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Nicht zu vergessende Moleküle ... : flexibles "Networking" von Nervenzellen formt das Gedächtnis
(2009)
Ein funktionierendes Gedächtnis beruht darauf, dass die Kontakte zwischen den Milliarden Nervenzellen in unserem Gehirn sich ständig verändern und anpassen. Häufig verwendete Signalwege werden verstärkt und ausgebaut, wie eine Landstraße zu einer Schnellstraße. Weniger häufig benutze Signalwege können dagegen abgebaut werden. Die Signalübertragung verlangsamt sich wie der Verkehr auf einer lange nicht mehr instand gehaltenen Straße. Will man diese Prozesse auf molekularer Ebene verstehen, muss man die Synapsen näher betrachten. Das sind spezialisierte Kontaktstellen, die es den Nervenzellen ermöglichen, hochkomplexe Netzwerke, sogenannte Schaltkreise, zu knüpfen. Die Flexibilität dieser Schaltkreise ermöglicht es uns, Informationen zu verarbeiten und entsprechend zu reagieren. Inzwischen kennt man eine Fülle von Boten-Molekülen, Rezeptoren und Liganden, die diese Prozesse auf molekularer Ebene steuern.
Photosystem II (PSII) is a polypeptide-cofactor complex organised as a homodimeric multisubunit protein embedded in the thylakoid membrane. PSII monomers are heterooligomers related to each other by a pseudo-twofold axis perpendicular to the membrane plane (Loll et al. 2005). PSII acts as a photochemical enzyme that through the chlorophylls and the other cofactors catalyses photon capture and electron transfer from water to the plastoquinone pool with concomitant evolution of oxygen. Photon capture and charge separation take place in the PSII core which consists of the D1 and D2 proteins, the cytochrome b559 alpha- and beta-chains (PsbE and F subunits) and the chlorophyll a-binding antenna proteins CP43 and CP47 (Loll et al. 2005). The remaining polypeptides are low molecular mass proteins with not clearly understood fuctions; they include chloroplast-encoded (PsbH, I, J, K, L, M, N, T and Z) and nucleus-encoded (PsbR, S, W and X) proteins consisting of one to four transmembrane helices (Barber et al. 1997). The oxygen-evolving part of PSII consists of a Mn-Ca transition complex called Mn cluster or oxygen evolving complex that is situated on the luminal side of PSII. In higher plants it is stabilised by the PsbO (33 kDa), PsbP (23 kDa) and PsbQ (17 kDa) extrinsic subunits (Soursa et al. 2006; Ifuku et al. 2005). The structure and mechanisms related to the oxygen evolving complex of PSII are not completely clarified. Currently two high resolution structures from the cyanobacteria S. elongatus are available (Loll et al. 2005; Ferreira et al. 2004) Nevertheless structural information is not as well defined in green algae and higher plants as in cyanobacteria. In fact the 8Å structure available from spinach has too low resolution for addressing questions such as the structural and functional differences in respect to PSII from cyanobateria (Rhee et al. 1997).. Therefore it is obvious that for PSII from higher plants the main general questions are still open: is the structure of PSII from higher plants equivalent to the structures observed in cyanobacteria? Is the typical higher plants subunit PsbS stably or transiently bound to PSII? Finding an answer to these questions was the main focus of this work. In this work a simple and rapid protocol to isolate the oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) core complex from Nicotiana tabacum was developed. A PSII having a His-tag extension made of six or ten consecutive histidine residues at the N-terminus of the PsbE subunit was purified by a single-step Ni2+ NTA-affinity column chromatography after solubilisation of the thylakoid membranes using different mild detergents. Characterization of the oxygen evolution and the subunit composition by immunoblotting and mass spectroscopy revealed that the His-tagging did not affect the functional integrity of the PSII reaction center. The final PSII core complex was purified in a single step from solubilised thylakoids in less than 14 hours getting a very pure sample in high amount. The isolated core complex was in a dimeric form as demonstrated by Blue Native PAGE, analytical gel filtration and single particles analysis; with a molecular mass of about 500 kDa, consisting of D1, D2, CP43, CP47, 33 kDa and low molecular weight proteins. The preparation retains a high rate of oxygen-evolving activity but showed different stabilities of the binding of the three extrinsic proteins. The subunit of 33 kDa was always present in the preparations with a constant amount, whereas the 23 and 17 kDa subunits were always in less and unconstant amounts. Nevertheless the oxygen evolution was not depending on the amount of the 23 and 17 kDa subunits. Furthermore the preparation showed a high oxygen-evolving activity of 1390 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in presence of betaine, while its activity was 440-680 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in its absence. The presence of 1.0 mol/L betaine during the isolation of PSII increased the preservation of the photochemical activity hence the oxygen evolution. It was inferred from these results that His-tagging does not affect the functional and structural integrity of the PSII core complex and that the “Histag strategy” is highly useful for biochemical, physicochemical and structural studies of higher plant PSII. PSII is directly involved in two essential processes, the efficient capture and funnelling of light energy to the reaction centre and the controlled dissipation of excess excitation energy. Those functions require structural and functional flexibility in order to be performed with high efficiency. Moreover light-harvesting proteins respond to an external signal, the thylakoid pH, to induce feedback control regulating those activities in every moment. This process called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is mainly depending on the xanthophyll cycle and the PsbS protein (Szabo et al. 2005). In this work several new evidences related with those two processes were found. The subunit PsbS is a polypeptide whose involvement in the NPQ processes is debated. Nevertheless, its position in the PSII complex and the mechanisms by which this subunit contributes to carry out the NPQ functions are not definitely known. In addition it is not sure if it is a pigment binding protein or not. Currently several lines of evidence indicate that this subunit is able to bind two molecules of zeaxanthin, one of the pigments involved in the xanthophyll cycle. In this work immunolabelling indicated that PsbS is tightly bound to the PSII core dimer, monomer and incomplete PSII particles as Reaction Centre-CP47 (RC-CP47). Furthermore qualitative HPLC indicates a complete absence of zeaxanthin in the sample and the presence of violaxanthin, another pigment involved in the xanthophyll cycle. The absence of zeaxanthin was expected considering that the plants were harvested after the dark period and that the particles were purified in complete dark (or in green light), whereas the presence of violaxanthin was unexpected considering that so far no evidence of violaxanthin bound to PSII cores devoid of LHC proteins was reported. Furthermore the amount of chlorophyll b was not relevant for suspecting this pigment bound to PsbS. Therefore we conclude that if PsbS is able to bind chlorophyll it has to be a chlorophyll a. The results indicate that PsbS could be able to bind not only zeaxanthin but also violaxanthin. The extrinsic subunit Psb27 was also found in this preparation. The presence and the amount of this subunit, reported to be involved in the repair of damaged PSII, was not constant and therefore behaving as the other two extrinsic proteins 23kDa (PsbP) and 17kDa (PsbQ). Electron crystallography studies on spinach PSII particles purified by differential solubilisation resulted in crystalline tubes with new unit cell constants. From data analysis a density map at 15Å resolution was obtained with a P22121 symmetry. However, at this resolution it cannot be said if the internal symmetry axis is related with the two-fold axis of the dimer or the pseudo two-fold axis of the monomer. In conclusion a method to isolate functional, pure PSII core complexes was developped. These samples, together with the improved 2d crystallisation protocol could lead to crystals with higher quality hence better resolution density maps in the future.
Wer hat nicht angesichts rauchender Schlote und verschmutzter Luft von Kraftwerken geträumt, die reinen Sauerstoff produzieren? Die Natur erbaut solche Kraftwerke täglich neu – in Pflanzen. Darin verwandelt der grüne Blattfarbstoff Chlorophyll Sonnenlicht und Kohlendioxid in Sauerstoff und Energie. Die komplexen Reaktionen laufen in mikroskopisch kleinen Maschinen – den Photosystemen – ab. Aber was haben Kraftwerke mit Kamelen zu tun? Wie auch bei den uns bekannten Kraftwerken gibt es in Pflanzen ein »Werksgelände«, die Chloroplasten. Sie besitzen einen Eingang, durch den zuweilen Moleküle passieren müssen, die so groß sind wie das sprichwörtliche Kamel, das durch ein Nadelöhr gehen soll.
Riboswitches are a novel class of genetic control elements that function through the direct interaction of small metabolite molecules with structured RNA elements. The ligand is bound with high specificity and affinity to its RNA target and induces conformational changes of the RNA's secondary and tertiary structure upon binding. To elucidate the molecular basis of the remarkable ligand selectivity and affinity of one of these riboswitches, extensive all-atom molecular dynamics simulations in explicit solvent ({approx}1 µs total simulation length) of the aptamer domain of the guanine sensing riboswitch are performed. The conformational dynamics is studied when the system is bound to its cognate ligand guanine as well as bound to the non-cognate ligand adenine and in its free form. The simulations indicate that residue U51 in the aptamer domain functions as a general docking platform for purine bases, whereas the interactions between C74 and the ligand are crucial for ligand selectivity. These findings either suggest a two-step ligand recognition process, including a general purine binding step and a subsequent selection of the cognate ligand, or hint at different initial interactions of cognate and noncognate ligands with residues of the ligand binding pocket. To explore possible pathways of complex dissociation, various nonequilibrium simulations are performed which account for the first steps of ligand unbinding. The results delineate the minimal set of conformational changes needed for ligand release, suggest two possible pathways for the dissociation reaction, and underline the importance of long-range tertiary contacts for locking the ligand in the complex.
Global warming is expected to be associated with diverse changes in freshwater habitats in north-western Europe. Increasing evaporation, lower oxygen concentration due to increased water temperature and changes in precipitation pattern are likely to affect the survival ratio and reproduction rate of freshwater gastropods (Pulmonata, Basommatophora). This work is a comprehensive analyse of the climatic factors influencing their ranges both in the past and in the near future. A macroecological approach showed that for a great proportion of genera the ranges were projected to contract by 2080, even if unlimited dispersal was assumed. The forecasted warming in the cooler northern ranges predicted the emergence of new suitable areas, but also reduced drastically the available habitat in the southern part of the studied region. In order to better understand the ranges dynamics in the past and the post glacial colonisation patterns, an approach combining ecological niche modelling and phylogeography was used for two model species, Radix balthica and Ancylus fluviatilis. Phylogeographic model selection on a COI mtDNA dataset confirmed that R. balthica most likely spread from two central European disjunct refuges after the last glacial maximum. The phylogeographic analysis of A. fluviatilis, using 16S and COI mtDNA datasets, also inferred central European refugia. The absence of niche conservatism (adaptive potential) inferred for A. fluviatilis puts a cautionary note on the use of climate envelope models to predict the future ranges of this species. However, the other model species exhibited strong niche conservatism, which allow putting confidence into such predictions. A profound faunal shift will take place in Central Europe within the next century, either permitting the establishment of species currently living south of the studied region or the proliferation of organisms relying on the same food resources. This study points out the need for further investigations on the dispersal modes of freshwaters snails, since the future range size of the species depend on their ability to establish in newly available habitats. Likewise, the mixed mating system of these organisms gives them the possibility to fund a new population from a single individual. It will probably affect the colonisation success and needs further investigation.
In der äußeren plexiformen Schicht (OPL) der Säugetierretina sind die Photorezeptoren mit den Horizontal- und den Bipolarzellen verschaltet. Diese erste neuronale Verschaltungs-ebene des Sehsystems birgt eine hochkomplexe Architektur aus chemischen und elektrischen Synapsen. Sie ermöglicht die Modulation des Lichtsignals sowie die Aufspaltung der Signale in parallele Übertragungswege. In der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit wurden verschiedene Synapsensysteme in der OPL von Maus-, Kaninchen-, und Makakenretinae mittels immunhistochemischer Färbetechniken licht- und elektronen-mikroskopisch untersucht. In der Mausretina wurden die anatomischen Eigenschaften der Endfüßchen blau-empfindlicher (S-) Zapfen untersucht. Die S-Zapfenendfüßchen waren um 15 % kleiner als die der M-Zapfen, die Bereiche der Invaginierungen am S-Zapfenendfüßchen hingegen um 35 %. Eine deutliche Reduktion der Horizontalzellkontakte ging damit einher. Die Zahl der postsynaptisch von OFF-Bipolarzellen exprimierten Glutamatrezeptor- (GluR) Unterein-heiten GluR1 und GluR5 war am S-Zapfenendfüßchen um fast 50 % kleiner als an M-Zapfen. Dieser Befund spiegelte die geringe Anzahl synaptischer Kontakte von OFF-Bipolarzellen am S-Zapfen wider. Die OFF-Bipolarzelltypen 1 und/oder 2 waren für diese Reduktion verantwortlich. Diese Befunde sind ein erster Hinweis für den sogenannten Grün-OFF-Signalweg in der Mausretina. In der Makakenretina wurde die Verteilung von Protocadherin β16 (Pcdh β16) untersucht. Es konnte auf postsynaptischer Seite an den Photorezeptorterminalien gezeigt werden. Pcdh β16 lag auf den invaginierenden Spitzen von Dendriten der H1 Horizontalzellen sowie an ihren desmosome-like junctions unterhalb der Zapfenendfüßchen. An diesen Orten fielen die Pcdh β16-immunreaktiven Punkte mit den dort von H1 Zellen exprimierten GluR-Untereinheiten GluR2 - 4 und GluR6/7 zusammen. Im Zuge dieser Analyse wurde ebenfalls eine Kolokalisation dieser AMPA- (GluR2 - 4) und Kainat- (GluR6/7) Rezeptoren an den desmosome-like junctions festgestellt. Darüber hinaus zeigte eine elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchung, dass Pcdh β16 auch an flachen Synapsen in Triaden-assoziierter Position am Zapfenendfüßchen zu finden ist. Dies kann als Hinweis auf eine Expression durch flat midget Bipolarzellen oder Bipolarzellen des Typs DB3 gewertet werden. Dies lässt vermuten, dass dieses Protein an der Formation zelltypspezifischer Kontakte bzw. Synapsen beteiligt ist. In einer vergleichenden Studie der synaptischen Verteilung des zytoplasmatischen Gerüstproteins Zonula Occludens-1 (ZO-1) in Makaken-, Kaninchen- und Mausretinae zeigte sich ein sehr einheitliches sowie auch zelltypspezifisches Verteilungsmuster. ZO-1 fiel bei allen Spezies mit Connexin 36 (Cx36) an den gap junctions zwischen Photo-rezeptorterminalien und zwischen den Dendriten von OFF-Bipolarzellen zusammen. Außerdem ist ZO-1 mit gap junctions bestimmter Horizontalzellen assoziiert: In der OPL der Kaninchenretina fiel es mit Cx50 zusammen, dem Connexin der axonlosen A-Typ Horizontalzellen. An den großen gap junctions zwischen den Primärdendriten dieser Zellen bildete ZO-1 jedoch eine Zaun-ähnliche Struktur als Abgrenzung um die gap junctions herum, anstatt direkt mit den Connexinen kolokalisiert zu sein. Eine direkte Interaktion mit den Connexinen wird durch die räumliche Anordnung weitgehend ausgeschlossen, was auf eine Funktion von ZO-1 als tight- oder adherens junction Protein hindeutet. In der Mausretina fiel ZO-1 mit Cx57 an dendro-dendritischen gap junctions zwischen den Maus-Horizontalzellen zusammen. In der Makakenretina sind die Connexine der Horizontalzellen noch nicht bekannt. Trotzdem ließ sich ZO-1 den dendro-dendritischen gap junctions zwischen H1 Horizontalzellen zuordnen. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich eine enge Assoziation dieser dendro-dendritischen gap junctions mit den GluRs unterhalb der Zapfenendfüßchen an den desmosome-like junctions. Der von den GluRs ermöglichte Calcium-Einstrom könnte sich durch die räumliche Nähe zu den Connexinen modulierend auf die Leitfähigkeit der elektrischen Synapsen auswirken.
Rezensionen zu: Erhard Oeser : Geschichte der Hirnforschung : Von der Antike zur Gegenwart. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 2002, ISBN 3534149823, 288 Seiten, 24,90 Euro. Michael Hagner : Geniale Gehirne : Zur Geschichte der Elitegehirnforschung ; Wallstein-Verlag, Göttingen, 2004, ISBN 3892446490, 384 Seiten, 38 Euro.
The NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) is a large membrane bound protein complex coupling the redox reaction of NADH oxidation and quinone reduction to vectorial proton translocation across bioenergetic membranes. The mechanism of proton pumping is still unknown; it seems however that the reduction of quinone induces conformational changes which drive proton uptake from one side and release at the other side of the membrane. In this study the proposed quinone and inhibitor binding pocket located at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits was explored by a large number of point mutations introduced into complex I from the strictly aerobic yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. Point mutations were systematically chosen based on the crystal structure of the hydrophilic domain of complex I from Thermus thermophilus. In total, the properties of 94 mutants at 39 positions which completely cover the lining of the large putative quinone and inhibitor binding cavity are described and discussed here. A structure/function analysis allowed the identification of functional domains within the large putative quinone binding cavity. A possible quinone access path ranging from the N-terminal beta-sheet of the 49-kDa subunit into the pocket to tyrosine 144 could be defined, since all exchanges introduced here, caused an almost complete loss of complex I activity. A region located deeper in the proposed quinone binding pocket is apparently not important for complex I activity. In contrast, all exchanges of tyrosine 144, even the very conservative mutant Y144F, essentially abolished dNADH:DBQ oxidoreductase activity of complex I. However, with higher concentrations of Q1 or Q2 the dNADH:Q oxidoreductase activity was largely restored in the mutants with the more conservative exchanges. Proton pumping experiments showed that this activity was also coupled to proton translocation, indicating that these quinones were reduced at the physiological site. However, the apparent Km values for Q1 or Q2 were drastically increased, clearly demonstrating that tyrosine 144 is central for quinone binding and reduction. These results further prove that the enzymatically relevant quinone binding site of complex I is located at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits. The quinone binding pocket is thought to comprise the binding sites for a plethora of specific complex I inhibitors that are usually grouped into three classes. The large array of mutants targeting the quinone binding cavity was examined with a representative of each inhibitor class. Many mutants conferring resistance were identified which, depending on the inhibitor tested, clustered in well defined and partially overlapping regions of the large putative quinone and inhibitor binding cavity. Mutants with effects on type A (DQA) and type B (rotenone) inhibitors were found in a subdomain corresponding to the former [NiFe] site in homologous hydrogenases, whereby the type A inhibitor DQA seems to bind deeper in this domain. Mutants with effects on the type C inhibitor (C12E8) were found in a narrow crevice. Exchanging more exposed residues at the border of these well defined domains affected all three inhibitor types. Therefore, the results as a whole provide further support for the concept that different inhibitor classes bind to different but partially overlapping binding sites within a single large quinone binding pocket. In addition, they also indicate the approximate location of the binding sites within the structure of the large quinone and inhibitor binding cavity at the interface of the 49 kDa and the PSST subunit. It has been proposed earlier that the highly conserved HRGXE-motif in the 49-kDa subunit forms a part of the quinone binding site of complex I. Mutagenesis of the HRGXE-motif, revealed that these residues are rather critical for complex I assembly and seem to have an important structural role. The question why iron-sulfur cluster N1a is not detectable by EPR in many models organisms is not solved yet. Introducing polar and positively charged amino acid residues close to this cluster in order to increase its midpoint potential did not result in the appearance of the cluster N1a EPR signal in mitochondrial membranes from the mutants. Clearly, further research will be necessary to gain insights to the function of this iron-sulfur cluster in complex I. In an additional project, a new and simple in vivo screen for complex I deficiency in Y. lipolytica was developed and optimized. This assay probes for defects in complex I assembly and stability, oxidoreductase activity and also proton pumping activity by complex I. Most importantly, this assay is applicable to all Y. lipolytica strains and could be used to identify loss-of-function mutants, gain-of-functions mutants (i.e. resistance towards complex I inhibitors) and revertants due to mutations in both nuclear and mitochondrially encoded genes of complex I subunits.
Ulrike Anders hat zwischen Januar und September 2005 Zähne und Gebiß rezenter Schleichkatzen (Viverridae) untersucht und Parameter identifiziert, anhand derer sich Nahrungspräferenzen zuordnen lassen. Viverriden gelten als basale Carnivoren mit omnivorem Nahrungsspektrum. Da die für echte Katzen so typische Brechschere und die Reduktion des Gebisses nur wenig ausgeprägt ist, gilt ihr Gebiss als unspezialisiert. Dennoch besitzen Viverriden Nahrungspräferenzen, die sich in der Umgestaltung ihres Gebisses, auch in einzelnen Zahnpositionen niederschlägt. Diese Veränderungen wurden metrisch charakterisiert.