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In what follows, we will first put forward the claim that syntactic ergativity results from morphological ergativity by examining relativization and pea-coordination in Tongan (Section 2). In Sections 3 and 4, we compare 'O-constructions with pea-constructions to conclude a) that unlike pea, 'O should be regarded as a complementizer rather than a conjunction; and b) that the gap in 'O-clauses is not an outcome of deletion, but a null anaphor. We will then discuss a Minimalist approach to binding proposed by Reuland (2001) and see how it accounts for the distribution and behavior of proSE in Tongan. Some implications of the current proposal are discussed in Section 6, with section 7 in conclusion.
The flora of the Lord Howe Island Group (31°30’S, 159°05’E) comprises a unique mix of elements of Australian, New Zealand and New Caledonian floras. It is significant for its high degree of endemism and for its structural and biological (leaves, flowers, fruit) role in supporting a diverse array of fauna. Conservation of this flora is dependant upon: reducing current habitat degradation (mostly the result of exotic weeds); minimising any future impacts, in particular the effects of climate change on the unique cloud forests of the southern mountains and the continued introduction and spread of weeds and the pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi.
We provide a description of the nature of the major threats to the flora and suggest an area-based scheme, focussed on the relative conservation significance of remaining vegetation, as a mechanism for developing priorities for threat mitigation activities. While a number of threat control works are in place, eg. weed control, some re-emphasis is needed. In addition, some new initiatives are required including: reducing the rate of introductions of new exotics; a system to remove potential environmental weeds from the settlement area; phytosanitary guidelines; pathogen quarantine measures; search and removal of environmental weeds from remote areas; and ex situ initiatives for plant species restricted to the cloud forests of the southern mountains.
In this study we show that constituency is of limited importance for a proper treatment of the interaction between the linear position of a wa-marked nominal in a Japanese sentence and possible domains of contrastive focus, and that constraints concerning contrastive focus should be represented in terms of linear order and not constituency. Linearisation HPSG, where linear order is independent from constituency, provides a good basis for an analysis. Some constraints are provided in terms of order domains, and it is shown that these constraints can deal with the phenomena in question, and that the cases problematic for the constituency-based analyses can also be accounted for by our analysis.
We present a constraint-based syntax-semantics interface for the construction of RMRS (Robust Minimal Recursion Semantics) representations from shallow grammars. The architecture is designed to allow modular interfaces to existing shallow grammars of various depth - ranging from chunk grammars to context-free stochastic grammars. We define modular semantics construction principles in a typed feature structure formalism that allow flexible adaptation to alternative grammars and different languages.
The paper explores factors that influence the design of financing contracts between venture capital investors and European venture capital funds. 122 Private Placement Memoranda and 46 Partnership Agreements are investigated in respect to the use of covenant restrictions and compensation schemes. The analysis focuses on the impact of two key factors: the reputation of VC-funds and changes in the overall demand for venture capital services. We find that established funds are more severely restricted by contractual covenants. This contradicts the conventional wisdom which assumes that established market participants care more about their reputation, have less incentive to behave opportunistically and therefore need less covenant restrictions. We also find that managers of established funds are more often obliged to invest own capital alongside with investors money. We interpret this as evidence that established funds have actually less reason to care about their reputation as compared to young funds. One reason for this surprising result could be that managers of established VC funds are older and closer to retirement and therefore put less weight on the effects of their actions on future business opportunities. We also explore the effects of venture capital supply on contract design. Gompers and Lerner (1996) show that VC-funds in the US are able to reduce the number of restrictive covenants in years with high supply of venture capital and interpret this as a result of increased bargaining power by VC-funds. We do not find similar evidence for Europe. Instead, we find that VC-funds receive less base compensation and higher performance related compensation in years with strong capital inflows into the VC industry. This may be interpreted as a signal of overconfidence: Strong investor demand seems to coincide with overoptimistic expectations by fund managers which make them willing to accept higher powered incentive schemes. JEL: G32 Keywords: Venture Capital, Contracting, Limited Partnership, Funds, Principal Agent, Compensation, Covenants, Reputation, Bargaining Power
Within the tradition of Categorial Grammar, so-called 'non-constituent' coordination ('argument cluster' coordination and 'right node raising') has been analyzed in terms of the coordination of nonstandard constituents produced by the operations of type raising and composition. This highly successful research has expanded the domain of data that modern analyses of coordination must take into account. Recent HPSG work by Yatabe (2002) and Crysmann (2003) provides an interesting alternative approach to this problem in terms of the coordination of familiar, but 'elliptical' constituents. We argue that this approach is empirically superior to the Categorial Grammar analysis, both in terms of empirical coverage and cross-linguistic predictions. We reassess the relevant English data in small but important ways, and develop our own ellipsis analysis, building on Yatabe's and Crysmann's insights.
Die Schling- oder Glattnatter ist neben Kreuzotter und Ringelnatter die dritte in Sachsen-Anhalt heimische Schlangenart. Die Grundfarbe kann variieren und grau, gelblich, rötlich oder bräunlich sein. Kennzeichnend ist ein dunkelbrauner Streifen, der vor oder hinter dem Auge beginnt und sich bis zum Hals fortsetzt. Die Gesamtlange von ca. 75 cm wird nur selten überschritten.
The aim of this paper is the exploration of an optimality theoretic architecture for syntax that is guided by the concept of "correspondence": syntax is understood as the mechanism of "translating" underlying representations into a surface form. In minimalism, this surface form is called "Phonological Form" (PF). Both semantic and abstract syntactic information are reflected by the surface form. The empirical domain where this architecture is tested are minimal link effects, especially in the case of "wh"-movement. The OT constraints require the surface form to reflect the underlying semantic and syntactic representations as maximally as possible. The means by which underlying relations and properties are encoded are precedence, adjacency, surface morphology and prosodic structure. Information that is not encoded in one of these ways remains unexpressed, and gets lost unless it is recoverable via the context. Different kinds of information are often expressed by the same means. The resulting conflicts are resolved by the relative ranking of the relevant correspondence constraints.
Die transcraniale Magnetstimulation (TMS) ist eine relativ neue Methode zur nicht invasiven und schmerzfreien Reizung des motorischen Cortex (M1). Mittels der TMS wurden die Reorganisationsmechanismen des kindlichen Zentralnervensystems nach einseitiger fokaler Schädigung des Motorcortex untersucht. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit galt den spezifischen Reorganisationsmechanismen in Abhängigkeit vom Zeitpunkt der Schädigung. Es wurden Kinder mit einer fokalen Läsion des motorischen Systems während des Vorschulalters/ frühen Schulalters und Kinder mit einer Schädigung während der Perinatalperiode untersucht. Allen Kindern war eine initial schwere neurologische Beeinträchtigung mit einer aktuell nur noch bestehenden diskreten oder latenten pathologisch-neurologischen Symptomatik gemein. Die nachgewiesenen Reorganisationsformen wurden des weiteren mit Literaturdaten von Probanden mit einer innerhalb des Erwachsenenalters erlittenen fokalen motorischen Läsion verglichen. Folgende Parameter wurden untersucht: kontralateral motorisch evozierte Potentiale (coMEP) mit Latenz, zentral motorische Überleitungszeit (ZML) und motorische Schwelle (MS), ipsilaterale motorisch evozierte Potentiale (ipsiMEP) mit Latenz und ipsilaterale silent period (ISP). Mittels dieser Studie konnte aufgezeigt werden, dass Kinder mit einer Schädigung während des Vorschulalters/ frühen Schulalters Reorganisationsformen besitzen, die charakterisiert sind durch eine erniedrigte MS, als Zeichen einer erhöhten Exzitabilität des geschädigten motorischen Kortex und durch eine über der paretischen Extremität fehlende ISP im Sinne einer verminderten inhibitorischen Wirkung des intakten auf den affektierten Cortex. Bei den Kindern mit einer Schädigung während der Perinatalperiode konnte einerseits, wie bei den Kindern mit einer Schädigung während des Vorschulalters/ frühen Schulalters die fehlende ISP über der paretischen Extremität, als Teil des Reorganisationsmechanismus nachgewiesen werden. Andererseits unter scheidet sich die funktionelle Reorganisation der Kinder mit einer Schädigung während der Perinatalperiode dahingegen, dass, als Konsequenz einer innerhalb der vulnerablen Phase erworbenen Schädigung, die MS erhöht, d.h. die Exzitabilität des affektierten Motorcortex erniedrigt ist. Zusätzlich konnten Reorganisationsmechanismen in Form von „cortical map plasticity“ und „neuronal plasticity“ mit verzögerten ipsiMEPs über der paretischen Extremität nachgewiesen werden. Diese verzögerten ipsilateralen Projektionen von der intakten Hemisphäre zur beeinträchtigten Extremität besitzen wertvolle Aufgaben in der Wiederherstellung der motorischen Funktionen und waren in dieser Form nur bei Kindern mit Läsionen in der Perinatalperiode evozierbar. Insgesamt konnte bei beiden Kindergruppen eine wesentliche Verbesserung der initial stark beeinträchtigten neurologischen Funktionen nachgewiesen werden. Im Gegensatz hierzu stehen die Defektzustände nach cerebralen Läsionen im Erwachsenenalter. Bei schlechtem neurologischen „outcome“ ist die motorische Schwelle über der defekten Hemisphäre erhöht und somit die Exzitabilität stark vermindert. Des weitern sind nur die mit einer schlechten funktionellen Reorganisation verbundenen schnellen ipsiMEPs bei den Patienten mit Läsionen im Erwachsenenalter, gegenüber den langsamen ipsiMEPs mit einer hervorragenden neurologischen Wiederherstellung bei den perinatal geschädigten Kindern, über der paretischen Extremität abzuleiten. Somit konnten altersspezifische, vom Schädigungszeitpunkt abhängige Reorganisationsmechanismen mit unterschiedlicher neurologischer Wiederherstellung nachgewiesen werden. Von besonderer Bedeutung sind die Ergebnisse dieser Studie, dass nicht nur zwischen den Reorganisationsformen des adulten und kindlichen Gehirns, sondern auch zwischen den Reorganisationsmechanismen eines Kindes im Vorschulalter und des, sich in der vulnerablen Phase befindlichen, unreifen perinatalen Gehirns zu differenzieren ist.
This paper reports the results of a corpus investigation on case conflicts in German argument free relative constructions. We investigate how corpus frequencies reflect the relative markedness of free relative and correlative constructions, the relative markedness of different case conflict configurations, and the relative markedness of different conflict resolution strategies. Section 1 introduces the conception of markedness as used in Optimality Theory. Section 2 introduces the facts about German free relative clauses, and section 3 presents the results of the corpus study. By and large, markedness and frequency go hand in hand. However, configurations at the highest end of the markedness scale rarely show up in corpus data, and for the configuration at the lowest end we found an unexpected outcome: the more marked structure is preferred.