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With the use of the cranking formula, the coordinate-dependent mass parameters of the kinetic-energy operator in fission processes and heavy-ion collisions are calculated in the two-center oscillator model. It is shown that the reduced mass and also the classical moment of inertia are obtained for large separations of the fragments. For small separations, however, the mass parameter for the motion of the centers of mass of the fragments is larger than the reduced mass by an order of magnitude.
An upper limit to the electric field strength, such as that of the nonlinear electrodynamics of Born and Infeld, leads to dramatic differences in the energy eigenvalues and wave functions of atomic electrons bound to superheavy nuclei. For example, the 1s1/2 energy level joins the lower continuum at Z=215 instead of Z=174, the value obtained when Maxwell's equations are used to determine the electric field.
The dynamic collective model has been extended to quadrupole giant resonances in spherical nuclei. The splitting of giant dipole and giant quadrupole resonances due to their coupling to surface vibrations has been calculated for Sn isotopes. Agreement with recent γ-absorption measurements of the Livermore group has been found.
A two-center shell model with oscillator potentials, l→·s→ forces, and l→2 terms is developed. The shell structures of the original spherical nucleus and those of the final fragments are reproduced. For small separation of the two centers the level structure resembles the Nilsson scheme. This two-center shell model might be of importance in problems of nuclear fission.
Higher-order effects are calculated in the framework of the eigenchannel theory for elastic and inelastic electron-nucleus scattering in the energy region 100≤E≤250 MeV. A dispersion effect of about 12% is found for the elastic scattering on Ni58 at a momentum transfer q≈500 MeV/c. For inelastic scattering, the reorientation effect is discussed, in addition to the dispersion effect. The total higher-order effect changes the form factor for a hindered first-order transition by 50% at its minima. Furthermore, the dependence of the higher-order effects on the transition potentials of the virtual excitations, the model dependence, and the dependence on the energy E of the electron and the momentum transfer q are discussed. A closed formula for the S matrix is developed by calculating the eigenchannels in stationary perturbation theory.
With a schematic model for the nuclear matter we give a unified treatment of the real and imaginary parts of the elastic O16-O16 scattering potential. The model connects the parameters of the potential with the density and binding properties of the O16-O16 system and reproduces the structure of the excitation function quite well. It is shown that the nuclear compressibility can be obtained from the scattering data, and in the case of the S32 compound system there results an effective compressibility (finite quenching of the nuclei) of about 200 MeV.
The total particle-particle SJ matrix of O16 for spin J=1- and excitation energies between 15 and 27 MeV has been calculated in the eigenchannel reaction theory for several parameters of the Saxon-Woods potential and the two-body force. The many-body problem has been treated in the 1-particle-1-hole approximation. The photon channels have been included by perturbation theory. Surprisingly, the most important structure of the experimental cross sections is reproduced quite well in this simple approximation.
The Coulomb-fission cross sections for 132Xe and 148Nd incident on 238U are calculated in a dynamical classical model. In particular the influence of nuclear forces on the cross sections is studied. Since they are counteracting the Coulomb force, they diminish the cross sections for Coulomb fission significantly and shift the Coulomb barrier towards lower energies.
The theory of collective correlations in nuclei is formulated for giant resonances interacting with surface vibrations. The giant dipole states are treated in the particle-hole framework, while the surface vibrations are described by the collective model. Consequently, this treatment of nuclear structure goes beyond both the common particle-hole model (including its various improvements which take ground-state correlations into account) and the pure collective model. The interaction between giant resonances and surface degrees of freedom as known from the dynamic collective theory is formulated in the particle-hole language. Therefore, the theory contains the particle-hole structures and the most important "collective intermediate" structures of giant resonances. Detailed calculations are performed for 12C, 28Si, and 60Ni. A good detailed agreement between theory and experiment is obtained for all these nuclei, although only 60Ni is in the region where one would expect the theory to work well (50< A <110).
The influence of the Coulomb and nuclear forces on the Coulomb barrier in heavy-ion reactions is studied in a dynamical classical model. It is shown that the fusion barrier is smaller than the conventional Coulomb barrier of two underformed nuclei. The model yields a dynamical picture of the excitation mechanism of surface vibrations and giant resonances. It is suggested that-due to nuclear forces-the excitation of the octupole mode is strongly enhanced over the excitation of the quadrupole mode in experiments at the Coulomb barrier.
Continuum structure of Ca40
(1967)
The total S1- matrix of Ca40 has been calculated for excitation energies between 11 and 28 MeV. As typical results, the (γ, p0) and the total absorption cross sections are shown and compared with experiments. It is shown that the proper treatment of the one-particle, one-hole shell-model continuum accounts for most of the observed structures.
Using the eigenchannel reaction theory we performed coupled-channel calculations for Si28 and computed the differential cross section for Al27(p, γ0)Si28 over the energy range 6 MeV<Ep <16 MeV. The obtained angular distributions are nearly constant over the whole energy range and agree with the experiment in that they are almost isotropic. Thus, it seems that in this framework we can give a natural explanation for the peculiar behavior of the Al27(p, γ0)Si28 cross section.
Analyse der hadronischen Endzustandsverteilungen in ultra-relativistischen Blei-Blei-Kollisionen
(1997)
Die in ultra-relativistischen Schwerionenkollisionen erreichten Dichten und Temperaturen der hochangeregten hadronischen Kernmaterie führen möglicherweise zu einem Übergang in eine partonische Phase ohne Einschluß der Quarks und Gluonen in Hadronen (Quark-Gluon Plasma). Dieser Kontinuumszustand der Quantenchromodynamik wird in der frühen Anfangsphase des Universums bei sehr hohen Temperaturen und im Inneren von Neutronensternen bei einem Vielfachen der Grundzustandsdichte von Kernmaterie erwartet. Im Herbst 1994 wurden am europäischen Kernforschungszentrum CERN im Rahmen des NA49-Experimentes zentrale 208Pb + 208Pb - Kollisionen am SPS bei einer Einschußenergie von 158 GeV pro Nukleon untersucht. Die Daten wurden in einer der Spurendriftkammern (VTPC2) aufgenommen, die zur präzisen Messung des Impulses in einem Magnetfeld positioniert wurde. Aus diesem Datenensemble wurden in dieser Arbeit 61000 Ereignisse in Hinblick auf die Produktion negativ geladener Hadronen (h-) und die Endzustandsverteilungen der an der Reaktion teilnehmenden Nukleonen (Partizipanten) analysiert. Die Phasenraum-Akzeptanz der VTPC2 erstreckt sich für die negativ geladenen Hadronen im Rapiditätsintervall yPi = [3.2 5.0] und für die Netto-Protonen bei yp = [3.0, 4.4] über den Transversalimpuls-Bereich von p..=[0.0 2.0] GeV/c. Die statistischen Fehler der vorgestellten Ergebnisse reduzieren sich durch die große Statistik zu << 1%, die systematischen Fehler der Impulsmessung liegen im Bereich <= 2%. Die Korrektur auf Ineffizienzen des verwendeten Spur-Rekonstruktionsalgorithmus ist mit der lokalen Spurdichte und der Ereignismultiplizität korreliert und trägt wesentlich zum systematischen Fehler bei: für die negativ geladenen Hadronen im Bereich von 5%, für die Netto-Protonen 15-20%. Die Untersuchung der Effekte hoher Raumladungsdichten in verschiedenen Zählgasen der Spurendriftkammern führte zu einer Optimierung der Betriebsparameter der Detektoren und damit zu einer Reduzierung der Zahl saturierter Auslesekanäle. Die erhöhte Effizienz der Spurpunkt-Rekonstruktion verbesserte die Zweispurauflösung auf 100% bei einem mittleren Abstand von 2 cm zwischen zwei benachbarten Spuren, die Ortsauflöosung in der VTPC2 liegt im Bereich von 270-350 Mikrom in longitudinaler und transversaler Richtung und die relative Impulsauflösung beträgt dp/p exp 2 ~ 2 x 10 exp (-4) (GeV/c) exp (-1). Die in zentralen Blei-Blei-Stößen produzierten negativ geladenen Hadronen weisen mittlere Transversalimpulse von <p..> ~ 366 MeV/c bei y Pi = 4.3 bis <p..> ~ 300 MeV/c bei y Pi auf; für die Netto-Protonen fällt der aus dem mittleren Transversalimpuls berechnete Temperaturparameter von 275 MeV bei midrapidity bis zu 230 MeV bei yp = 4.3 ab. Im Vergleich mit anderen Stoßsystemen als Funktion der Anzahl produzierter Teilchen wird ein leichter Anstieg von <p..> beobachtet. Die Rapiditätsabhängigkeit des mittleren Transversalimpulses der produzierten h- in Nukleon-Nukleon- und zentralen Schwefel-Schwefel-Reaktionen ist mit denen der untersuchten Pb-Kollisionen in Form und Breite der Verteilung vergleichbar. Die Analyse der Transversalimpuls-Spektren von h- und (p-anti-p) fürt zu inversen Steigungsparametern von <T Pi> ~ 165 MeV und <T Pi> ~ 255 MeV, die teilweise über der von Hagedorn vorhergesagten Grenztemperatur eines hadronischen Gases liegen. Zudem zeigen die Spektren des invarianten Wirkungsquerschnittes deutliche Abweichungen von dem in einem thermischen Modell erwarteten exponentiellen Verlauf bei kleinen und großen <p..>. Innerhalb eines hydrodynamischen Modells sind diese Abweichungen vom idealen Verlauf mit einer kollektiven transversalen Expansion kompatibel, die mittleren transversalen Flußgeschwindigkeiten betragen <v..> ~ 0.6 c, die Ausfriertemperaturen <T PI, f0> ~ 95 MeV und <T P, f0> ~ 110 MeV. Die im Vergleich zu Nukleon-Nukleon-Stößen in Schwerionenreaktionen erhöhte Produktion von h- bei kleinen Transversalimpulsen wird in allen betrachteten y Pi -Intervallen zu 10-20% bestimmt. Im Gegensatz zu Messungen des NA44-Experimentes mit <h->/<h+> = 1.8 kann aus dem Verhältnis des invarianten Wirkungsquerschnittes von negativ zu positiv geladenen Hadronen bei kleinen transversalen Energien nur eine moderate Erhöhung um <h->/<h+> = 1.2 festgestellt werden, was auf keinen signifikanten Coulomb-Effekt durch eine mitbewegte positive Ladung schließen läßt. Die Erweiterung der Akzeptanz der (p - anti p)-Rapiditätsverteilung in der VTPC2 durch Messungen der MTPC bei großen Rapiditäten führt zu einer mittleren Gesamtmultiplizität von 151 +- 9 an der Reaktion teilnehmenden Protonen pro Ereignis. Der durchschnittliche Rapiditätsverlust der Projektilprotonen beträgt <delta y> = 1.99 +- 0.19, für zentrale Kollisionen des S+S-Systems ergibt sich ein um 20% niedrigerer Wert. Das Verhältnis der Dichte der hochkomprimierten Materie im Reaktionsvolumen zur Grundzustandsdichte von Kernmaterie ist im Rahmen von Modellvorhersagen rho/rho ~ 7.3. Der mittlere Energieverlust pro Nukleon im Schwerpunktsystem wurde bei einer zur Verfügung stehenden Eingangsenergie von sqrt(s) = 8.6 GeV/Nukleon zu <dE> exp (cms) N = 5.4 GeV ermittelt: die Stopping Power ergibt P = 63 %. Aus der Baryonen-Dichte bei midrapidity läßt sich in einem einfachen 2-Flavour Modell das baryo-chemische Potential zu mü-B = 182 MeV berechnen. Die ermittelte Gesamtmultiplizität der h- beträgt 716 +-11, die Breite einer angepaßten Gauß-Verteilung ist mit Rhp -Pi = 1.37 um 40% breiter als die dn/dy-Verteilung einer stationären, thermisch emittierenden Quelle: zusammen mit Messungen der Quellgrößen und einer longitudinalen Expansionsgeschwindigkeit innerhalb der HBT-Analyse ergibt sich das Bild einer elongierten, longitudinal boost-invariant expandierenden Quelle. Die dn/dy-Verteilungen der h- aus <N + N>- und Pb+Pb-Reaktionen zeigen die Andeutung eines Plateaus um die Schwerpunktsrapidität, was auf eine Teilchenproduktion gemäß dem Bjorken-Bild entlang eines zylinderförmigen Reaktionsvolumens schließen läßt. Die Zahl der produzierten negativ geladenen Hadronen pro Partizipant beträgt in den analysierten Ereignissen <h->/<N B - AntiB> = 1.88 und steigt im Vergleich mit den Werten aus den symmetrischen Stßsystemen <N+N> und S+S leicht an. Die im Reaktionsvolumen deponierte Energie aus dem Energieverlust der partizipierenden Nukleonen wird somit nur geringfügig für die erhöhte Produktion von h- verwendet. Die h-Multiplizität als Maß für die System-Entropie zeigt - ebenso wie die im NA35-Experiment gemessenen zentralen S+S-Kollisionen bei 200 GeV pro Nukleon - als Funktion der Einschußenergie der Projektilkerne eine Überhöhung im Vergleich zu Reaktionen bei niedrigeren Energien, was einem möglichen Anstieg der Zahl der Freiheitsgrade und damit der Formation einer partonischen Phase bei ultra-relativistischen Schwerionenkollisionen entsprechen könnte. Aus den Messungen der Netto-Baryonen und der produzierten h- wurde im Bjorken-Bild die Energiedichte im zentralen Reaktionsvolumen zu E = 2.14 GeV/fm exp 3 bestimmt.
The theory of Raman scattering is extended to include electric-quadrupole radiation. The results obtained are used to compute the elastic and Raman scattering cross sections of heavy deformed nuclei. The dipole and quadrupole resonances are described by a previously developed theory which includes surface vibrations and rotations. The computed cross sections are compared with experimental data for all those nuclei where both absorption and scattering cross sections are available. Some discrepances still exist in certain details; however, the over-all agreement between theory and experiment is very good.
In a collective treatment the energies of the giant resonances are given by the boundary conditions at the nuclear surface, which is subject to vibration in spherical nuclei. The general form of the coupling between these two collective motions is given by angular-momentum and parity conservation. The coupling constants are completely determined within the hydrodynamical model. In the present treatment the influence of the surface vibrations on the total photon-absorption cross section is calculated. It turns out that in most of the spherical nuclei this interaction leads to a pronounced structure in the cross section. The agreement with the experiments in medium-heavy nuclei is striking; many of the experimental characteristics are reproduced by the present calculations. In some nuclei, however, there seem to be indications of single-particle excitations which are not yet contained in this work.
The modes and frequencies of the giant quadrupole resonance of heavy deformed nuclei have been calculated. The quadrupole operator is computed and the absorption cross section is derived. The quadrupole sum rule is discussed, and the relevant oscillator strengths have been evaluated for various orientations of the nucleus. The giant quadrupole resonances have energies between 20 and 25 MeV. The total absorption cross section is about 20% of the giant dipole absorption cross section. Of particular interest is the occurrence of the quadrupole mode which is sensitive to the nuclear radius in a direction of approximately θ=(1/4)π from the symmetry axis. This may give information on the details of the nuclear shape.
Production of neutral strange hadrons with high transverse momentum in Pb+Pb collisions at 158 A GeV
(2006)
The motivation for studying ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions is to search for signatures of a transition from hadronic matter to a partonic phase, the Quark-Gluon plasma. The bulk of the particles produced in these collisions possesses transverse momenta of pT < 2 GeV/c and evidence for the production of a Quark-Gluon plasma at SPS energies has been found in the properties of particles from this pT range. The rare particles seen in the higher pT domain can complete the picture of the produced matter. Examples for such high pT signatures include the properties of the baryon/meson ratios and the elliptic flow in the region 2 < pT < 4 GeV/c observed at RHIC. They can be explained by quark coalescence models. This phase space range can also be accessed for analysis at the highest SPS beam energy of 158 A GeV. A study of the pT dependence of baryon/meson ratios here can help to answer the question which hadron production mechanisms are relevant in this energy range. In the NA49 large acceptance hadron spectrometer, K0S and Lambda are identified via the V 0 topology of their decay into charged hadrons and the determination of their invariant mass. The reach in pT of this method is only limited by the statistics of the available data. An important part of the analysis presented in this thesis is to select potential V 0 candidates by adequate cuts. Optimisation for the high pT domain requires careful cuts in order to retain the signal there. A challenge implicated by this approach is the large combinatorial background left over by the loose cuts. A reliable signal extraction method was found that can deal with this possible difficulty and provide raw spectra.The fraction of particles that cannot be detected because of the geometrical acceptance of the detector and analysis inefficiencies was determined in simulations. Correction factors are extracted from this simulation for each phase space bin and applied to the raw spectra. The spectra corrected in this way reach pT = 3.6 GeV/c (for K0 S) and pT = 3.8 GeV/c (Lambda), respectively. The whole analysis method has been checked to be self-consistent and was compared to existing data on kaon and ... production, that is only available in the lower pT range. While the Lambda spectra agree with an earlier analysis [44], a disagreement remains between the results for K0 S presented here and charged kaon data published in [42]. The Lambda/K0 S ratio calculated from the corrected spectra qualitatively agrees with the results for the higher collision energy at RHIC [8]. A saturation of the ratio for pT >= 2 GeV/c clearly indicates that the hydrodynamical picture is not valid in the higher range any more. Unfortunately, no calculations from coalescence models are available for the SPS energy range so far.