms for graph decomposition have been applied for the identification of functional modules. A prominent and currently intensively discussed field of methods in graph theory addresses the Q-modularity. In this paper, we recall known concepts of module detection based on the steady-state assumption, focusing on transition-invariants (elementary modes) and their computation as minimal solutions of systems of Diophantine equations. We present the Fourier-Motzkin algorithm in detail. Afterwards, we introduce the Q-modularity as an example for a useful non-steady-state method and its application to metabolic networks. To illustrate and discuss the concepts of invariants and Q-modularity, we apply a part of the central carbon metabolism in potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum) as running example. The intention of the paper is to give a compact presentation of known steady-state concepts from a graph-theoretical viewpoint in the context of network decomposition and reduction and to introduce the application of Q-modularity to metabolic Petri net models.
Finding motifs in biological, social, technological, and other types of networks has become a widespread method to gain more knowledge about these networks’ structure and function. However, this task is very computationally demanding, because it is highly associated with the graph isomorphism which is an NP problem (not known to belong to P or NP-complete subsets yet). Accordingly, this research is endeavoring to decrease the need to call NAUTY isomorphism detection method, which is the most time-consuming step in many existing algorithms. The work provides an extremely fast motif detection algorithm called QuateXelero, which has a Quaternary Tree data structure in the heart. The proposed algorithm is based on the well-known ESU (FANMOD) motif detection algorithm. The results of experiments on some standard model networks approve the overal superiority of the proposed algorithm, namely QuateXelero, compared with two of the fastest existing algorithms, G-Tries and Kavosh. QuateXelero is especially fastest in constructing the central data structure of the algorithm from scratch based on the input network.
During gastrulation in the mouse embryo, dynamic cell movements including epiblast invagination and mesodermal layer expansion lead to the establishment of the three-layered body plan. The precise details of these movements, however, are sometimes elusive, because of the limitations in live imaging. To overcome this problem, we developed techniques to enable observation of living mouse embryos with digital scanned light sheet microscope (DSLM). The achieved deep and high time-resolution images of GFP-expressing nuclei and following 3D tracking analysis revealed the following findings: (i) Interkinetic nuclear migration (INM) occurs in the epiblast at embryonic day (E)6 and 6.5. (ii) INM-like migration occurs in the E5.5 embryo, when the epiblast is a monolayer and not yet pseudostratified. (iii) Primary driving force for INM at E6.5 is not pressure from neighboring nuclei. (iv) Mesodermal cells migrate not as a sheet but as individual cells without coordination.
Metastasic breast cancer is the leading cause of death by malignancy in women worldwide. Tumor metastasis is a multistep process encompassing local invasion of cancer cells at primary tumor site, intravasation into the blood vessel, survival in systemic circulation, and extravasation across the endothelium to metastasize at a secondary site. However, only a small percentage of circulating cancer cells initiate metastatic colonies. This fact, together with the inaccessibility and structural complexity of target tissues has hampered the study of the later steps in cancer metastasis. In addition, most data are derived from in vivo models where critical steps such as intravasation/extravasation of human cancer cells are mediated by murine endothelial cells. Here, we developed a new mouse model to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying late steps of the metastatic cascade. We have shown that a network of functional human blood vessels can be formed by co-implantation of human endothelial cells and mesenchymal cells, embedded within a reconstituted basement membrane-like matrix and inoculated subcutaneously into immunodeficient mice. The ability of circulating cancer cells to colonize these human vascularized organoids was next assessed in an orthotopic model of human breast cancer by bioluminescent imaging, molecular techniques and immunohistological analysis. We demonstrate that disseminated human breast cancer cells efficiently colonize organoids containing a functional microvessel network composed of human endothelial cells, connected to the mouse circulatory system. Human breast cancer cells could be clearly detected at different stages of the metastatic process: initial arrest in the human microvasculature, extravasation, and growth into avascular micrometastases. This new mouse model may help us to map the extravasation process with unprecedented detail, opening the way for the identification of relevant targets for therapeutic intervention.
A new type of Na+-driven ATP synthase membrane rotor with a two-carboxylate ion-coupling motif
(2013)
Abstract: The anaerobic bacterium Fusobacterium nucleatum uses glutamate decarboxylation to generate a transmembrane gradient of Na+. Here, we demonstrate that this ion-motive force is directly coupled to ATP synthesis, via an F1Fo-ATP synthase with a novel Na+ recognition motif, shared by other human pathogens. Molecular modeling and free-energy simulations of the rotary element of the enzyme, the c-ring, indicate Na+ specificity in physiological settings. Consistently, activity measurements showed Na+ stimulation of the enzyme, either membrane-embedded or isolated, and ATP synthesis was sensitive to the Na+ ionophore monensin. Furthermore, Na+ has a protective effect against inhibitors targeting the ion-binding sites, both in the complete ATP synthase and the isolated c-ring. Definitive evidence of Na+ coupling is provided by two identical crystal structures of the c11 ring, solved by X-ray crystallography at 2.2 and 2.6 Å resolution, at pH 5.3 and 8.7, respectively. Na+ ions occupy all binding sites, each coordinated by four amino acids and a water molecule. Intriguingly, two carboxylates instead of one mediate ion binding. Simulations and experiments demonstrate that this motif implies that a proton is concurrently bound to all sites, although Na+ alone drives the rotary mechanism. The structure thus reveals a new mode of ion coupling in ATP synthases and provides a basis for drug-design efforts against this opportunistic pathogen.
Author Summary: Essential cellular processes such as biosynthesis, transport, and motility are sustained by the energy released in the hydrolysis of ATP, the universal energy carrier in living cells. Most ATP in the cell is produced by a membrane-bound enzyme, the ATP synthase, through a rotary mechanism that is coupled to the translocation of ions across the membrane. The majority of ATP synthases are energized by transmembrane electrochemical gradients of protons (proton-motive force), but a number of organisms, including some important human pathogens, use gradients of sodium ions instead (sodium-motive force). The ion specificity of ATP synthases is determined by a membrane-embedded sub-complex, the c-ring, which is the smallest known biological rotor. The functional mechanism of the rotor ring and its variations among different organisms are of wide interest, because of this enzyme's impact on metabolism and disease, and because of its potential for nanotechnology applications. Here, we characterize a previously unrecognized type of Na+-driven ATP synthase from the opportunistic human pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum, which is implicated in periodontal diseases. We analyzed this ATP synthase and its rotor ring through a multi-disciplinary approach, combining cell-growth and biochemical assays, X-ray crystallography and computer-simulation methods. Two crystal structures of the membrane rotor were solved, at low and high pH, revealing an atypical ion-recognition motif mediated by two carboxylate side-chains. This motif is shared by other human pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis or Streptococcus pneumonia, whose ATP synthases are targets of novel antibiotic drugs. The implications of this ion-recognition mode on the mechanism of the ATP synthase and the cellular bioenergetics of F. nucleatum were thus examined. Our results provide the basis for future pharmacological efforts against this important pathogen.
Es gibt viele Theorien, die sich mit der Auswirkung einer zunehmenden carnivoren Ernährung von Homininen auf Carnivorengilden beschäftigen. Aussterbeereignisse in der Carnivorengilde werden oft mit carnivoren Homininen in Verbindung gebracht. Um zu prüfen, ob solche Theorien überhaupt zutreffen, benötigt man zunächst ein Modell, das Effekte von Konkurrenzbeziehungen innerhalb von Carnivorengilden quantifiziert darstellt.
In dieser Arbeit ist daher ein Modell entwickelt worden, das die Konkurrenz um Beute innerhalb einer Carnivorengilde darstellt und ermöglicht Veränderungen durch das Eintreten neuer Mitglieder in die Gilde zu modellieren. Dieses Modell wurde zur Analyse der rezenten Großcarnivorengilden der Serengeti, des Krüger-National-Parks und des Bandipur-Biosphärenreservat verwendet. Ebenso ist es zur Analyse pleistozäner Großcarnivorengilden Javas eingesetzt worden.
In dem Modell wird die verfügbare Beutemasse als limitierende Ressource für die Carnivorengilde betrachtet. Im ersten Schritt wird die Beute kategorisiert – in dieser Arbeit nach ihrer Körpermasse – und geprüft, welche Mitglieder dieselben Beutekategorien nutzen und welche für sie essentiell sind. Im zweiten Schritt wird die konkurrenzfreie Kapazität der Gildenmitglieder berechnet. Hierzu wird die für die gesamte Gilde verfügbare Beutemasse unter der Annahme verwendet, sie stehe einem Gildenmitglied allein zur Verfügung. Die konkurrenzfreie Kapazität ist daher die Populationsgröße, die ein Gildenmitglied mit dieser Beutemasse erreichen kann und stellt einen Referenzwert dar. Basierend auf diesem Referenzwert und der tatsächlichen Populationsgröße kann nun berechnet werden, zu welchem Anteil ein Mitglied diese Kapazität ausschöpft. Ist der Konsum an Beutemasse der übrigen Mitglieder in den essentiellen Beutekategorien bekannt, kann berechnet werden, zu welchem Anteil ein Mitglied durch ein anderes Mitglied von dieser Kapazität verliert. Dieser Verlust an Kapazität wird als Konkurrenzeffekt bezeichnet.
Dieses Modell ist sowohl auf rezente als auch fossile Gilden anwendbar. Um mit dem Modell die Konkurrenzeffekte zu berechnen, werden die Häufigkeit bzw. Populationsgröße, das Beutemassenspektrum sowie der tägliche Bedarf an Beutemasse benötigt.
Diese Größen können bei der Strukturanalyse von rezenten Gilden aus Freilandstudien entnommen werden. Im Falle fossiler Gilden müssen diese Größen erst rekonstruiert werden. Dafür sind in dieser Arbeit vorhandene Rekonstruktionsmethoden ergänzt, aber auch entwickelt worden, mit denen man basierend auf der Körpermasse fossiler Carnivora die benötigten Parameter rekonstruieren kann. Hierzu sind verschiedene Regressionen berechnet worden, die einen Zusammenhang zwischen verschiedenen Zahnparametern und der Körpermasse darstellen. Weiterhin sind Muster der Beutemassenspektren rezenter Carnivora untersucht worden und Regressionen berechnet worden, die zur Rekonstruktion der mittleren Beutemasse eines Carnivoren verwendet werden.
Die benötigten Daten der javanischen Gilden werden mit den eben genannten Regressionen rekonstruiert. Anschließend wird eine Strukturanalyse der genannten rezenten und fossilen Großcarnivorengilden durchgeführt.
Bei den drei rezenten Gilden ist eine generelle sich wiederholende Struktur erkennbar. Die erfolgreichsten Mitglieder schöpfen ihre Kapazität zu ca. 60 % aus und verfolgen eine soziale Lebensweise.
Dennoch werden die erfolgreichsten Mitglieder der Gilden von unterschiedlichen Arten repräsentiert. So sind dies der Löwe im Krüger-Nationalpark, die Tüpfelhyäne in der Serengeti oder der Rothund in Bandipur.
Bei den fossilen Gilden war diese Struktur allerdings nicht erkennbar. Hier schöpft der Tiger seine Kapazität in allen Gilden am stärksten aus und hat extrem hohe Konkurrenzeffekte (bis zu ca. 98 %) auf die übrigen Gildenmitglieder.
Diese Unterschiede können mit Isolationsbedingungen Javas als Insel zusammenhängen, die sich grundsätzlich auf Strukturen der Säugergemeinschaften auswirken.
Vermutlich konnte der Tiger durch Veränderungen der Körpermasse seine konkurrenzstarke Position in der Großcarnivorengilde Javas halten.
Das entwickelte Modell ermöglicht auch eine Modellierung von Szenarien, die verschiedene Möglichkeiten berücksichtigt. Diese sind vor allem Veränderungen der Populationsgrößen, aber auch Veränderungen der Körpermasse und daraus resultierende Verschiebungen der Beutemassenspektren.
In Beispielen der Trinil-Gilde wird gezeigt, dass die Rolle eines hyper- bzw. hypocarnivoren Homo erectus in der Gilde mit dem entwickelten Modell dargestellt werden kann. Auch lassen sich Szenarien modellieren, in denen ein hyper- bzw. hypocarnivorer Homo erectus in die Gilde eindringt und so die übrigen Mitglieder von bei ihrer Kapazitätsausschöpfung Einbuße hinnehmen müssen.
In dem Szenarium von Trinil wird erkennbar, dass nur ein hypercarnivorer Homo erectus einen starken Effekt auf die Gildenmitglieder hatte. Geht man von einem omnivoren Homo erectus aus, ist der Konkurrenzeffekt geringer und es sind keine Aussterbeereignisse zu erwarten.
Das Modell kann in weiteren Studien zur Testung von Hypothesen zu Aussterbeereignissen Aufklärung bieten. Durch Einbeziehung weiterer Faktoren wie Kleptoparasitismus und interspezifische Tötungen kann es noch erweitert werden. Auch eine Dynamisierung des Modells, die eine kontinuierlich zeitliche Veränderung der Gilden modellieren kann, ist in zukünftigen Studien möglich.
Mitochondrial cristae morphology is highly variable and altered under numerous pathological conditions. The protein complexes involved are largely unknown or only insufficiently characterized. Using complexome profiling we identified apolipoprotein O (APOO) and apolipoprotein O-like protein (APOOL) as putative components of the Mitofilin/MINOS protein complex which was recently implicated in determining cristae morphology. We show that APOOL is a mitochondrial membrane protein facing the intermembrane space. It specifically binds to cardiolipin in vitro but not to the precursor lipid phosphatidylglycerol. Overexpression of APOOL led to fragmentation of mitochondria, a reduced basal oxygen consumption rate, and altered cristae morphology. Downregulation of APOOL impaired mitochondrial respiration and caused major alterations in cristae morphology. We further show that APOOL physically interacts with several subunits of the MINOS complex, namely Mitofilin, MINOS1, and SAMM50. We conclude that APOOL is a cardiolipin-binding component of the Mitofilin/MINOS protein complex determining cristae morphology in mammalian mitochondria. Our findings further assign an intracellular role to a member of the apolipoprotein family in mammals.
Early otic development depends on autophagy for apoptotic cell clearance and neural differentiation
(2012)
Autophagy is a highly regulated program of self-degradation of the cytosolic constituents that has key roles during early development and in adult cell growth and homeostasis. To investigate the role of autophagy in otic neurogenesis, we studied the expression of autophagy genes in early stages of chicken (Gallus gallus) inner ear development and the consequences of inhibiting the autophagic pathway in organotypic cultures of explanted chicken otic vesicles (OVs). Here we show the expression of autophagy-related genes (Atg) Beclin-1 (Atg6), Atg5 and LC3B (Atg8) in the otocyst and the presence of autophagic vesicles by using transmission electron microscopy in the otic neurogenic zone. The inhibition of the transcription of LC3B by using antisense morpholinos and of class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase with 3-methyladenine causes an aberrant morphology of the OV with accumulation of apoptotic cells. Moreover, inhibition of autophagy provokes the misregulation of the cell cycle in the otic epithelium, impaired neurogenesis and poor axonal outgrowth. Finally, our results indicate that autophagy provides the energy required for the clearing of neuroepithelial dying cells and suggest that it is required for the migration of otic neuronal precursors. Taken together, our results show for the first time that autophagy is an active and essential process during early inner ear development.
Background: Early inner ear development requires the strict regulation of cell proliferation, survival, migration and differentiation, coordinated by the concerted action of extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Deregulation of these processes is associated with embryonic malformations and deafness. We have shown that insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) plays a key role in embryonic and postnatal otic development by triggering the activation of intracellular lipid and protein kinases. RAF kinases are serine/threonine kinases that regulate the highly conserved RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling cascade involved in transducing the signals from extracellular growth factors to the nucleus. However, the regulation of RAF kinase activity by growth factors during development is complex and still not fully understood.
Methodology/Principal Findings: By using a combination of qRT-PCR, Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, we show that C-RAF and B-RAF are expressed during the early development of the chicken inner ear in specific spatiotemporal patterns. Moreover, later in development B-RAF expression is associated to hair cells in the sensory patches. Experiments in ex vivo cultures of otic vesicle explants demonstrate that the influence of IGF-I on proliferation but not survival depends on RAF kinase activating the MEK-ERK phosphorylation cascade. With the specific RAF inhibitor Sorafenib, we show that blocking RAF activity in organotypic cultures increases apoptosis and diminishes the rate of cell proliferation in the otic epithelia, as well as severely impairing neurogenesis of the acoustic-vestibular ganglion (AVG) and neuron maturation.
Conclusions/Significance: We conclude that RAF kinase activity is essential to establish the balance between cell proliferation and death in neuroepithelial otic precursors, and for otic neuron differentiation and axonal growth at the AVG.
Background: Otic neurons and sensory cells derive from common progenitors whose transition into mature cells requires the coordination of cell survival, proliferation and differentiation programmes. Neurotrophic support and survival of post-mitotic otic neurons have been intensively studied, but the bases underlying the regulation of programmed cell death in immature proliferative otic neuroblasts remains poorly understood. The protein kinase AKT acts as a node, playing a critical role in controlling cell survival and cell cycle progression. AKT is activated by trophic factors, including insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), through the generation of the lipidic second messenger phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). Here we have investigated the role of IGF-dependent activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway in maintenance of otic neuroblasts.
Methodology/Principal Findings: By using a combination of organotypic cultures of chicken (Gallus gallus) otic vesicles and acoustic-vestibular ganglia, Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, we show that IGF-I-activation of AKT protects neural progenitors from programmed cell death. IGF-I maintains otic neuroblasts in an undifferentiated and proliferative state, which is characterised by the upregulation of the forkhead box M1 (FoxM1) transcription factor. By contrast, our results indicate that post-mitotic p27Kip-positive neurons become IGF-I independent as they extend their neuronal processes. Neurons gradually reduce their expression of the Igf1r, while they increase that of the neurotrophin receptor, TrkC.
Conclusions/Significance: Proliferative otic neuroblasts are dependent on the activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway by IGF-I for survival during the otic neuronal progenitor phase of early inner ear development.
Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process by which cells degrade their own components through the lysosomal machinery. In physiological conditions, the mechanism is tightly regulated and contributes to maintain a balance between synthesis and degradation in cells undergoing intense metabolic activities. Autophagy is associated with major tissue remodeling processes occurring through the embryonic, fetal and early postnatal periods of vertebrates. Here we survey current information implicating autophagy in cellular death, proliferation or differentiation in developing vertebrates. In developing systems, activation of the autophagic machinery could promote different outcomes depending on the cellular context. Autophagy is thus an extraordinary tool for the developing organs and tissues.
The capability of osmoadaptation is a prerequisite of organisms that live in an environment with changing salinities. Halobacillus halophilus is a moderately halophilic bacterium that grows between 0.4 and 3 M NaCl by accumulating both chloride and compatible solutes as osmolytes. Chloride is absolutely essential for growth and, moreover, was shown to modulate gene expression and activity of enzymes involved in osmoadaptation. The synthesis of different compatible solutes is strictly salinity- and growth phase-dependent. This unique hybrid strategy of H. halophilus will be reviewed here taking into account the recently published genome sequence. Based on identified genes we will speculate about possible scenarios of the synthesis of compatible solutes and the uptake of potassium ion which would complete our knowledge of the fine-tuned osmoregulation and intracellular osmolyte balance in H. halophilus.
Climate and subsequent environmental changes are regarded as one driver of species evolution. Against this background the present study investigates the evolutionary history of the mammalian family Bovidae (Cetartiodactyla, Mammalia), today the most species-rich family of large herbivores on the African continent. Temporal and spatial patterns in that group’s evolution are the focus of the present study and were investigated using methods and data deriving from multiple disciplines (palaeontology, genetics, climatology, conservation biology). The results serve as a validation of macroevolutionary hypotheses of species evolution.
A major proportion of African mammalian fossils can be assigned to that family. Due to their morphological adaptations, bovid species are highly indicative of their habitats. Hence, bovids are of great importance for paleontology. However, a strong taphonomic bias is present in the fossil record of bovids, favoring large and arid- adapted species. Molecular phylogenies of extant species and species distribution modelling combined with climate reconstructions can help to overcome these limitations.
A molecular phylogeny, based on the cytochrome b gene of 136 bovid species served as basis for analysis of temporal patterns. Divergence events were dated using the relaxed molecular clock approach. The tree was time calibrated at 30 nodes using information inferred from the fossil record. Lineage-Through-Time plots and the respective statistical analyses reveal detailed temporal patterns in the evolutionary history of tribes and groups combining arid- and humid-adapted tribes. The resulting pattern shows three distinct phases. Phase 1 (P1) is dominated by speciation events within the humid group, while the second phase (P2) is marked by a dominance of speciation within the arid group. The switch in diversification rates (BDS) from P1 to P2 is dated to 2.8 million years ago. The third phase (P3) shows low diversification rates for all groups, starting around 1.4 million year ago and culminates in a significantly reduced diversification rate for the complete family at 0.8 million years ago. Both transitions are contemporaneous with global climate changes and turnover events in fossil faunal communities.
To investigate the impact of climate changes onto the habitat availability within the last 3 million years and its putative influence on diversification rates, the species distribution modeling method was applied. For 85 African species and subspecies the climate niches were established and grouped into 5 climate-groups based on their climate preferences. For each group the available habitat for the period before and after the BDS was calculated on continental scale using reconstructed climate scenarios. To evaluate the modeled habitat distributions, regional analyses were performed in test areas surrounding well studied fossil sites (Laetoli, Olduvai, Chiwondo Beds, Lothagam, Koobi Fora, West Turkana, Swartkrans, Sterkfontain und Toros-Menalla). Habitat profiles (HP) permitted the comparison of the model based habitat reconstruction with the interpretations of classic paleontological reconstruction. The validity of the habitat modeling has been shown in particular for East African test areas. The reconstructions for the northern and southern fossil sites does not support the modeled habitats in these areas. Yet, the method of habitat- profiling may serve as suitable tool for environmental reconstruction of areas lacking sufficient paleontological material. A comparison of habitat availability before and after the BDS on continental scale identified a significant loss of habitat for humid adapted groups (7-22%) and habitat gain for arid adapted groups (19-173%). The climatically intermediate group experiences a tremendous gain of habitat (3366%). The greatest environmental change was modeled for East Africa, initiated by a progressive regional aridification.
In addition to the distribution modeling for past climate conditions, the geographical distribution was modeled for the future, i.e. for climate scenarios representing the years 2050 and 2080 under a putative climate change scenario (global surface warming). It was shown that in particular the arid groups have to expect a remarkable loss of habitat (41-76%), while a gain of available habitat can be expected for the humid adapted groups (114-577%). The climatically intermediate group suffers the strongest habitat loss (85%). Regions with locally stable climate conditions were detected and may serve as potential refugia and are already today known as Africa’s hot spots of biodiversity.
The results show a positive correlation of high diversification rates and increasing habitat availability. None of the tested speciation hypotheses taken alone explains the observations (e.g., Turnover-pulse Hypothesis, Relay Model). A major element in these hypotheses is the passive fragmentation of populations induced by unfavorable climate changes. In contrast, the Periodic Model (Grubb 1999) considers natural, periodically recurring climate changes and moreover, the active dispersal of individuals and resulting founder events. I added the effect of a superimposed directed climate trend – like the progressive aridification since the late Pliocene in Africa – which leads to a bias in the proportion and probability towards leading edge effects. This Directed Periodic Model explains the patterns found in the evolution of Bovidae.
The combination of a molecular phylogeny and species distribution modeling, together with information inferred from the fossil record, reveals remarkable temporal and spatial patterns in the evolution of bovids, and helps overcome the limitations of the fossil record. The present study highlights the importance of active dispersal and founder populations in speciation processes. A point widely unattended in speciation hypotheses. The fully dated molecular phylogeny is the most densely sampled tree for the family Bovidae to date and may serve as a framework for a connection of present and future population studies, permitting the connection of medium-scale with long- term effects induced by climate and environmental changes.