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In conclusion, I described for the first time the in vivo functions of PAK2 during cardiac development and its requirement for heart contractility
AIM1 – Characterization of Pak2a and Pak2b functions during cardiovascular system development: description of the phenotype triggered by the loss of expression of pak2b in the pak2a mutant Firstly, in addition to the confirmation of the published data regarding the pak2a mutant and morphant phenotype, I showed that pak2bbns159 mutant does not exhibit morphological defects, neither in the ISV formation nor in the brain vascular patterning. More importantly, I analyzed in more details the phenotypic consequences of pak2a and pak2b loss of expression in the trunk and brain vasculatures. Indeed, the lack of blood flow in the embryos, was associated with central arteries migration defects and reduced lumen in these central arteries and the ISVs. Moreover, pak2a and pak2b loss of expression resulted in cardiac failure.
AIM2 – Role of Pak2 on cardiac contractility From 40 -46 hpf, I found a weaker heart contractility in the pak2ami149/mi149;pak2bbns159/bns159. Although, the PAK proteins have been shown to impact the actin cytoskeleton organization, the heart morphological defects associated with the altered contractility, were not associated with acto-myosin filament reorganization. However, by analyzing in more details the structure of the sarcomeres, I was able to demonstrate that the proteins constituting the sarcomeres were strongly affected and showed an altered spatial organization. Then, I also described the effects of the loss of expression of both paralogs on the junctional protein localization. I demonstrated the loss of Pak2 function resulted in junction protein rearrangement in the cardiomyocytes in the pak2ami149/mi149;pak2bbns159/bns159 mutants at 40 and 46 hpf.
Thus, I was able for the first time to demonstrate in vivo PAK2 functions during cardiac development and its requirement for proper cardiac contractility activity.
AIM3 – Decipher mechanism of Pak2 signaling cascade involved during cardiac development Both pak2a and pak2b WT mRNAs were able to rescue the pak2ami149/mi149;pak2bbns159/bns159 mutant heart defects and the results indicated that these paralogs share overlapping function during cardiac development. Moreover, although I was not able to examine the control transgenic lines, myocardial and endothelial specific pak2a overexpression did not ameliorate the mutant cardiac deficiency. Thus,the absence of rescue by reactivating pak2a in cardiomyocytes indicates a non-cell autonomous function of Pak2a on cardiomyocytes.
For the first time, this study allowed to follow PAK2 in vivo functions during cardiovascular development. More importantly, its role on heart contractility regulation would enable further investigations to generate new tools for the treatment of cardiomyopathies.
Neurogenesis of hippocampal granule cells (GCs) persists throughout mammalian life and is important for learning and memory. How newborn GCs differentiate and mature into an existing circuit during this time period is not yet fully understood. We established a method to visualize postnatally generated GCs in organotypic entorhino-hippocampal slice cultures (OTCs) using retroviral (RV) GFP-labeling and performed time-lapse imaging to study their morphological development in vitro. Using anterograde tracing we could, furthermore, demonstrate that the postnatally generated GCs in OTCs, similar to adult born GCs, grow into an existing entorhino-dentate circuitry. RV-labeled GCs were identified and individual cells were followed for up to four weeks post injection. Postnatally born GCs exhibited highly dynamic structural changes, including dendritic growth spurts but also retraction of dendrites and phases of dendritic stabilization. In contrast, older, presumably prenatally born GCs labeled with an adeno-associated virus (AAV), were far less dynamic. We propose that the high degree of structural flexibility seen in our preparations is necessary for the integration of newborn granule cells into an already existing neuronal circuit of the dentate gyrus in which they have to compete for entorhinal input with cells generated and integrated earlier.
Three-dimensional multicellular aggregates such as spheroids provide reliable in vitro substitutes for tissues. Quantitative characterization of spheroids at the cellular level is fundamental. We present the first pipeline that provides three-dimensional, high-quality images of intact spheroids at cellular resolution and a comprehensive image analysis that completes traditional image segmentation by algorithms from other fields. The pipeline combines light sheet-based fluorescence microscopy of optically cleared spheroids with automated nuclei segmentation (F score: 0.88) and concepts from graph analysis and computational topology. Incorporating cell graphs and alpha shapes provided more than 30 features of individual nuclei, the cellular neighborhood and the spheroid morphology. The application of our pipeline to a set of breast carcinoma spheroids revealed two concentric layers of different cell density for more than 30,000 cells. The thickness of the outer cell layer depends on a spheroid’s size and varies between 50% and 75% of its radius. In differently-sized spheroids, we detected patches of different cell densities ranging from 5 × 105 to 1 × 106 cells/mm3. Since cell density affects cell behavior in tissues, structural heterogeneities need to be incorporated into existing models. Our image analysis pipeline provides a multiscale approach to obtain the relevant data for a system-level understanding of tissue architecture.
Lunapark (Lnp) is a conserved membrane protein that localizes to and stabilizes three-way junctions of the tubular ER network. In higher eukaryotes, phosphorylation of Lnp may contribute to the conversion of the ER from tubules to sheets during mitosis. Here, we report on the reconstitution of purified Lnp with phospholipids. Surprisingly, Lnp induces the formation of stacked membrane discs. Each disc is a bicelle, with Lnp sitting in the bilayer facing both directions. The interaction between bicelles is mediated by the cytosolic domains of Lnp, resulting in a constant distance between the discs. A phosphomimetic Lnp mutant shows reduced bicelle stacking. Based on these results, we propose that Lnp tethers ER membranes in vivo in a cell cycle–dependent manner. Lnp appears to be the first membrane protein that induces the formation of stacked bicelles.
Polyploidie in Prokaryoten
(2018)
Diese Arbeit teilt sich in drei Teile auf, die sich mit der Regulation der Polyploidie sowie mit der Genkonversion als evolutionären Vorteil von Polyploidie in Haloferax volcanii beschäftigen.
Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit, wurde der Einfluss der DNA-Replikationsinitiatorproteine Orc1/Cdc6 auf das Ploidielevel untersucht. Hierbei konnte anhand von Deletionsmutanten zunächst gezeigt werden, dass lediglich drei der 16 Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine in H. volcanii essentiell sind. Bestimmung des Ploidielevels mittels qPCR-Analyse ergab, dass jedes der 12 untersuchten Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine das Ploidielevel mindestens eines Replikons beeinflusst und dementsprechend sowohl die mit einem Replikationsursprung assoziierten als auch die „verwaisten“ Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine eine Funktion haben. Die mit einem Replikationsursprung assoziierten Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine hatten hierbei keinen größeren Einfluss auf das Ploidielevel als die „verwaisten“. Zusätzlich konnte durch Wachstumsanalysen in Mikrotiterplatten gezeigt werden, dass die meisten Deletionsmutanten unter allen getesteten Bedingungen ein mit dem Wildtyp vergleichbares oder besseres Wachstum zeigen. Eine Deletionsmutante eines Orc1/Cdc6-Proteins hingegen zeigte nur verbessertes Wachstum bei Glukose als Kohlenstoffquelle, was ein Hinweis auf die Verwendung verschiedener Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine unter verschiedenen Bedingungen sein könnte. Zusätzlich wurden zwei mit dem Replikationsursprung assoziierte Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine überexprimiert und via ihres N-terminalen His-Tag im Western-Blot nachgewiesen, sodass diese nun für Co-Affinitätsaufreinigungen zur weiteren Charakterisierung des komplexen Zusammenspiels der Orc1/Cdc6-Proteine zur Verfügung stehen.
Im Rahme des zweiten Teils der Arbeit wurde der Einfluss der in der 5‘-Region der der Replikationsursprünge ori1 und ori2 kodierten Proteine auf Wachstum und die Kopienzahl des Hauptchromosoms bestimmt. Zunächst wurde die Expression der drei in Haloarchaea hoch-konservierten oap-Gene upstream von ori1 mittels Nothern-Blot untersucht und es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das oap-Operon tatsächlich als Operon abgelesen wird. Um alle Gene in den 5‘-Regionen von ori1 und ori2 genauer zu charakterisieren, wurden induzierbare Überexpressionsmutanten im Wildtyp-Hintergrund angefertigt. Es konnte mittels Wachstumsversuchen in Mikrotiterplatten gezeigt werden, dass bei Induktion von Beginn an die Überexpression der Hef-Helikase und des oapB-Proteins zu einem starken Wachstumsdefekt führen, die von oapC und HVO_1724 zu einem moderaten Wachstumsdefekt, wohingegen für die Überexpressionsmutante von oapA vergleichbares Wachstum zum Wildtyp und für die Überexpression der Rad25d-Helikase verbessertes Wachstum beobachtet werden konnte. Es konnte darüber hinaus gezeigt werden, dass sowohl die Deletion als auch die Überexpression der Helikasen keinen Einfluss auf das Ploidielevel hat; die Deletion von oapC führt jedoch zu einer Reduktion der Genomkopienzahl in exponentieller und stationärer Phase, was ein erster Hinweis darauf ist, dass das oap-Operon eine Rolle bei der Regulation des Ploidielevels spielen könnte.
Im dritten Teil der Arbeit wurde eine Methode entwickelt, um Genkonversion farblich sichtbar zu machen. Hierbei wurde sich H. volcaniis Carotinoidbiosynthese zu Nutze gemacht. Es wurden zwei verschiedene, auxotrophe Elternstämme mittels Protoplastenfusion verschmolzen, um eine heterozygote Tochterzelle zu erzeugen. Ein Genkonversionsereignis wurde durch einen roten Keil angezeigt, der aus einer weißen Kolonie wuchs und durch die erfolgreiche Reparatur des Carotinoidbiosynthesegens entstand. Es wurden insgesamt 8525 Klone ausgestrichen und 0,14 % der Kolonien zeigten eine entsprechende rote Färbung. Das Proof-of-Principle dieser Methode ist in damit in dieser Arbeit gelungen. Um die Genkonversion in den weißen Kolonien auf genetischer Ebene genauer zu untersuchen, wurde PCR verwendet. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass in den Zellen aller 135 untersuchten Kolonien Genkonversion stattgefunden hatte und zwar so effizient, dass nur in seltenen Fällen Heterozygotie vorlag. Unter Selektionsdruck stehende Loci hatten in beiden untersuchten Fällen eine starke Präferenz in Richtung Homozygotie und Erhalt der Prototrophie. Für nicht unter Selektionsdruck stehende Loci konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Hälfte der untersuchten Kolonien dem Elternstamm 1 glich, während die andere Hälfte dem Elternstamm 2 glich. Auch hier waren die Zellen nur in seltenen Fällen homozygot.
Background: Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) represent a novel class of non-coding RNAs having a crucial role in many biological processes. The identification of long non-coding homologs among different species is essential to investigate such roles in model organisms as homologous genes tend to retain similar molecular and biological functions. Alignment–based metrics are able to effectively capture the conservation of transcribed coding sequences and then the homology of protein coding genes. However, unlike protein coding genes the poor sequence conservation of long non-coding genes makes the identification of their homologs a challenging task.
Results: In this study we compare alignment–based and alignment–free string similarity metrics and look at promoter regions as a possible source of conserved information. We show that promoter regions encode relevant information for the conservation of long non-coding genes across species and that such information is better captured by alignment–free metrics. We perform a genome wide test of this hypothesis in human, mouse, and zebrafish.
Conclusions: The obtained results persuaded us to postulate the new hypothesis that, unlike protein coding genes, long non-coding genes tend to preserve their regulatory machinery rather than their transcribed sequence. All datasets, scripts, and the prediction tools adopted in this study are available at https://github.com/bioinformatics-sannio/lncrna-homologs.
Application of a developed tool to visualize newly synthesized AMPA receptor components in situ
(2018)
The information flow between neurons happens at contact points, the synapses. One underlying mechanism of learning and memory is the change in the strength of information flow in selected synapses. In order to match the huge demand in membranes and proteins to build and maintain the neurites' complex architecture, neurons use decentralized protein synthesis. Many candidate proteins for local synthesis are known, and the need of de novo synthesis for memory formation is well established. The underlying mechanisms of how somatic versus dendritic synthesis is regulated are yet to be elucidated. Which proteins are newly synthesized in order to allow learning?
In this thesis protein synthesis is studied in hippocampal neurons. The fractional distribution of somatic and dendritic synthesis for candidate proteins and their subsequent transport to their destination are investigated using a newly developed technique. In the first part of this study we describe the development of this technique and use it in the second part to answer biological questions.
We focus here on AMPA receptor subunits, the key players in fast excitatory transmission. AMPA receptors contain multiple subunits with diverse functions. It remains to be understood, when and where in a neuron these subunits come together to form a protein complex and how the choice of subunits is regulated.
The investigation of the subunits' site of synthesis and redistribution kinetics in this study will help us to understand how neurons are able to change their synaptic strength in an input specific manner which eventually allows learning and memory.
Key questions which are addressed in this study:
How can specific newly synthesized endogenous proteins be visualized in situ? What are the neuron's abilities to locally synthesize and fully assemble AMPA receptor complexes?
How fast do different AMPA receptor subunits redistribute within neurons after synthesis?
Background and Objectives: Valuation of life (VOL) represents a construct capturing individuals’ active attachment to their life. The majority of studies on VOL were conducted in North America and Europe where personal autonomy and independence are highly valued, leaving open the question about the relevance of this construct in interdependence-oriented cultures. Using a framework of cross-cultural and life-span theories, the present study compared levels and predictors of VOL between the young-old and old-old individuals from Germany and Japan.
Research Design and Methods: Two hundred fifty-seven Germans and 248 Japanese, matched by age, gender, education, and IADL, answered a 5-item VOL scale and shared information on sociodemographic, social, and health resources.
Results: Germans’ VOL levels were higher than in Japanese participants. Both culture- and age-moderated predictions of VOL: education was significant only in the young-old Japanese, and close social partners mattered in the old-old, not in the young-old. Health determined VOL irrespective of culture and age.
Discussion and Implications: The findings suggest that cultural values and aging processes should be considered to better understand how individuals value their life and to help older adults to feel that his/her life is meaningful and worth living.
Experimental evidence supports that cortical oscillations represent multiscale temporal modulations existent in natural stimuli, yet little is known about the processing of these multiple timescales at a neuronal level. Here, using extracellular recordings from the auditory cortex (AC) of awake bats (Carollia perspicillata), we show the existence of three neuronal types which represent different levels of the temporal structure of conspecific vocalizations, and therefore constitute direct evidence of multiscale temporal processing of naturalistic stimuli by neurons in the AC. These neuronal subpopulations synchronize differently to local-field potentials, particularly in theta- and high frequency bands, and are informative to a different degree in terms of their spike rate. Interestingly, we also observed that both low and high frequency cortical oscillations can be highly informative about the listened calls. Our results suggest that multiscale neuronal processing allows for the precise and non-redundant representation of natural vocalizations in the AC.
The fungal interaction with plants is a 400 million years old phenomenon, which presumably assisted in the plants’ establishment on land. In a natural ecosystem, all plant-ranging from large trees to sea-grasses-are colonized by fungal endophytes, which can be detected inter- and intracellularly within the tissues of apparently healthy plants, without causing obvious negative effects on their host. These ubiquitous and diverse microorganisms are likely playing important roles in plant fitness and development. However, the knowledge on the ecological functions of fungal root endophytes is scarce. Among possible functions of endophytes, they are implicated in mutualisms with plants, which may increase plant resistance to biotic stressors like herbivores and pathogens, and/or to abiotic factors like soil salinity and drought. Also, endophytes are fascinating microorganisms in regard to their high potential to produce a great spectrum of secondary metabolites with expected ecological functions. However, evidences suggest that the interactions between host plants and endophytes are not static and endophytes express different symbiotic lifestyles ranging from mutualism to parasitism, which makes difficult to predict the ecological roles of these cryptic microorganisms. To reveal the ecological function of fungal root endophytes, this doctoral thesis aims at assessing fungal root endophytes interactions with different plants and their effects on plant fitness, based on their phylogeny, traits, and competition potential in settings encompassing different abiotic contexts. To understand the cryptic implication of nonmycorrhizal endophytes in ecosystem processes, we isolated a diverse spectrum of fungal endophytes from roots of several plant species growing in different natural contexts and tested their effects on different model plants under axenic laboratory conditions. Additionally,we aimed at investigating the effect of abiotic and biotic variables on the outcome of interactions between fungal root endophytes and plants.
In summary, the morphological and physiological traits of 128 fungal endophyte strains within ten fungal orders were studied and artificial experimental systems were used to reproduce their interactions with three plant species under laboratory conditions. Under defined axenic conditions, most endophytes behaved as weak parasites, but their performance varied across plant species and fungal taxa. The variation in the interactions was partly explained by convergent fungal traits that separate groups of endophytes with potentially different niche preferences. According to my findings, I predict that the functional complementarity of strains is essential in structuring natural root endophytic communities. Additionally, the responses of plant-endophyte interactions to different abiotic factors, namely nutrient availability, light intensity, and substrate’s pH, indicate that the outcome of plant-fungus relationships may be robust to changes in the abiotic environment. The assessment of the responses of plant endophyte interactions to biotic context, as combinations of selected dominant root fungal endophytes with different degrees of trait similarity and shared evolutionary history, indicates that frequently coexisting root-colonizing fungi may avoid competition in inter-specific interactions by occupying specific niches, and that their interactions likely define the structure of root-associated fungal communities and influence the microbiome impacts on plant fitness.
In conclusion, my findings suggest that dominant fungal lineages display different ecological preferences and complementary sets of functional traits, with different niche preferences within root tissues to avoid competition. Also, their diverse effects on plant fitness is likely host-isolate dependent and robust to changes in the abiotic environment when these encompass the tolerance range of either symbiont.
Neurons collect their inputs from other neurons by sending out arborized dendritic structures. However, the relationship between the shape of dendrites and the precise organization of synaptic inputs in the neural tissue remains unclear. Inputs could be distributed in tight clusters, entirely randomly or else in a regular grid-like manner. Here, we analyze dendritic branching structures using a regularity index R, based on average nearest neighbor distances between branch and termination points, characterizing their spatial distribution. We find that the distributions of these points depend strongly on cell types, indicating possible fundamental differences in synaptic input organization. Moreover, R is independent of cell size and we find that it is only weakly correlated with other branching statistics, suggesting that it might reflect features of dendritic morphology that are not captured by commonly studied branching statistics. We then use morphological models based on optimal wiring principles to study the relation between input distributions and dendritic branching structures. Using our models, we find that branch point distributions correlate more closely with the input distributions while termination points in dendrites are generally spread out more randomly with a close to uniform distribution. We validate these model predictions with connectome data. Finally, we find that in spatial input distributions with increasing regularity, characteristic scaling relationships between branching features are altered significantly. In summary, we conclude that local statistics of input distributions and dendrite morphology depend on each other leading to potentially cell type specific branching features.
The endoplasmic reticulum–mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES) connects the mitochondrial outer membrane with the ER. Multiple functions have been linked to ERMES, including maintenance of mitochondrial morphology, protein assembly and phospholipid homeostasis. Since the mitochondrial distribution and morphology protein Mdm10 is present in both ERMES and the mitochondrial sorting and assembly machinery (SAM), it is unknown how the ERMES functions are connected on a molecular level. Here we report that conserved surface areas on opposite sides of the Mdm10 β-barrel interact with SAM and ERMES, respectively. We generated point mutants to separate protein assembly (SAM) from morphology and phospholipid homeostasis (ERMES). Our study reveals that the β-barrel channel of Mdm10 serves different functions. Mdm10 promotes the biogenesis of α-helical and β-barrel proteins at SAM and functions as integral membrane anchor of ERMES, demonstrating that SAM-mediated protein assembly is distinct from ER-mitochondria contact sites.
Acinetobacter baumannii is a nosocomial pathogen which can persist in the hospital environment not only due to the acquirement of multiple antibiotic resistances, but also because of its exceptional resistance against disinfectants and desiccation. A suitable desiccation assay was established in which A. baumannii ATCC 19606T survived for ca. 1 month. The growth medium slightly influenced survival after subsequent desiccation. A significant effect could be attributed to the growth phase in which bacteria were dried: In exponential phase, cells were much more desiccation sensitive. The main focus of the present study was the elucidation of the role of compatible solutes, which are known to protect many bacteria under low water activity conditions, in desiccation survival of A. baumannii. Exogenous trehalose was shown to efficiently protect A. baumannii on dry surfaces, in contrast to other compatible solutes tested such as mannitol or glycine betaine. To analyze the importance of intracellularly accumulated solutes, a double mutant lacking biosynthesis pathways for mannitol and trehalose was generated. This mutant accumulated glutamate as sole solute in the presence of high NaCl concentrations and showed severe growth defects under osmotic stress conditions. However, no effect on desiccation tolerance could be seen, neither when cells were dried in water nor in the presence of NaCl.
Background & Aims: Microvillus inclusion disease (MVID) is a congenital intestinal malabsorption disorder caused by defective apical vesicular transport. Existing cellular models do not fully recapitulate this heterogeneous pathology. The aim of this study was to characterize 3-dimensional intestinal organoids that continuously generate polarized absorptive cells as an accessible and relevant model to investigate MVID.
Methods: Intestinal organoids from Munc18-2/Stxbp2-null mice that are deficient for apical vesicular transport were subjected to enterocyte-specific differentiation protocols. Lentiviral rescue experiments were performed using human MUNC18-2 variants. Apical trafficking and microvillus formation were characterized by confocal and transmission electron microscopy. Spinning disc time-lapse microscopy was used to document the lifecycle of microvillus inclusions.
Results: Loss of Munc18-2/Stxbp2 recapitulated the pathologic features observed in patients with MUNC18-2 deficiency. The defects were fully restored by transgenic wild-type human MUNC18-2 protein, but not the patient variant (P477L). Importantly, we discovered that the MVID phenotype was correlated with the degree of enterocyte differentiation: secretory vesicles accumulated already in crypt progenitors, while differentiated enterocytes showed an apical tubulovesicular network and enlarged lysosomes. Upon prolonged enterocyte differentiation, cytoplasmic F-actin–positive foci were observed that further progressed into classic microvillus inclusions. Time-lapse microscopy showed their dynamic formation by intracellular maturation or invagination of the apical or basolateral plasma membrane.
Conclusions: We show that prolonged enterocyte-specific differentiation is required to recapitulate the entire spectrum of MVID. Primary organoids can provide a powerful model for this heterogeneous pathology. Formation of microvillus inclusions from multiple membrane sources showed an unexpected dynamic of the enterocyte brush border.
Low-frequency spike-field coherence is a fingerprint of periodicity coding in the auditory cortex
(2018)
The extraction of temporal information from sensory input streams is of paramount importance in the auditory system. In this study, amplitude-modulated sounds were used as stimuli to drive auditory cortex (AC) neurons of the bat species Carollia perspicillata, to assess the interactions between cortical spikes and local-field potentials (LFPs) for the processing of temporal acoustic cues. We observed that neurons in the AC capable of eliciting synchronized spiking to periodic acoustic envelopes were significantly more coherent to theta- and alpha-band LFPs than their non-synchronized counterparts. These differences occurred independently of the modulation rate tested and could not be explained by power or phase modulations of the field potentials. We argue that the coupling between neuronal spiking and the phase of low-frequency LFPs might be important for orchestrating the coding of temporal acoustic structures in the AC.
Colorectal cancer (CRC) has the third highest incidence and the fourth highest mortality rate worldwide and represents a substantial health care burden and affects the life of millions of people. CRC is a genetic disease caused by the stepwise accumulation of genetic alterations. The initiating event in colorectal carcinogenesis is the aberrant activation of the WNT pathway, but other pathways are also commonly deregulated, including the PI3K/AKT pathway. A number of previous studies using genetically engineered mouse models aimed at dissecting the exact role of PI3K/AKT pathway in CRC, but have yielded in rather conflicting results. Despite the inconsistent results, these studies already put forward the idea that PI3K/AKT signaling in combination with other genetic events might substantially contribute to tumor progression.
Since the PI3K/AKT pathway is frequently activated in CRC, it represents an ideal candidate for therapeutic intervention. Although extensive efforts had led to the development of numerous inhibitors targeting the PI3K/AKT pathway, the diversity of genetic alterations can challenge the identification of the most effective therapeutic targets. Therefore, the discovery of shared tumor-promoting mechanisms downstream of these genetic alterations might unravel new biomarkers and druggable targets. The aim of this study was to elucidate the precise role of PI3K/AKT pathway during the course of colorectal carcinogenesis and to decipher novel pro-tumorigenic molecular mechanisms downstream of PI3K/AKT activation that can be used for therapeutic intervention.
To obtain a better insight into the role of the PI3K/AKT pathway during colorectal carcinogenesis, mice expressing an oncogenic variant of AKT1 (AktE17K) specifically in the intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) were used. At the age of 6 months untreated AktE17K mice showed clearly perturbed intestinal homeostasis, but no tumor formation. To induce colonic tumorigenesis, AktE17K mice were subjected to treatment with the colonic carcinogen azoxymethane (AOM). In response to AOM, AktE17K mice developed invasive but nonmetastatic tumors, which showed strong nuclear accumulation of TP53. To investigate the role of PI3K/AKT signaling specifically in CRC progression, AktE17K mice were crossed to TP53- deficient mice (Tp53ΔIEC). Unlike AktE17K mice, untreated Tp53ΔIECAktE17K, developed highly invasive small intestinal tumors by the age of 6 months. To investigate the role of AKT hyperactivation in colonic tumor progression, Tp53ΔIECAktE17K mice were subjected to AOM treatment. AKT hyperactivation significantly enhanced tumor progression and induced metastatic dissemination.
To get a better insight how AKT signaling can promote tumor progression, whole tumor tissues from AOM-treated Tp53ΔIEC and Tp53ΔIECAktE17K mice were subjected to next generation mRNA sequencing and phospho-proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry. Both analyses indicated that AKT hyperactivation expands the inflammatory tumor microenvironment and upregulates pathways associated with invasion and metastasis. Importantly, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed that AOM-induced colon tumors of Tp53ΔIECAktE17K animals, are highly similar in their gene expression profile to the CMS4 subtype of human CRC, which is associated with worse overall- and relapse-free survival7 . Gene expression analysis also suggested elevated NOTCH signaling in the Tp53ΔIECAktE17K tumors. Interestingly, while the expression of Notch3 mRNA was increased in the tumors of Tp53ΔIECAktE17K mice, the expression of the other NOTCH receptors was unaffected by AKT hyperactivation. In vitro experiments using TP53-deficient mouse tumor organoids with hyperactive AKT signaling confirmed the direct, tumor cell-intrinsic link between AKT activation and increased Notch3 expression. Moreover, inhibition of EZH2 mimicked the effect of AKT hyperactivation on Notch3 expression, suggesting that AKT regulates Notch3 via an epigenetic mechanism.
Knock-down of Notch3 in TP53-deficient mouse tumor organoids with hyperactive AKT signaling resulted in differential regulation of several pathways with potential role in invasion and metastasis and in cell death and survival. Subsequent in vivo experiments confirmed the role of NOTCH3 signaling in CRC progression. Treatment of AOM-induced Tp53ΔIECAkt E17K mice with a NOTCH3 antagonistic antibody or the γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT significantly reduced invasion and metastasis. Importantly, NOTCH3 expression was also found to be associated with human CRC progression, suggesting that NOTCH3 represent a valid target for the treatment of CRC. This work, using genetically engineered mouse models and advanced in vitro techniques, has demonstrated a strong tumor promoting role for PI3K/AKT signaling in CRC progression and has identified NOTCH3 signaling as a potential therapeutic target downstream of the PI3K/AKT pathway.
Mandelic acid is an important aromatic fine chemical and is currently mainly produced via chemical synthesis. Recently, mandelic acid production was achieved by microbial fermentations using engineered Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing heterologous hydroxymandelate synthases (hmaS). The best-performing strains carried a deletion of the gene encoding the first enzyme of the tyrosine biosynthetic pathway and therefore were auxotrophic for tyrosine. This was necessary to avoid formation of the competing intermediate hydroxyphenylpyruvate, the preferred substrate for HmaS, which would have resulted in the predominant production of hydroxymandelic acid. However, feeding tyrosine to the medium would increase fermentation costs. In order to engineer a tyrosine prototrophic mandelic acid-producing S. cerevisiae strain, we tested three strategies: (1) rational engineering of the HmaS active site for reduced binding of hydroxyphenylpyruvate, (2) compartmentalization of the mandelic acid biosynthesis pathway by relocating HmaS together with the two upstream enzymes chorismate mutase Aro7 and prephenate dehydratase Pha2 into mitochondria or peroxisomes, and (3) utilizing a feedback-resistant version of the bifunctional E. coli enzyme PheA (PheAfbr) in an aro7 deletion strain. PheA has both chorismate mutase and prephenate dehydratase activity. Whereas the enzyme engineering approaches were only successful in respect to reducing the preference of HmaS for hydroxyphenylpyruvate but not in increasing mandelic acid titers, we could show that strategies (2) and (3) significantly reduced hydroxymandelic acid production in favor of increased mandelic acid production, without causing tyrosine auxotrophy. Using the bifunctional enzyme PheAfbr turned out to be the most promising strategy, and mandelic acid production could be increased 12-fold, yielding titers up to 120 mg/L. Moreover, our results indicate that utilizing PheAfbr also shows promise for other industrial applications with S. cerevisiae that depend on a strong flux into the phenylalanine biosynthetic pathway.
The human brain is one of the most complex biological systems. More than 100 billion neurons build networks that control basic body functions and highly coordinated movements, enable us to express emotions, feelings and thoughts and to store memories over years and even throughout life time. Ultimately, “We are who we are because of what we learn and what we remember” (Kandel 2006). Under pathological conditions, the brain function is challenged. Most if not all neurological diseases have in common that they are either triggered and/or accompanied by inflammatory processes of brain tissue, referred to as neuroinflammation. Such inflammatory processes directly affect an elementary neural mechanism relevant for learning and memory: synaptic plasticity. Indeed, neurons are highly dynamic structures and able to respond to specific stimuli with morphological, functional and molecular adaptations that modify the strength and number of neuronal contact sides (synapses). Hence, the main motivation of this thesis was to identify the neural targets through which inflammation affects brain function and synaptic plasticity in particular. The principles of synaptic plasticity have been studied intensively in the hippocampus, an anatomical structure localized within the temporal lobes that is essential for the consolidation of memories and spatial navigation. Synaptic plasticity is coordinated by complex interactions of thousands of molecules and proteins. Among those proteins, synaptopodin (SP) is localized at a strategic position within excitatory synapses and has been shown to be fundamentally involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity.
To induce neuroinflammation and to study its effects on SP as well as synaptic plasticity, the classic model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was applied. This thesis discloses that inflammatory processes impair the ability of neurons to express hippocampal synaptic plasticity in vivo, which is accompanied by a downregulation of SP-mRNA and protein level in the mouse hippocampus, indicating that SP is one of the cellular targets through which inflammatory signaling pathways affect synaptic plasticity and hence neural function. To learn more about the cellular and molecular mechanisms, an in vitro LPS model was established using entorhino-hippocampal organotypic slice cultures (OTCs).
While confirming the major effect of LPS on SP, this thesis furthermore shows that neuroinflammation crucially involves the cytokine TNFα to transduce its effects on SP, and that microglial cells are the main source of TNFα production under inflammatory conditions. In an attempt to learn more about the mechanisms that are affected under conditions of neuroinflammation effects of retinoic acid (RA), a vitamin A derivate were tested. This is mainly because SP as well as RA have been shown to modulate synaptic plasticity through the accumulation of glutamate receptors at the postsynaptic site: SP via the association with the actincytoskeleton as well as intracellular calcium stores, and RA directly via the modulation of local protein synthesis within dendrites. Indeed, in slice cultures exposed to RA, hippocampal SP cluster size is upregulated, both in vitro and in vivo. Intriguingly, a lack of SP prevents RA-induced synaptic strengthening of hippocampal dentate granule cells in OTCs. This suggests a direct contribution of SP in RA-dependent synaptic plasticity. Interestingly, co-immunoprecipitation of SP-mRNA together with the RA-receptor alpha (RARα) further implies that RA directly controls synaptic plasticity via regulation of SP-protein expression. It is therefore interesting to speculate that RA may increase SP expression or prevent its reduction and thus alterations in synaptic plasticity under conditions of neuroinflammation. Taken together, this thesis identifies SP as an important neuronal target of TNFα-mediated alterations in synaptic plasticity. Moreover, the work on RA indicates that SP affects the ability of neurons to express synaptic plasticity by modulating/mediating local protein synthesis. Since neuroinflammatory processes are an elementary concomitant feature and/or cause of neurological diseases, I am confident that future work on the effects of inflammatory processes on brain function may provide the perspective in devising new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of neuropathologies such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy or stroke, by targeting SP expression and SP-mediated synaptic plasticity.
Fungi indirectly affect plant root architecture by modulating soil volatile organic compounds
(2018)
The plant-growth modulating effect of microbial volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has been demonstrated repeatedly. This has most often been performed by exposing plants to VOC released by microbes grown on nutrient rich media. Here, we used soil instead to grow fungi of the Fusarium genus and investigate how VOCs emitted by this system influenced the development of Arabidopsis plants. The volatile profiles of Fusarium strains grown in soil and malt extract were also compared. Our results demonstrate that distinct volatile signatures can be attributed to different Fusarium genetic clades but also highlight a major influence of the growth medium on volatile emission. Furthermore, all soil-grown Fusarium isolates increased primary root length in Arabidopsis by decreasing VOC concentrations in soil. This result represents a major paradigm shift in plant-microbe interactions since growth modulating effects have been attributed so far to the emission and not the consumption of volatile signals.
Many cellular processes are regulated via pH, and maintaining the pH of different organelles is crucial for cell survival. A pH-sensitive GFP variant, the so-called pHluorin, has proven to be a valuable tool to study the pH of the cytosol, mitochondria and other organelles in vivo. We found that the fluorescence intensity of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-targeted pHluorin in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was very low and barely showed pH sensitivity, probably due to misfolding in the oxidative environment of the ER. We therefore developed a superfolder variant of pHluorin which enabled us to monitor pH changes in the ER and the cytosol of S. cerevisiae in vivo. The superfolder pHluorin variant is likely to be functional in cells of different organisms as well as in additional compartments that originate from the secretory pathway like the Golgi apparatus and pre-vacuolar compartments, and therefore has a broad range of possible future applications.
Bei Autismus-Spektrum-Störungen (ASS) handelt es sich um genetisch komplexe Störungen mit hoher Erblichkeit. Als zugrundeliegender Pathomechanismus von ASS werden unter anderem Veränderungen der neuronalen Entwicklung diskutiert. Der Phänotyp von ASS ist definiert durch Einschränkungen in der sozialen Interaktion und Kommunikation sowie repetitives und stereotypes Verhalten. Genkopiepolymorphismen (englisch „copy number variations“/CNVs), also Deletionen oder Duplikationen einer chromosomalen Region, wurden wiederholt in Probanden mit ASS identifiziert. Hierbei ist in ASS die Region 16p11.2 mit am häufigsten von CNVs betroffen. Einige Gene aus diesem chromosomalen Abschnitt wurden bereits funktionell charakterisiert. Dennoch können die Befunde der bisherigen Einzelgenstudien nicht alle Aspekte erklären, die durch 16p11.2 CNVs hervorgerufen werden. Ziel dieser Studie war es daher, ein weiteres neuronal assoziiertes Kandidatengen dieser Region zu identifizieren und im Anschluss funktionell im Kontext der neuronalen Differenzierung zu charakterisieren.
Das SH-SY5Y Neuroblastom-Zellmodell wurde auf Transkriptom- und morphologischer Ebene auf seine Eignung als Modell für neuronale Differenzierung untersucht und bestätigt. Eine Analyse der Expressionen aller Gene der 16p11.2-Region zeigte, dass das Gen Quinolinat-Phosphoribosyltransferase (QPRT) eine vergleichsweise hohe Expression mit der stärksten und robustesten Regulierung über die Zeit aufwies. Eine de novo Deletion der 16p11.2-Region wurde in einem Patienten im Vergleich zu seinen Eltern validiert. In Patienten-spezifischen lymphoblastoiden Zelllinien derselben Familie konnten wir eine Gendosis-abhängige Expression von QPRT auf RNA-Ebene bestätigen. In SH-SY5Y-Zellen korrelierte die Expression von QPRT signifikant mit der Entwicklung von Neuriten während der Differenzierung. Um QPRT funktionell zu charakterisieren, benutzten wir drei verschiedene Methoden zur Reduktion der QPRT-Gendosis: (i) knock down (KD) durch siRNA, (ii) chemische Inhibition durch Phthalsäure und (iii) knock out (KO) über CRISPR/Cas9-Geneditierung. Eine Reduktion von QPRT durch siRNA führte zu einer schwachen Veränderung der neuronalen Morphologie differenzierter SH-SY5Y-Zellen. Die chemische Inhibition sowie der genetische KO von QPRT waren letal für differenzierende aber nicht für proliferierende Zellen. Eine Metabolitenanalyse zeigte keine Veränderungen des QPRT-assoziierten Tryptophanstoffwechsels. Gene, welche auf Transkriptomebene im Vergleich zwischen KO- und Kontrollzellen differenziell reguliert vorlagen, waren häufig an Prozessen der neuronalen Entwicklung sowie an der Bildung, Stabilität und Funktion synaptischer Strukturen beteiligt. Die Liste differenziell regulierter Gene enthielt außerdem überdurchschnittlich viele ASS-Risikogene und ko-regulierte Gengruppen waren assoziiert mit der Entwicklung des dorsolateralen präfrontalen Cortex, des Hippocampus sowie der Amygdala.
In dieser Studie zeigten wir einen kausalen Zusammenhang zwischen QPRT und der neuronalen Differenzierung in vitro sowie einen Einfluss von QPRT auf die Regulation von ASS-assoziierten Genen und Gen-Netzwerken. Funktionell standen diese Gene im Kontext mit synaptischen Vorgängen, welche durch Veränderungen zu einem Exzitations-Inhibitions-Ungleichgewicht und letztendlich zum Zelltod von Neuronen führen können. Unsere Ergebnisse heben in Summe die wichtige Rolle von QPRT in der Krankheitsentstehung von ASS, insbesondere in Trägern einer 16p11.2 Deletion, hervor.
This dissertation aimed to shed light on changes of the epigenetic landscape in heart and skeletal muscle tissue of the turquoise Killifish N. furzeri, a novel, short-lived animal model for aging research. The following results could be obtained:
1. A global trend towards closed chromatin conformation could be observed; histone markers for H3K27me3, H3K9me3 and H4K20me3 accumulated in skeletal muscle tissue from old N. furzeri. Markers for open chromatin conformation such as H3K4me3, H3K9ac and H4K16ac decreased in old skeletal muscle tissue. In old hearts from N. furzeri an accumulation of H3K27me3 could be detected while H3K9ac was found to increase with age as well. mRNA expression levels of methylating enzymes were higher in skeletal muscle tissue from old N. furzeri when compared to expression levels in skeletal muscle tissue from young N. furzeri.
2. The shift of epigenetic pattern was accompanied by a change of gene expression. Via mRNA sequencing in collaboration with the MPI, Bad Nauheim it could be shown that genes associated with cell cycle and DNA repair were lower expressed in skeletal muscle tissue from old N. furzeri than in tissue from young N. furzeri. Genes, associated with inflammatory signaling and glycolysis, displayed increased mRNA levels in skeletal muscle tissue from old N. furzeri. These results could be confirmed by Western blot and qRT-PCR analyses.
3. Markers for DNA damage and senescence increased in skeletal muscle tissue from old N. furzeri.
4. Cells derived from young and old N. furzeri skeletal muscle could be isolated and cultured for many passages. These cells were a mix of different cell types with properties and features of the native tissue. They could be used for treatment with drugs and/small compounds modulating the epigenetic landscape via specific interference with methylating enzymes.
5. DNA methylation and hydroxy-methylation were found to go in different directions in skeletal muscle and heart tissue from N. furzeri: while increasing in skeletal muscle tissue, a both DNA modifications declined in heart tissue with age.
6. In the heart of N. furzeri microRNA expression changes with age were assed with sequencing in collaboration with the FLI, Jena. It could be demonstrated that miRNA expression is age-dependent. Particular focus was on miR-29 and its target genes: miR-29 was highly upregulated in heart and skeletal muscle tissue, while target genes such as collagens and dnmts were reduced with age in the heart of N. furzeri.
7. Cardiac function remained stable with age and no accumulation of collagens could be found when comparing hearts of young and old N. furzeri despite the increase of markers for oxidative stress.
8. Cell culture experiments with human cardiac fibroblasts revealed that miR-29 is upregulated with increasing age of the donor. In addition to that, it could be shown that miR-29 is positively regulated by oxidative stress.
9. A zebrafish mutant with modified expression of miR-29 that was created in collaboration with the SNS, Pisa, presented a severe hypoxic phenotype and an altered mRNA expression profile compared to wild type control zebrafish. Cardiac dysfunction and hypertrophy were observed as well as an increase in DNA methylation and collagens.
Taken together, it could be shown that the aging process in skeletal muscle and heart tissue from N. furzeri leads to a series of changes on epigenetic levels. It remains to be elucidated whether these changes are result or cause for further changes of mRNA expression, protein levels and pathophysiology, yet the N. furzeri represents a promising research model for further aging studies.
Lizards of Paraguay: an integrative approach to solve taxonomic problems in central South America
(2018)
Paraguay is located in the center of South America with drier and warmer climatic conditions in the western part of the country, and more temperate and humid in the eastern region. Biogeographically, Paraguay is a key spot in South America, where several ecoregions converge. In my study, I sampled most of the ecoregions of Paraguay. The main objective of my work is to solve taxonomic problems, identified through genetic barcoding analyses, in the central region of South America. To achieve this objective, I used selected taxa of the Paraguayan Squamata as models taking into consideration the crucial geographic position of the country, plus the scarce available genetic data of Paraguayan reptiles.
The collecting activities were performed in the framework of a barcoding inventory project of the Paraguayan herpetofauna and carried out mostly in rural areas searching for animals in different types of habitats using active search as the sampling technique.
For genetics, the extraction of DNA was performed with DNeasy® Blood & Tissue Kit of Qiagen® for sets of few samples, and the fiber glass plate protocol for sets of 96 samples. I assessed the quality of sequences after amplification in agarose gel electrophoresis. The first marker sequenced was 16S mtDNA, used for barcoding analysis. A DNA barcode is a genetic identifier for a species. Once a taxonomic problem was detected, I generate more gene sequences to target the issue.
All the analyses to test phylogenetic hypotheses (based on single genes or concatenated datasets) were performed under Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian approaches. To root the phylogenetic trees, I chose the available taxon (or taxa) most closely related to the respective studied group as outgroups. For the general tree of Paraguayan Squamata, based on barcodes of 16S, I chose Sphenodon punctatus.
I generated a total of 142 sequences of 64 species of Squamata from Paraguay (Appendix I). The final alignment of 615 bp comprised 249 samples. The best substitution model for the Barcoding dataset based on the gene 16S was GTR+G, according to the BIC.
To complement molecular evidence generated with the ML grouping of 16S barcodes, I took a morphological approach based on voucher specimens collected during fieldwork (usually the same specimens that I used for genetic analysis), supplemented by the revision of museum collections.
Summarizing my results, samples of Colobosaura exhibit large genetic distances, and accordingly I revalidated Colobosaura kraepelini (Appendix II). Tropidurus of the spinulosus group show two clades and among them there is little genetic and morphological variation, I synonymized T. tarara and T. teyumirim with T. lagunablanca, and T. guarani with T. spinulosus (Appendix III). I detected the presence of candidate species of Homonota, and I restricted the name H. horrida for Argentina, and described two new species of Homonota (Appendices IV and V), and a new species of Phyllopezus also in the Family Phyllodactylidae (Appendix VI).
In this work I present the most comprehensive analysis of genetic samples of Squamata from Paraguay. The results obtained here will be useful to help to clarify further taxonomic issues regarding the squamate fauna from the central region of South America. Moreover, the data generated for this study will have a positive impact in a larger geographic context, beyond Paraguayan borders.
Regarding the conservation of the Paraguayan reptiles, and considering the taxonomic changes accomplished here, it is important to note that many species lack legal protection. In Paraguay, the major problem for conservation is habitat loss due to extensive crop farming. Thus, currently, the protected areas are the best strategy for conservation of biodiversity in the country. However, many such areas face legal problems (e.g., lack of official measurements, management plans, forest guards, infrastructure, etc.) so that the maintenance of their biodiversity over time is not guaranteed.
In conclusion, in this study I present contributions on the taxonomy of mostly lizards from Paraguay. Due to lack of samples, I was not able to deal with a deep taxonomic revision of the country's snakes. Based on my results, I can argue that analyses of Xenodontini and Pseudoboini are currently a pressing research issue. This barcoding project may continue since some colleagues in Paraguay are interested in collaboration. Given that the sequenced specimens are yet a small portion of the actual diversity of Paraguay, it will be of utmost importance to continue and expand these studies that will further improve our taxonomic knowledge. Furthermore, it is desirable to have Paraguayan scientists not only involved, but to see them taking the lead of high quality taxonomic research.
Hämophilie A ist eine X-chromosomal rezessiv vererbte Krankheit, die aufgrund von Mutationen innerhalb des Gens von Gerinnungsfaktor VIII (FVIII) zum funktionellen Defekt oder zum Fehlen des körpereigenen FVIII führt. FVIII zirkuliert als Heterodimer und besteht aus einer schweren Kette mit der Domänenstruktur A1-A2-B und einer leichten Kette mit der Domänenstruktur A3-C1-C2. Bei Patienten unter Prophylaxe wird durch regelmäßige Substitution mit rekombinanten oder aus Plasma gewonnenen FVIII-Präparaten die Hämostase wiederhergestellt. Allerdings entwickeln hierbei etwa 30% der Patienten mit einer schweren Hämophilie eine FVIII-spezifische Immunantwort in Form von neutralisierenden Antikörpern (Inhibitoren). Die sogenannte Immuntoleranz-Therapie (engl. immune tolerance induction therapy, ITI) ist bisher die einzige etablierte Therapie, die zu einer dauerhaften Eradikation der FVIII-Inhibitoren und Induktion von Toleranz gegenüber FVIII führen kann. Die Therapie beruht auf einer meist täglichen Gabe hoher FVIII-Dosen, welche sich, je nach Behandlungsdauer, über Wochen bis hin zu Jahren erstrecken kann. Bei etwa 30% der Patienten ist diese Therapie nicht erfolgreich. Für solche Patienten besteht die Gefahr lebensbedrohlicher, unkontrollierbarer Blutungen und erheblicher Gelenkschäden.
Die spezifische Ansteuerung des Membran-gebundenen Immunglobulin G (mIg) des B-Zellrezeptors (BZR) mithilfe von Immuntoxinen ist eine mögliche Option zur selektiven Eliminierung FVIII-spezifischer B-Zellen und somit zur Eradikation von FVIII-Inhibitoren. Solche Immuntoxine bestehen aus einer zellbindenden und einer zytotoxischen Domäne, welche nach Internalisierung zur Apoptose der Zielzelle führen soll. Da FVIII aufgrund der Größe als zellbindende Domäne ungeeignet ist, beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit der Entwicklung und Evaluierung alternativer Immuntoxine zur selektiven Eliminierung FVIII-spezifischer B-Zellen. Die FVIII-spezifische Immunantwort ist zwar polyklonal, jedoch vor allem gegen A2- und die C2-Domäne gerichtet. Aus diesem Grund wurden die humane A2- und C2-Domäne (hA2, hC2) als zellbindende Domäne verwendet und jeweils genetisch an eine verkürzte Version des Exotoxin A (ETA) aus Pseudomonas aeruginosa fusioniert, bei welcher die natürliche zellbindende Domäne entfernt wurde. Die rekombinanten Proteine wurden bakteriell produziert und im Anschluss an die Aufreinigung biochemisch charakterisiert. Während das bakterielle Expressionssystem für hA2-ETA nicht geeignet war, konnte hC2-ETA neben weiteren Kontrollproteinen mit korrekter Konformation der hC2-Domäne hergestellt und aufgereinigt werden.
Die Fähigkeit zur selektiven Eliminierung hC2-spezifischer B-Zellen wurde im weiteren Verlauf sowohl in vitro mithilfe einer hC2-spezifischen Hybridomazelllinie als auch ex vivo und in vivo mithilfe von Splenozyten aus FVIII-immunisierten FVIII-knockout Mäusen untersucht.
Durch Inkubation der hC2-spezifischen Hybridomazelllinie mit hC2-ETA konnten ca. 38 % der Zellen eliminiert werden. Weitere Untersuchungen der Zelllinie ergaben, dass diese keinen vollständigen funktionalen B-Zellrezeptor auf der Oberfläche exprimierte, welcher für die Bindung und die korrekte Internalisierung des Immuntoxins notwendig ist. Aufgrund dessen eignet sich diese Zelllinie nicht als Modell für eine genauere Analyse der in vitro Eliminierungseffizienz von hC2-ETA.
Weitere Analysen mithilfe von Splenozyten aus FVIII-immunisierten FVIII-knockout Mäusen haben jedoch gezeigt, dass durch ex vivo Inkubation der Splenozyten mit hC2-ETA, alle hC2-spezifischen B-Zellen vollständig, selektiv und konzentrations-abhängig eliminiert werden konnten. Auch die mehrfache Applikation von hC2-ETA in FVIII-immunisierten FVIII-knockout Mäusen führte bei der Hälfte der Tiere zur vollständigen Eliminierung aller hC2-spezifischen B-Zellen. Eine Reduktion des hC2-spezifischen Antikörpersignals konnte nach Gabe von hC2-ETA in allen behandelten Tieren beobachtet werden. Die unvollständige Eliminierung in der Hälfte der Tiere ist vermutlich auf die Präsenz hC2-spezifischer Antikörper zurückzuführen, die einen Teil des applizierten Immuntoxins neutralisiert haben, sodass nicht alle hC2-spezifischen Gedächtnis-B-Zellen erreicht und eliminiert werden konnten. Um die Eliminierungseffizienz von hC2-ETA weiter zu erhöhen, müsste das Behandlungsprotokoll geändert werden. Sowohl eine Verlängerung des Behandlungszeitraums als auch eine kombinierte Therapie aus FVIII und hC2-ETA sollte zu einer erhöhten Bioverfügbarkeit des Toxins und dadurch zu einer gesteigerten Eliminierungseffizienz führen.
Die Ausweitung des hier vorgestellten Ansatzes auf weitere FVIII-Domänen ist generell möglich, jedoch muss hierzu ein alternatives Expressionssystem aufgrund des eukaryotischen Ursprungs von FVIII in Betracht gezogen werden. Die hier vorgestellten Ergebnisse zeigen dennoch, dass FVIII-Domänen-Immuntoxine ein wirkungsvolles Mittel sind, um FVIII-spezifische B-Zellen selektiv zu eliminieren. Die Anpassung der Gabe von FVIII-Domänen-Immuntoxinen an die individuelle Immunantwort des Patienten könnte das Auftreten von Nebenwirkungen minimieren. Außerdem könnte eine kombinierte Therapie aus ITI und FVIII-Domänen-Immuntoxinen die Zeit bis zur Induktion von Toleranz verkürzen und die Chancen für den generellen Therapieerfolg erhöhen.
The opportunistic pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii is able to grow on carnitine. The genes encoding the pathway for carnitine degradation to the intermediate malic acid are known but the transporter mediating carnitine uptake remained to be identified. The open reading frame HMPREF0010_01347 (aci01347) of Acinetobacter baumannii is annotated as a gene encoding a potential transporter of the betaine/choline/carnitine transporter (BCCT) family. To study the physiological function of Aci01347, the gene was deleted from A. baumannii ATCC 19606. The mutant was no longer able to grow on carnitine as sole carbon and energy source demonstrating the importance of this transporter for carnitine metabolism. Aci01347 was produced in Escherichia coli MKH13, a strain devoid of any compatible solute transporter, and the recombinant E. coli MKH13 strain was found to take up carnitine in an energy‐dependent fashion. Aci01347 also transported choline, a compound known to be accumulated under osmotic stress. Choline transport was osmolarity‐independent which is consistent with the absence of an extended C‐terminus found in osmo‐activated BCCT. We propose that the Aci01347 is the carnitine transporter mediating the first step in the growth of A. baumannii on carnitine.
Detecting associations between genomic changes and phenotypic differences is fundamental to understanding how phenotypes evolved. By systematically screening for parallel amino acid substitutions, we detected known as well as novel cases (Strc, Tecta, and Cabp2) of parallelism between echolocating bats and toothed whales in proteins that could contribute to high-frequency hearing adaptations. Our screen also showed that echolocating mammals exhibit an unusually high number of parallel substitutions in fast-twitch muscle fiber proteins. Both echolocating bats and toothed whales produce an extremely rapid call rate when homing in on their prey, which was shown in bats to be powered by specialized superfast muscles. We show that these genes with parallel substitutions (Casq1, Atp2a1, Myh2, and Myl1) are expressed in the superfast sound-producing muscle of bats. Furthermore, we found that the calcium storage protein calsequestrin 1 of the little brown bat and the bottlenose dolphin functionally converged in its ability to form calcium-sequestering polymers at lower calcium concentrations, which may contribute to rapid calcium transients required for superfast muscle physiology. The proteins that our genomic screen detected could be involved in the convergent evolution of vocalization in echolocating mammals by potentially contributing to both rapid Ca2+ transients and increased shortening velocities in superfast muscles.
Behavioural traits of individual homing pigeons, Columba livia f. domestica, in their homing flights
(2018)
Homing tracks of two groups of pigeons, Columba livia f. domestica, were analyzed in view of difference between individual birds and correlations between characteristic variables, looking at the initial phase while the pigeons were still at the release site, and the homing phase separately. Individual birds differed significantly in their flying speed during the initial phase, and one pigeon tended to stay longer at the release site than the others. There were no significant differences in steadiness and efficiency, indicating that all pigeons homed equally well. Differences in correlation dimension, a variable reflecting the complexity of the navigational process, reflect differences in the use of navigational information, with one bird apparently using less complex information than others. The flying speed during the initial phase was positively correlated with the flying speed during the homing phase. During the homing phase, the steadiness of flight and the efficiency of homing were closely correlated, and both tended to be positively correlated with the correlation dimension, suggesting that birds that use more complex navigational information home more efficiently.
Cells within a tissue form highly complex, cellular interactions. This architecture is lost in twodimensional cell cultures. To close the gap between two-dimensional cell cultures and in vivo tissues, three-dimensional cell cultures were developed. Three-dimensional cellular aggregates such as spheroids, organoids, or embryoid bodies have been established as an essential tool in many different aspects of life science, including tumour biology, drug screening and embryonic development. To fully take advantage of the third dimension, imaging techniques are essential. The emerging field of “imagebased systems biology” exploits the information in images and builds a connection between experimental and theoretical investigation of biological processes at a spatio-temporal level. Such interdisciplinary approaches strongly depend on the development of protocols to establish threedimensional cell cultures, innovations in sample preparation, well-suited imaging techniques and quantitative segmentation methods.
Although three-dimensional cell cultures and image-based systems biology provide a great potential, two-dimensional methods are still not completely replaced by three-dimensional methods. The knowledge about many biological processes relies on two-dimensional experiments. This is mainly due to methodical and technical hurdles. Therefore, this thesis provides a significant contribution to overcome these hurdles and to further develop three-dimensional cell cultures. I established computational as well as experimental methods related to three-dimensional cellular aggregates and investigated fundamental, cellular processes such as adhesion, growth and differentiation.
Kidney injury is a common complication of severe disease. Here, we report that injuries of the zebrafish embryonal kidney are rapidly repaired by a migratory response in 2-, but not in 1-day-old embryos. Gene expression profiles between these two developmental stages identify cxcl12a and myca as candidates involved in the repair process. Zebrafish embryos with cxcl12a, cxcr4b, or myca deficiency display repair abnormalities, confirming their role in response to injury. In mice with a kidney-specific knockout, Cxcl12 and Myc gene deletions suppress mitochondrial metabolism and glycolysis, and delay the recovery after ischemia/reperfusion injury. Probing these observations in zebrafish reveal that inhibition of glycolysis slows fast migrating cells and delays the repair after injury, but does not affect the slow cell movements during kidney development. Our findings demonstrate that Cxcl12 and Myc facilitate glycolysis to promote fast migratory responses during development and repair, and potentially also during tumor invasion and metastasis.
The metabolome of any live cell consists of several hundred, if not thousands of different molecules at any given moment, be it a relatively small bacterial cell or a whole multicellular organism. Although there are continuous attempts to differentiate between primary and secondary metabolites, the borders often blur in the eye of almost perfect interconvertability of all such matter. With chemistry and physics dominating this domain of biology it is an interdisciplinary endeavor to tackle the questions surrounding the workings of the metabolic pathways involved, searching for answers that ultimately help us to better understand life and find solutions to problems that affect us humans. One area of biochemistry that serves as a formidable example of the intertwined primary and secondary metabolic pathways are fatty acids, essential components of bacterial membranes, sources of energy and carbon but also important building blocks of several natural products. The second area to be mentioned is the metabolism of amino acids, the basic components of proteins and enzymes, which also serve as precursors to a diverse set of metabolites with many biological purposes.
This work focuses on these two areas of biochemistry, as several intermediates of their metabolism serve as building blocks for complex secondary metabolites whence many interesting and bioactive natural products are derived. The powerful and relatively novel tool of click-chemistry is employed to track azide-labeled precursors of primary and secondary metabolism in various bacterial strains to observe biochemistry at work and adds to the knowledge gained through other methods. The methods presented in this work serve the observation of fatty acid biosynthesis, degradation, modification and transport through direct ligation of azido fatty acids with cyclooctynes on one hand, leading to a revision of fatty acid transport in general. On the other hand a cleavable azide-reactive resin is devised to generally track the fate of azidated compounds through the myriads of metabolic pathways offered by entomopathogenic bacteria possessing a rich secondary metabolism. The resulting findings led to the identification of several antimicrobial peptides, amides and other compounds of which many had remained so far undetected in the strains that underwent investigation, underlining the worth of this method for future metabolomic research and beyond.
The role of the homeobox transcription factor Meis2b in zebrafish heart development and asymmetry
(2018)
Zebrafish heart development: The heart of the zebrafish is the first organ to form and function during embryonic development, and is composed by one atrium and one ventricle. Between 5-17 somites stage, the cardiomyocyte precursors form the bilateral cardiac fields in the anterior lateral plate mesoderm (ALMP); where the endocardial precursors are located anterior to the cardiac fields (Zeng, Wilm et al. 2007). Then, the pools of endocardial andmyocardial precursors fuse at the midline and form the heart disc; where atrial cardiomyocytes are located around, the ventricular cardiomyocytes are located in the centerof the heart disc, and the future endocardium is located in a ventral position relative to the cardiomyocytes (Bakkers 2011). After the heart disc is formed, the cardiomyocyte progenitors start to migrate and rotate asymmetrically to form the heart tube (de Campos-Baptista, Holtzman et al. 2008, Rohr, Otten et al. 2008, Smith, Chocron et al. 2008). This process is followed by a rightward bending of the heart tube, and the arterial and venous poles rotate at different speed and directions (a process known as heart looping) (Smith, Chocron et al. 2008). The heart looping process results in a ventricle located on the right side and a more posterior atrium located on the left side with respect to the midline; at this point the atrium and ventricle are separated by a fine segment called the atrioventricular canal, where the valves will be formed (Staudt and Stainier 2012). The second heart field (SHF) is a pool of cardiac progenitors that are specified later during the formation of the heart disc and until the heart looping stages. The SHF contributes withcells to the distal side of the ventricle, the outflow and inflow tracts, and is important for the specification of the cardiac conduction system (de Pater, Clijsters et al. 2009, Hami, Grimes et al. 2011, Zhou, Cashman et al. 2011, Witzel, Jungblut et al. 2012, Guner-Ataman, Paffett-Lugassy et al. 2013)....
In den letzten Jahren findet die Wirkung von Polyphenolen auf den Alterungsprozess oder zur Behandlung von Krankheiten immer mehr Beachtung. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Aufklärung der Wirkmechanismen der Polyphenole Gossypol, Curcumin und Quercetin, um Hinweise für neue oder verbesserte Therapieansätze zu erhalten. Die dazu durchgeführten Untersuchungen lieferten folgende Ergebnisse:
1. Der Ascomycet "P. anserina" eignet sich als Modellorganismus zur Untersuchung der Wirkmechanismen verschiedener Polyphenole, da die bereits aus der Literatur bekannten Effekte auf das Überleben höherer Organismen auch in "P. anserina" beobachtet wurden.
2. Die Mitochondrienfunktion spielt auf unterschiedliche Art eine Rolle in der Kompensation von Dysfunktionen oder Stressbedingungen in der Zelle und wirkt somit positiv auf die Regulation der Lebensspanne von "P. anserina". In der "PaSod3"-Deletionsmutante wurde eine Verschiebung der mitochondrialen Atmung von einer Komplex I-abhängigen hin zu einer vermehrt Komplex II-abhängigen Atmung festgestellt. Die damit verbundene Abnahme des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials dient neben der bereits bekannten hohen Superoxid-Menge als Signal zur Mitophagie-Induktion. Auch die Anpassung der Mitochondrienfunktion durch die erhöhte Bildung von mtRSCs, wie im Falle von Gossypol oder Quercetin, kann zur Kompensation von Dysfunktionen beitragen bzw. sie abschwächen.
3. Es gibt keinen grundlegenden gemeinsamen Wirkmechanimus der drei untersuchten Polyphenole. Zwar spielt Wasserstoffperoxid bei verschiedenen Stoffen eine Rolle, aber nicht bei allen. Zusätzlich wurde gezeigt, dass Wasserstoffperoxid abhängig von der vorherrschenden Konzentration wirkt und daher auch keine Allgemeingültigkeit des Effektes vorherzusagen ist. In niedrigen Konzentrationen sorgt Wasserstoffperoxid z. B. für eine Induktion der Autophagie und damit einhergehende eine Lebensverlängerung. Im Gegensatz dazu wirken hohe Wasserstoffperoxid-Konzentrationen lebensverkürzend und lösen verschiedene Formen von Zelltod aus.
4. Die Curcumin-vermittelte Langlebigkeit wurde das erste Mal in Verbindung mit einer funktionellen Autophagie gebracht. Im Detail führt die Behandlung mit Curcumin durch eine PaSOD1-abhängige leichte Erhöhung der Wasserstoffperoxid-Menge zu einer Induktion von nicht-selektiver Autophagie. Die induzierte Autophagie ist Ursache der Lebensverlängerung durch Curcumin.
5. Gossypol wirkt in Abhängigkeit der mitochondrialen Permeabilitäts-Transitionspore bzw. von ihrem Regulator Cyclophilin D. Hierbei verstärkt die deutlich erhöhte Wasserstoffperoxid-Menge wahrscheinlich die Induktion von programmiertem Zelltod. Gleichzeitig wird eine cytoprotektive Form von Autophagie und ein scheinbar ATG-unabhängiger Abbau von Mitochondrien induziert.
6. Quercetin wirkt in "P. anserina" abhängig vom Methylierungs-Status. Untersuchungen mit Mutanten der "O"-Methyltransferase PaMTH1 ergaben die Notwendigkeit der Anwesenheit von PaMTH1 für den lebensverlängernden Effekt von Quercetin. Analysen mit dem methylierten Derivat Isorhamnetin verdeutlichten diese Abhängigkeit und zeigten zudem, dass Quercetin sowohl in der methylierten als auch unmethylierten Form Effekte hervorruft. Jedoch sind nur die Effekte des unmethylierten Quercetin unabhängig von der Lebensverlängerung und eher schädlich für die Zelle.
Ribosome biogenesis is essential for cellular function and involves rRNA synthesis, rRNA processing and modification, and ribosomal protein assembly. Ribosome biogenesis factors and small nucleolar RNA assist these events. Ribosomal maturation takes place in the nucleolus, the nucleoplasm, and the cytosol in a coordinated and controlled manner. For example, some ribosomal proteins are thought to be assembled in the cytoplasm based on the observations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here, we used cellular fractionation to demonstrate that cleavage of the 20S intermediate, the precursor to mature 18S rRNA, does not occur in the nucleoplasm of Arabidopsis thaliana. It most likely occurs in the cytoplasm. Further, we verified the proposed localization of RPS10e, RPS26e, and RPL24a/b in the nucleus and RPP1 in the nucleolus of A. thaliana by ribosome profiling, immunofluorescence, and analysis of the localization of GFP fusion proteins. Our results suggest that the order of events during ribosomal protein assembly in the ribosome biogenesis pathway differs between plants and yeast.
Hydrogenation of CO₂ at ambient pressure catalyzed by a highly active thermostable biocatalyst
(2018)
Background: Replacing fossil fuels as energy carrier requires alternatives that combine sustainable production, high volumetric energy density, easy and fast refueling for mobile applications, and preferably low risk of hazard. Molecular hydrogen (H2) has been considered as promising alternative; however, practical application is struggling because of the low volumetric energy density and the explosion hazard when stored in large amounts. One way to overcome these limitations is the transient conversion of H2 into other chemicals with increased volumetric energy density and lower risk hazard, for example so-called liquid organic hydrogen carriers such as formic acid/formate that is obtained by hydrogenation of CO2. Many homogenous and heterogenous chemical catalysts have been described in the past years, however, often requiring high pressures and temperatures. Recently, the first biocatalyst for this reaction has been described opening the route to a biotechnological alternative for this conversion.
Results: The hydrogen-dependent CO2 reductase (HDCR) is a highly active biocatalyst for storing H2 in the form of formic acid/formate by reversibly catalyzing the hydrogenation of CO2. We report the identification, isolation, and characterization of the first thermostable HDCR operating at temperatures up to 70 °C. The enzyme was isolated from the thermophilic acetogenic bacterium Thermoanaerobacter kivui and displays exceptionally high activities in both reaction directions, substantially exceeding known chemical catalysts. CO2 hydrogenation is catalyzed at mild conditions with a turnover frequency of 9,556,000 h−1 (specific activity of 900 µmol formate min−1 mg−1) and the reverse reaction, H2 + CO2 release from formate, is catalyzed with a turnover frequency of 9,892,000 h−1 (930 µmol H2 min−1 mg−1). The HDCR of T. kivui consists of a [FeFe] hydrogenase subunit putatively coupled to a tungsten-dependent CO2 reductase/formate dehydrogenase subunit by an array of iron–sulfur clusters.
Conclusions: The discovery of the first thermostable HDCR provides a promising biological alternative for a chemically challenging reaction and might serve as model for the better understanding of catalysts able to efficiently reduce CO2. The catalytic activity for reversible CO2 hydrogenation of this enzyme is the highest activity known for bio- and chemical catalysts and requiring only ambient temperatures and pressures. The thermostability provides more flexibility regarding the process parameters for a biotechnological application.
Diffuse invasion of the surrounding brain parenchyma is a major obstacle in the treatment of gliomas with various therapeutics, including anti-angiogenic agents. Here we identify the epi-/genetic and microenvironmental downregulation of ephrinB2 as a crucial step that promotes tumour invasion by abrogation of repulsive signals. We demonstrate that ephrinB2 is downregulated in human gliomas as a consequence of promoter hypermethylation and gene deletion. Consistently, genetic deletion of ephrinB2 in a murine high-grade glioma model increases invasion. Importantly, ephrinB2 gene silencing is complemented by a hypoxia-induced transcriptional repression. Mechanistically, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α induces the EMT repressor ZEB2, which directly downregulates ephrinB2 through promoter binding to enhance tumour invasiveness. This mechanism is activated following anti-angiogenic treatment of gliomas and is efficiently blocked by disrupting ZEB2 activity. Taken together, our results identify ZEB2 as an attractive therapeutic target to inhibit tumour invasion and counteract tumour resistance mechanisms induced by anti-angiogenic treatment strategies.
Die forensische Entomologie nutzt nekrophage Insekten, hauptsächlich Dipteren und ihre juvenilen Stadien, zur Schätzung der minimalen Leichenliegezeit. Dem liegt zugrunde, dass nekrophage Dipteren binnen Minuten nach dem Todeseintritt potentiell in der Lage sind, einen Leichnam zu detektieren und zu besiedeln. Das anschließende Wachstum und die Entwicklung der juvenilen Stadien erfolgt als Funktion von der Art und der Umgebungstemperatur.
Mit Hilfe von Laborstudien konnten bislang für einige forensisch relevante Fliegenarten Entwicklungsdaten erhoben werden, die eine Altersbestimmung der sich an einem Leichnam entwickelnden Larven und Puppen erlauben und so eine Schätzung der minimalen Leichenliegezeit ermöglichen. Als Nährsubstrat für Laborstudien werden tierische Gewebe verwendet. Eine Übertragbarkeit der Daten auf humanes Gewebe wurde aber bislang nicht verifiziert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das larvale Wachstum und die juvenile Entwicklungsgeschwindigkeit der forensisch relevanten Schmeißfliege Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae) auf humanem Muskelgewebe untersucht und mit dem Wachstum auf Schweineleber, magerem Schweinemuskelfleisch und Schweinehackfleisch verglichen. Die auf humanem Gewebe heranwachsenden Individuen waren mit bis zu 3,5 mm signifikant länger als die Individuen, die sich auf Leber und dem mageren Schweinemuskelfleisch entwickelten. Bei der Verwendung von Hackfleisch vom Schwein zeigte sich kein Unterschied. Darauf basierend wird die Empfehlung ausgesprochen, für zukünftige Entwicklungsstudien Schweinehackfleisch als Ersatz für humanes Gewebe zu verwenden.
Zahlreiche Anleitungen zur Asservierung forensisch-entomologischer Spuren empfehlen das Sammeln getrennt nach Körperregionen eines Leichnams. Dies soll eine mögliche gewebespezifische Entwicklungsrate berücksichtigen. Das für die vorliegende Arbeit durchgeführte systematische Absammeln von Fliegenlarven von 51 Leichnamen getrennt nach Körperregionen zeigte keine artspezifischen Präferenzen für bestimmte Gewebe oder Körperregionen. Das Artenspektrum entsprach größtenteils dem aufgrund von Studien an Schweinekadavern zu erwartendem Artenspektrum für Deutschland und Mitteleuropa. Insgesamt konnten 15 Schmeißfliegenarten nachgewiesen werden, von denen in der Regel mehrere gleichzeitig an einem Leichnam zu finden waren. Dies zeigt, dass ein Faktor wie interspezifische Konkurrenz in Zukunft mehr Beachtung in der Forschung erhalten sollte.
Bislang wurde in der forensischen Entomologie die minimale Leichenliegezeit durch die Untersuchung juveniler Stadien von Fliegen eingegrenzt. Eine eventuell mögliche Ausweitung dieses Zeitfensters könnte durch eine Altersbestimmung der adulten Fliegen oder der leeren Puparien gelingen. Der Nachweis, dass die dafür untersuchten Fliegen bzw. Puparien tatsächlich von dem fraglichen Leichnam stammen, war bislang nicht möglich. Die forensische relevante Schmeißfliege Lucilia sericata wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit auf humanem Gewebe und Gewebe von elf weiteren Tierarten großgezogen. Durch die Analyse stabiler Kohlen- und Stickstoffisotope konnte ein von diesen elf Tierarten abgrenzbares humanes Isotopenprofil sowohl für die adulten Fliegen von L. sericata, als auch für ihre leeren Puparien detektiert werden. Dieses Profil spiegelte die Nahrungszusammensetzung der Wirte wider.
Die vorliegende Arbeit erhebt Daten zur Entwicklung einer forensisch relevanten Schmeißfliegenart auf humanem Gewebe, belegt das bislang lediglich am tierischen Modell erhobene Schmeißfliegeninventar als für menschliche Leichen relevant und hinterfragt die gewebespezifische Asservierungsempfehlung als ein akademisches Artefakt. Auf dieser Basis konnten Empfehlungen für die Weiterzucht fallrelevanter entomologischer Spuren ausgesprochen werden, die gerichtsverwertbar sind und die Verwendung von tierischem Gewebe oder Tierkadaver in der forensisch-entomologischen Forschung legitimieren. Die Analyse stabiler Isotope legt darüber hinaus einen neuen, innovativen Grundstein für die routinemäßige Spurenzuordnung älterer Entwicklungsstadien und ist damit Vorreiter auf dem Gebiet der forensischen Entomologie.
The retinal rod pathway, featuring dedicated rod bipolar cells (RBCs) and AII amacrine cells, has been intensely studied in placental mammals. Here, we analyzed the rod pathway in a nocturnal marsupial, the South American opossum Monodelphis domestica to elucidate whether marsupials have a similar rod pathway. The retina was dominated by rods with densities of 338,000–413,000/mm². Immunohistochemistry for the RBC-specific marker protein kinase Cα (PKCα) and the AII cell marker calretinin revealed the presence of both cell types with their typical morphology. This is the first demonstration of RBCs in a marsupial and of the integration of RBCs and AII cells in the rod signaling pathway. Electron microscopy showed invaginating synaptic contacts of the PKCα-immunoreactive bipolar cells with rods; light microscopic co-immunolabeling for the synaptic ribbon marker CtBP2 confirmed dominant rod contacts. The RBC axon terminals were mostly located in the innermost stratum S5 of the inner plexiform layer (IPL), but had additional side branches and synaptic varicosities in strata S3 and S4, with S3-S5 belonging to the presumed functional ON sublayer of the IPL, as shown by immunolabeling for the ON bipolar cell marker Gγ13. Triple-immunolabeling for PKCα, calretinin and CtBP2 demonstrated RBC synapses onto AII cells. These features conform to the pattern seen in placental mammals, indicating a basically similar rod pathway in M. domestica. The density range of RBCs was 9,900–16,600/mm2, that of AII cells was 1,500–3,260/mm2. The numerical convergence (density ratio) of 146–156 rods to 4.7–6.0 RBCs to 1 AII cell is within the broad range found among placental mammals. For comparison, we collected data for the Australian nocturnal dunnart Sminthopsis crassicaudata, and found it to be similar to M. domestica, with rod-contacting PKCα-immunoreactive bipolar cells that had axon terminals also stratifying in IPL strata S3-S5.
In the insect brain, the mushroom body is a higher order brain area that is key to memory formation and sensory processing. Mushroom body (MB) extrinsic neurons leaving the output region of the MB, the lobes and the peduncle, are thought to be especially important in these processes. In the honeybee brain, a distinct class of MB extrinsic neurons, A3 neurons, are implicated in playing a role in learning. Their MB arborisations are either restricted to the lobes and the peduncle, here called A3 lobe connecting neurons, or they provide feedback information from the lobes to the input region of the MB, the calyces, here called A3 feedback neurons. In this study, we analyzed the morphology of individual A3 lobe connecting and feedback neurons using confocal imaging. A3 feedback neurons were previously assumed to innervate each lip compartment homogenously. We demonstrate here that A3 feedback neurons do not innervate whole subcompartments, but rather innervate zones of varying sizes in the MB lip, collar, and basal ring. We describe for the first time the anatomical details of A3 lobe connecting neurons and show that their connection pattern in the lobes resemble those of A3 feedback cells. Previous studies showed that A3 feedback neurons mostly connect zones of the vertical lobe that receive input from Kenyon cells of distinct calycal subcompartments with the corresponding subcompartments of the calyces. We can show that this also applies to the neck of the peduncle and the medial lobe, where both types of A3 neurons arborize only in corresponding zones in the calycal subcompartments. Some A3 lobe connecting neurons however connect multiple vertical lobe areas. Contrarily, in the medial lobe, the A3 neurons only innervate one division. We found evidence for both input and output areas in the vertical lobe. Thus, A3 neurons are more diverse than previously thought. The understanding of their detailed anatomy might enable us to derive circuit models for learning and memory and test physiological data.
Compartmental models are the theoretical tool of choice for understanding single neuron computations. However, many models are incomplete, built ad hoc and require tuning for each novel condition rendering them of limited usability. Here, we present T2N, a powerful interface to control NEURON with Matlab and TREES toolbox, which supports generating models stable over a broad range of reconstructed and synthetic morphologies. We illustrate this for a novel, highly detailed active model of dentate granule cells (GCs) replicating a wide palette of experiments from various labs. By implementing known differences in ion channel composition and morphology, our model reproduces data from mouse or rat, mature or adult-born GCs as well as pharmacological interventions and epileptic conditions. This work sets a new benchmark for detailed compartmental modeling. T2N is suitable for creating robust models useful for large-scale networks that could lead to novel predictions. We discuss possible T2N application in degeneracy studies.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are required for transcriptional changes during heat stress (HS) thereby playing a crucial role in the heat stress response (HSR). The target genes of Hsfs include heat shock proteins (Hsps), other Hsfs and genes involved in protection of the cell from irreversible damages due to exposure to elevated temperatures. Among 27 Hsfs in Solanum lycopersicum, HsfA1a, HsfA2 and HsfB1 constitute a functional triad which regulates important aspects of the HSR. HsfA1a is constitutively expressed and described as the master regulator of stress response and thermotolerance. Activation of HsfA1a under elevated temperatures leads to the induction of HsfA2 and HsfB1 which further stimulate the transcription of HS-responsive genes by forming highly active complexes with HsfA1a. Despite the well-established role of these three Hsfs in tomato HSR, information about functional relevance of other Hsfs is currently missing.
The heat stress inducible HsfA7 belongs alongside with HsfA2 to a phylogenetically distinct clade. Thereby the two proteins share high homology and a functional redundancy has been assumed. However, HsfA7 function and contribution to stress responses have not been investigated into detail in any plant species.
Tomato HsfA7 protein accumulates already at moderately elevated temperatures (~35°C) while HsfA2 becomes dominant at higher temperatures (>40°C). HsfA7 pre-mRNA undergoes complex and temperature-dependent alternative splicing resulting in several transcripts that encode for three protein isoforms. HsfA7-I contains a functional nuclear export signal (NES) and shows nucleocytoplasmic shuttling while HsfA7-II and HsfA7-III have a truncated NES which leads to the strong nuclear retention of the protein. Differences in the nucleocytoplasmic equilibrium have a major impact on the stability of protein isoforms, as nuclear retention is associated with increased protein turnover. Consequently, HsfA7-I shows a higher stability and can be detected even after 24 hours of stress attenuation, while HsfA7-II is rapidly degraded. The degradation of these factors is mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.
HsfA7 can physically interact with HsfA1a and HsfA3 and form co-activator (“superactivator”) complexes with a very high transcriptional activity as shown on different HS-inducible promoters. In order for the complex to be successfully transferred to the nucleus and confer its activity it needs a functional nuclear localization signal (NLS) of HsfA7. In contrast, the activator (AHA) motif of HsfA7 is not essential for its co-activator function. Interestingly, while interaction of HsfA7 with either HsfA3 or HsfA1a stabilizes HsfA7 isoforms, concomitantly this leads to an increased turnover of HsfA1a and HsfA3. In contrast, HsfA2 has a stabilizing effect on the master regulator HsfA1a.
Thus, HsfA7 knockout mutants generated by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, show increased HsfA1a levels and a stronger induction of HS-related genes at 35°C compared to wild-type plants and HsfA2 knockout mutants. Consequently, HsfA7 knockout seedlings exhibit increased thermotolerance as shown by the enhanced hypocotyl elongation under a prolonged mild stress treatment at 35°C. In summary, these results highlight the importance of HsfA7 in regulation of cellular responses at elevated temperatures. Under moderately elevated temperatures, the accumulation of HsfA7 and its subsequent interaction with HsfA1a, leads to increased turnover of the latter, thereby ensuring a milder transcriptional activation of temperature-responsive genes like Hsps. In turn, in response to further elevated temperatures, HsfA2 becomes the dominant stress-induced Hsf. HsfA2 forms co-activator complexes with HsfA1a which in contrast to HsfA7, allows the stabilization of the master regulator, leading to the stronger expression of HS-responsive genes required for survival. Thereby, this study uncovers a new regulatory mechanism, where the temperature-dependent competitive interaction of HsfA2 and HsfA7 with HsfA1a control the fate of the master regulator and consequently the activity of temperature-responsive networks.
In mammalian species, including humans, the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) is a primary region of adult neurogenesis. Aberrant adult hippocampal neurogenesis is associated with neurological pathologies. Understanding the cellular mechanisms controlling adult hippocampal neurogenesis is expected to open new therapeutic strategies for mental disorders. Microglia is intimately associated with neural progenitor cells in the hippocampal DG and has been implicated, under varying experimental conditions, in the control of the proliferation, differentiation and survival of neural precursor cells. But the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. Using fluorescent in situ hybridization we show that microglia in brain express the ADP-activated P2Y13 receptor under basal conditions and that P2ry13 mRNA is absent from neurons, astrocytes, and neural progenitor cells. Disrupting P2ry13 decreases structural complexity of microglia in the hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ). But it increases progenitor cell proliferation and new neuron formation. Our data suggest that P2Y13 receptor-activated microglia constitutively attenuate hippocampal neurogenesis. This identifies a signaling pathway whereby microglia, via a nucleotide-mediated mechanism, contribute to the homeostatic control of adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Selective P2Y13R antagonists could boost neurogenesis in pathological conditions associated with impaired hippocampal neurogenesis.
The NF-κB-like velvet domain protein VosA (viability of spores) binds to more than 1,500 promoter sequences in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans. VosA inhibits premature induction of the developmental activator gene brlA, which promotes asexual spore formation in response to environmental cues as light. VosA represses a novel genetic network controlled by the sclB gene. Bfunction is antagonistic to VosA, because it induces the expression of early activator genes of asexual differentiation as flbC and flbD as well as brlA. The SclB controlled network promotes asexual development and spore viability, but is independent of the fungal light control. SclB interactions with the RcoA transcriptional repressor subunit suggest additional inhibitory functions on transcription. SclB links asexual spore formation to the synthesis of secondary metabolites including emericellamides, austinol as well as dehydroaustinol and activates the oxidative stress response of the fungus. The fungal VosA-SclB regulatory system of transcription includes a VosA control of the sclB promoter, common and opposite VosA and SclB control functions of fungal development and several additional regulatory genes. The relationship between VosA and SclB illustrates the presence of a convoluted surveillance apparatus of transcriptional control, which is required for accurate fungal development and the linkage to the appropriate secondary metabolism.
Modellierung der klimatischen Habitateignung verschiedener krankheitsübertragender Vektorarten
(2018)
Der Klimawandel hat einen starken Einfluss auf die Verbreitungsgebiete von Arten. Infolgedessen kann sich das Verbreitungsgebiet von Arten verschieben, einschränken oder ausweiten. Bei thermophilen Arten wird vermutet, dass sie von den klimatischen Änderungen profitieren und sie sich wahrscheinlich ausbreiten werden. Eine solche Ausbreitung, wozu auch die Einwanderung von gebietsfremden Arten zählt, hätte nicht nur zahlreiche Konsequenzen für diese Ökosysteme, sondern könnte sich auch zu einem ernsten Gesundheitsrisiko entwickeln, wenn es sich bei den einwandernden Neobiota um Vektorarten handelt.
Stechmücken und Sandmücken, als blutsaugende Insekten, zählen zu den bekanntesten Vektorarten. Sie sind in der Lage, eine Vielzahl von Infektionskrankheiten wie das Denguefieber oder das Gelbfieber, aber auch protozoische Parasiten wie "Leishmania"-Arten zu übertragen. Als thermophile Arten sind viele dieser Vektoren aktuell in ihrer Verbreitung weitgehend auf tropische und subtropische Gebiete beschränkt. Eine Einwanderung in gemäßigtere Gebiete kann zu einer Einschleppung der durch sie übertragenden Erreger führen und damit zum Ausbruch von Infektionskrankheiten. Aufgrund der medizinischen Relevanz dieser Arten ist es essentiell, die räumliche Verbreitung, sowie die abiotischen Ansprüche der Vektorarten zu kennen, um deren mögliche Ausbreitung nachzuvollziehen.
Vor diesem Hintergrund beschäftigte sich die vorliegende kumulative Dissertation mit den klimawandelinduzierten Änderungen der Habitateignung verschiedener medizinisch relevanter Vektorarten. Dabei wurden die zwei invasiven Stechmückenarten "Aedes albopictus" (I-III) und "Aedes japonicus" (III), sowie zehn in Europa bereits vorkommende Sandmückenarten der Gattung "Phlebotomus" (IV), untersucht. Die Arbeit basiert auf vier (ISI-) Publikationen. Unter Verwendung ökologischer Nischenmodellierung wurden geeignete Gebiete unter aktuellen und zukünftigen Klimabedingungen bestimmt. Um dabei sowohl räumliche als auch zeitliche Aspekte zu berücksichtigen, wurden mehrere räumliche Skalen (Deutschland und Europa), sowie Zeitperioden (2030, 2050 und 2070) betrachtet. Des Weiteren wurden verschiedene Ansätze (einzelne Algorithmen und Ensemble-Modelle) zur Modellierung der Habitateignung verwendet.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation zeigen eine zukünftige klimawandelbedingte Ausweitung der geeigneten Gebiete für viele der betrachteten Vektorarten. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Habitateignung für "Aedes albopictus" in Deutschland (I) und in Europa (III) zukünftig deutlich zunimmt. Auch für die Sandmückenarten "Phlebotomus alexandri", "Phlebotomus neglectus", "Phlebotomus papatasi", "Phlebotomus perfiliewi" und "Phlebotomus tobbi" konnte eine deutliche Zunahme der klimatisch geeigneten Gebieten projiziert werden (IV).
Lediglich Arten, wie die Asiatische Buschmücke "Aedes japonicus" (III) und auch kältetolerantere Sandmücken, wie "Phlebotomus ariasi" und "Phlebotomus mascittii" (IV) scheinen weniger von diesen klimatischen Veränderungen zu profitieren und könnten in Zukunft sogar aktuell geeignete Gebiete verlieren (klimawandelinduzierte Arealverkleinerung). Bei "Aedes japonicus" konnte dies auf eine engeren Nische mit einem Optimum bei vergleichsweise niedrigen Temperaturen zurückgeführt werden (III).
Am Beispiel von "Aedes albopictus" wurden ferner Umweltfaktoren identifiziert, die die Verbreitung der Art limitieren (II). Als wärmeliebende Art spielen bei "Aedes albopictus" in Mitteleuropa insbesondere die niedrigen Temperaturen eine Rolle, während in Zukunft die Sommertrockenheit in Südeuropa zunehmend eine Rolle spielen könnte.
Nischenmodellierung stellt trotz ihrer vereinfachenden Annahmen und Unsicherheiten, eine hilfreiche Methode zur Untersuchung klimawandelinduzierter Arealverschiebungen dar. Mit Hilfe der Modellierungsergebnisse konnten Gebiete mit einem hohen Etablierungsrisiko für die Vektorarten identifiziert werden, welche daher im Fokus künftiger Überwachungsprogramme stehen sollten. In Zukunft könnten mehr Vektorarten geeignete Bedingungen in Mitteleuropa finden, wodurch die Vektordiversität zunehmen wird. Dadurch könnte auch das Risiko für einen Ausbruch der durch die Vektoren übertragenen Krankheiten steigen.
Auch wenn das Vorhandensein eines kompetenten Vektors eine unerlässliche Voraussetzung für den Ausbruch einer Infektionskrankheit darstellt, gibt es noch weitere Faktoren, wie das Vorhandensein des Erregers. In Bezug auf die Risikoabschätzung vektorassoziierter Krankheiten sollten neben der Verbreitung des Vektors und des Erregers auch die abiotischen Bedingungen für die Entwicklung des Erregers berücksichtigt werden. Neben neu eingewanderten Arten sollten zudem auch die heimischen Arten in Bezug auf ihre Vektorkompetenz untersucht werden, da diese ebenfalls als potentielle Vektoren dienen und somit das Gesundheitsrisiko weiter erhöhen könnten.
Truffles (Tuber spp.) are the fruiting bodies of symbiotic fungi, which are prized food delicacies. The marked aroma variability observed among truffles of the same species has been attributed to a series of factors that are still debated. This is because factors (i.e. genetics, maturation, geographical location and the microbial community colonizing truffles) often co-vary in truffle orchards. Here, we removed the co-variance effect by investigating truffle flavour in axenic cultures of nine strains of the white truffle Tuber borchii. This allowed us to investigate the influence of genetics on truffle aroma. Specifically, we quantified aroma variability and explored whether strain selection could be used to improve human-sensed truffle flavour. Our results illustrate that aroma variability among strains is predominantly linked to amino acid catabolism through the Ehrlich pathway, as confirmed by 13C labelling experiments. We furthermore exemplified through sensory analysis that the human nose is able to distinguish among strains and that sulfur volatiles derived from the catabolism of methionine have the strongest influence on aroma characteristics. Overall, our results demonstrate that genetics influences truffle aroma much more deeply than previously thought and illustrate the usefulness of strain selection for improving truffle flavour.
Regulation of protein turnover allows cells to react to their environment and maintain homeostasis. Proteins can show different turnover rates in different tissue, but little is known about protein turnover in different brain cell types. We used dynamic SILAC to determine half-lives of over 5100 proteins in rat primary hippocampal cultures as well as in neuron-enriched and glia-enriched cultures ranging from <1 to >20 days. In contrast to synaptic proteins, membrane proteins were relatively shorter-lived and mitochondrial proteins were longer-lived compared to the population. Half-lives also correlate with protein functions and the dynamics of the complexes they are incorporated in. Proteins in glia possessed shorter half-lives than the same proteins in neurons. The presence of glia sped up or slowed down the turnover of neuronal proteins. Our results demonstrate that both the cell-type of origin as well as the nature of the extracellular environment have potent influences on protein turnover.
Echolocation allows bats to orientate in darkness without using visual information. Bats emit spatially directed high frequency calls and infer spatial information from echoes coming from call reflections in objects (Simmons 2012; Moss and Surlykke 2001, 2010). The echoes provide momentary snapshots, which have to be integrated to create an acoustic image of the surroundings. The spatial resolution of the computed image increases with the quantity of received echoes. Thus, a high call rate is required for a detailed representation of the surroundings.
One important parameter that the bats extract from the echoes is an object’s distance. The distance is inferred from the echo delay, which represents the duration between call emission and echo arrival (Kössl et al. 2014). The echo delay decreases with decreasing distance and delay-tuned neurons have been characterized in the ascending auditory pathway, which runs from the inferior colliculus (Wenstrup et al. 2012; Macías et al. 2016; Wenstrup and Portfors 2011; Dear and Suga 1995) to the auditory cortex (Hagemann et al. 2010; Suga and O'Neill 1979; O'Neill and Suga 1982).
Electrophysiological studies usually characterize neuronal processing by using artificial and simplified versions of the echolocation signals as stimuli (Hagemann et al. 2010; Hagemann et al. 2011; Hechavarría and Kössl 2014; Hechavarría et al. 2013). The high controllability of artificial stimuli simplifies the inference of the neuronal mechanisms underlying distance processing. But, it remains largely unexplored how the neurons process delay information from echolocation sequences. The main purpose of the thesis is to investigate how natural echolocation sequences are processed in the brain of the bat Carollia perspicillata. Bats actively control the sensory information that it gathers during echolocation. This allows experimenters to easily identify and record the acoustic stimuli that are behaviorally relevant for orientation. For recording echolocation sequences, a bat was placed in the mass of a swinging pendulum (Kobler et al. 1985; Beetz et al. 2016b). During the swing the bat emitted echolocation calls that were reflected in surrounding objects. An ultrasound sensitive microphone traveling with the bat and positioned above the bat’s head recorded the echolocation sequence. The echolocation sequence carried delay information of an approach flight and was used as stimulus for neuronal recordings from the auditory cortex and inferior colliculus of the bats.
Presentation of high stimulus rates to other species, such as rats, guinea pigs, suppresses cortical neuron activity (Wehr and Zador 2005; Creutzfeldt et al. 1980). Therefore, I tested if neurons of bats are suppressed when they are stimulated with high acoustic rates represented in echolocation sequences (sequence situation). Additionally, the bats were stimulated with randomized call echo elements of the sequence and an interstimulus time interval of 400 ms (element situation). To quantify neuronal suppression induced by the sequence, I compared the response pattern to the sequence situation with the concatenated response patterns to the element situation. Surprisingly, although the bats should be adapted for processing high acoustic rates, their cortical neurons are vastly suppressed in the sequence situation (Beetz et al. 2016b). However, instead of being completely suppressed during the sequence situation, the neurons partially recover from suppression at a unit specific call echo element. Multi-electrode recordings from the cortex allow assessment of the representation of echo delays along the cortical surface. At the cortical level, delay-tuned neurons are topographically organized. Cortical suppression improves sharpness of neuronal tuning and decreases the blurriness of the topographic map. With neuronal recordings from the inferior colliculus, I tested whether the echolocation sequence also induced neuronal suppression at subcortical level. The sequence induced suppression was weaker in the inferior colliculus than in the cortex. The collicular response makes the neurons able to track the acoustic events in the echolocation sequence. Collicular suppression mainly improves the signal-to-noise ratio. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that cortical suppression is not necessarily a shortcoming for temporal processing of rapidly occurring stimuli as it has previously been interpreted.
Natural environments are usually composed of multiple objects. Thus, each echolocation call reflects off multiple objects resulting in multiple echoes following the calls. At present, it is largely unexplored how neurons process echolocation sequences containing echo information from more than one object (multi-object sequences). Therefore, I stimulated bats with a multi-object sequence which contained echo information from three objects. The objects were different distances away from each other. I tested the influence of each object on the neuronal tuning by stimulating the bats with different sequences created from filtering object specific echoes from the multi-object sequence. The cortex most reliably processes echo information from the nearest object whereas echo information from distant objects is not processed due to neuronal suppression. Collicular neurons process less selectively echo information from certain objects and respond to each echo.
For proper echolocation, bats have to distinguish between own biosonar signals and the signals coming from conspecifics. This can be quite challenging when many bats echolocate adjacent to each other. In behavioral experiments, the echolocation performance of C. perspicillata was tested in the presence of potentially interfering sounds. In the presence of acoustic noise, the bats increase the sensory acquisition rate which may increase the update rate of sensory processing. Neuronal recordings from the auditory cortex and inferior colliculus could strengthen the hypothesis. Although there were signs of acoustic interference or jamming at neuronal level, the neurons were not completely suppressed and responded to the rest of the echolocation sequence.
The marine hydrocarbonoclastic bacterium Alcanivorax borkumensis is well known for its ability to successfully degrade various mixtures of n-alkanes occurring in marine oil spills. For effective growth on these compounds, the bacteria possess the unique capability not only to incorporate but also to modify fatty intermediates derived from the alkane degradation pathway. High efficiency of both these processes provides better competitiveness for a single bacteria species among hydrocarbon degraders. To examine the efficiency of A. borkumensis to cope with different sources of fatty acid intermediates, we studied the growth rates and membrane fatty acid patterns of this bacterium cultivated on diesel, biodiesel and rapeseed oil as carbon and energy source. Obtained results revealed significant differences in both parameters depending on growth substrate. Highest growth rates were observed with biodiesel, while growth rates on rapeseed oil and diesel were lower than on the standard reference compound (hexadecane). The most remarkable observation is that cells grown on rapeseed oil, biodiesel, and diesel showed significant amounts of the two polyunsaturated fatty acids linoleic acid and linolenic acid in their membrane. By direct incorporation of these external fatty acids, the bacteria save energy allowing them to degrade those pollutants in a more efficient way. Such fast adaptation may increase resilience of A. borkumensis and allow them to strive and maintain populations in more complex hydrocarbon degrading microbial communities.
The taxanes are effective microtubule-stabilizing chemotherapy drugs that inhibit mitosis, induce apoptosis, and produce regression in a fraction of cancers that arise at many sites including the ovary. Novel therapeutic targets that augment taxane effects are needed to improve clinical chemotherapy response in CCNE1-amplified high grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) cells. In this study, we conducted an siRNA-based kinome screen to identify modulators of mitotic progression in CCNE1-amplified HGSOC cells that may influence clinical paclitaxel response. PLK1 is overexpressed in many types of cancer, which correlates with poor prognosis. Here, we identified a novel synthetic lethal interaction of the clinical PLK1 inhibitor BI6727 and the microtubule-targeting drug paclitaxel in HGSOC cell lines with CCNE1-amplification and elucidated the underlying molecular mechanisms of this synergism. BI6727 synergistically induces apoptosis together with paclitaxel in different cell lines including a patient-derived primary ovarian cancer culture. Moreover, the inhibition of PLK1 reduced the paclitaxel-induced neurotoxicity in a neurite outgrowth assay. Mechanistically, the combinatorial treatment with BI6727/paclitaxel triggers mitotic arrest, which initiates mitochondrial apoptosis by inactivation of anti-apoptotic BCL-2 family proteins, followed by significant loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of caspase-dependent effector pathways. This conclusion is supported by data showing that BI6727/paclitaxel-co-treatment stabilizes FBW7, a component of SCF-type ubiquitin ligases that bind and regulate key modulators of cell division and growth including MCL-1 and Cyclin E. This identification of a novel synthetic lethality of PLK1 inhibitors and a microtubule-stabilizing drug has important implications for developing PLK1 inhibitor-based combination treatments in CCNE1-amplified HGSOC cells.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden sRNAs des halophilen Archaeons Haloferax volcanii hinsichtlich ihrer biologischen und ihrer regulatorischen Funktion charakterisiert.
Um einen Überblick über die biologischen Funktionen archaealer sRNAs zu erhalten, wurde eine umfassende phänotypische Charakterisierung von 27 sRNA-Deletionsmutanten im Vergleich zum Wildtyp ausgewertet. Im Zuge dieser phänotypischen Charakterisierungen wurden zehn verschiedene Wachstumsbedingungen, morphologische Unterschiede und Veränderungen in der Zellmotilität untersucht. Hierbei zeigten nahezu alle Deletionsmutanten unter mindestens einer der getesteten Bedingungen phänotypische Unterschiede. Durch den Verlust von sRNAs wurden sowohl sogenannte Gain-of-function als auch Loss-of-function Phänotypen beobachtet. Haloarchaeale sRNAs spielen eine wichtige Rolle beim Wachstum mit verschiedenen Salzkonzentrationen, mit verschiedenen Kohlenstoffquellen und beim Schwärmverhalten, sind jedoch weniger in die Adaptation an diverse Stressbedingungen involviert.
Zur näheren Charakterisierung der regulatorischen Funktion archaealer sRNAs wurden sRNA362, sRNAhtsf468 und sRNA479 mittels molekulargenetischer Methoden wie Northern Blot-Analyse und DNA-Mikroarray sowie bioinformatischer in silico-Analyse untersucht. Das Expressionslevel von sRNA362 konnte bestimmt und potentielle Zielgene für sRNAhtsf468 und sRNA479 identifiziert werden.
Eine vorangegangene Studie zeigte den Einfluss von sRNA30 unter Hitzestress und führte zur Identifikation differentiell produzierter Proteine in Abwesenheit der sRNA. In dieser Arbeit wurde mittels Northern Blot-Analysen die Expression der sRNA30 charakterisiert. Das Wachstum in An- und Abwesenheit von sRNA30 wurde bei 42°C und 51°C phänotypisch charakterisiert und der regulatorische Einfluss der sRNA auf die mRNA differentiell regulierter Proteine durch Northern Blot-Analyse überprüft. Eine Transkriptomanalyse mittels DNA-Mikroarray nach Hitzeschock-Induktion führte zur Identifikation differentiell regulierter Gene involviert in Transportprozesse, Metabolismus, Transkriptionsregulation und die Expression anderer sRNAs. Die differentielle Regulation des Proteoms nach Hitzeschockinduktion in An- und Abwesenheit von sRNA30 konnte bestätigt werden.
Desweiteren wurde in dieser Arbeit sRNA132 und deren phosphatabhängige Regulation der Ziel-mRNA HVO_A0477-80 näher charakterisiert. Eine Induktionskinetik nach Phosphatentzug bestätigte die Bedeutung von sRNA132 für die verstärkte Expression des Operons HVO_A0477-80 unter Phosphatmangel-Bedingungen und verwies auf die Existenz weiterer Regulationsmechanismen. Während vor und nach Phosphatentzug kein Unterschied bezüglich der Zellmorphologie von Wildtyp und Deletionsmutante zu erkennen war, führte das Wachstum mit einem starken Phosphatüberschuss von 5 mM zu einer Zellverlängerung der Deletionsmutante. Die Kompetition der nativen 3‘-UTR des Operons HVO_A0477-80 mit einer Vektor-kodierten artifiziellen 3‘-UTR legt eine Regulation über die Bindung von sRNA132 an die 3‘-UTR nahe. Der Transkriptomvergleich nach Phosphatentzug in An- und Abwesenheit von sRNA132 führte zur Identifikation des Phosphoregulons der sRNA. Zu diesem Phosphoregulon gehören unter anderem zwei Glycerinphosphat-Dehydrogenasen, Transkriptionsregulatoren, eine Polyphosphatkinase und eine Glycerolphosphodiesterase. Zudem waren die Transkriptlevel der beiden ABC-Transporter HVO_A0477-80 und HVO_2375-8 für anorganisches Phosphat und des Transporters HVO_B0292-5 für Glycerinaldehyd-3-Phosphat in Abwesenheit der sRNA verringert. Die beiden ABC-Transportsysteme für anorganisches Phosphat wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit deletiert und weiter charakterisiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das ABC-Transportsystem HVO_2375-8 bei geringen Phosphatkonzentrationen leicht induziert wird und das Transkriptlevel in Anwesenheit von sRNA132 erhöht ist. Wachstumsversuche der jeweiligen Deletionsmutante in direkter Konkurrenz mit dem Wildtyp zeigten, dass keiner der beiden ABC-Transporter den anderen vollständig ersetzen kann und der Wildtyp mit beiden intakten ABC-Transportern unter phosphatlimitierenden Bedingungen einen Wachstumsvorteil besitzt. In silico-Analysen der Promotorbereiche von sRNA und ABC-Transporter legen zudem die Existenz von P-Boxen nahe.
Background: Root and tuber crops are a major food source in tropical Africa. Among these crops are several species in the monocotyledonous genus Dioscorea collectively known as yam, a staple tuber crop that contributes enormously to the subsistence and socio-cultural lives of millions of people, principally in West and Central Africa. Yam cultivation is constrained by several factors, and yam can be considered a neglected “orphan” crop that would benefit from crop improvement efforts. However, the lack of genetic and genomic tools has impeded the improvement of this staple crop.
Results: To accelerate marker-assisted breeding of yam, we performed genome analysis of white Guinea yam (Dioscorea rotundata) and assembled a 594-Mb genome, 76.4% of which was distributed among 21 linkage groups. In total, we predicted 26,198 genes. Phylogenetic analyses with 2381 conserved genes revealed that Dioscorea is a unique lineage of monocotyledons distinct from the Poales (rice), Arecales (palm), and Zingiberales (banana). The entire Dioscorea genus is characterized by the occurrence of separate male and female plants (dioecy), a feature that has limited efficient yam breeding. To infer the genetics of sex determination, we performed whole-genome resequencing of bulked segregants (quantitative trait locus sequencing [QTL-seq]) in F1 progeny segregating for male and female plants and identified a genomic region associated with female heterogametic (male = ZZ, female = ZW) sex determination. We further delineated the W locus and used it to develop a molecular marker for sex identification of Guinea yam plants at the seedling stage.
Conclusions: Guinea yam belongs to a unique and highly differentiated clade of monocotyledons. The genome analyses and sex-linked marker development performed in this study should greatly accelerate marker-assisted breeding of Guinea yam. In addition, our QTL-seq approach can be utilized in genetic studies of other outcrossing crops and organisms with highly heterozygous genomes. Genomic analysis of orphan crops such as yam promotes efforts to improve food security and the sustainability of tropical agriculture.
Background: The ideal biofuel should not only be a regenerative fuel from renewable feedstocks, but should also be compatible with the existing fuel distribution infrastructure and with normal car engines. As the so-called drop-in biofuel, the fatty alcohol 1-octanol has been described as a valuable substitute for diesel and jet fuels and has already been produced fermentatively from sugars in small amounts with engineered bacteria via reduction of thioesterase-mediated premature release of octanoic acid from fatty acid synthase or via a reversal of the β-oxidation pathway.
Results: The previously engineered short-chain acyl-CoA producing yeast Fas1R1834K/Fas2 fatty acid synthase variant was expressed together with carboxylic acid reductase from Mycobacterium marinum and phosphopantetheinyl transferase Sfp from Bacillus subtilis in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae Δfas1 Δfas2 Δfaa2 mutant strain. With the involvement of endogenous thioesterases, alcohol dehydrogenases, and aldehyde reductases, the synthesized octanoyl-CoA was converted to 1-octanol up to a titer of 26.0 mg L−1 in a 72-h fermentation. The additional accumulation of 90 mg L−1 octanoic acid in the medium indicated a bottleneck in 1-octanol production. When octanoic acid was supplied externally to the yeast cells, it could be efficiently converted to 1-octanol indicating that re-uptake of octanoic acid across the plasma membrane is not limiting. Additional overexpression of aldehyde reductase Ahr from Escherichia coli nearly completely prevented accumulation of octanoic acid and increased 1-octanol titers up to 49.5 mg L−1. However, in growth tests concentrations even lower than 50.0 mg L−1 turned out to be inhibitory to yeast growth. In situ extraction in a two-phase fermentation with dodecane as second phase did not improve growth, indicating that 1-octanol acts inhibitive before secretion. Furthermore, 1-octanol production was even reduced, which results from extraction of the intermediate octanoic acid to the organic phase, preventing its re-uptake.
Conclusions: By providing chain length control via an engineered octanoyl-CoA producing fatty acid synthase, we were able to specifically produce 1-octanol with S. cerevisiae. Before metabolic engineering can be used to further increase product titers and yields, strategies must be developed that cope with the toxic effects of 1-octanol on the yeast cells.
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the most important biological model organisms, but only the comparative approach with closely related species provides insights into the evolutionary diversification of insects. Of particular interest is the live imaging of fluorophores in developing embryos. It provides data for the analysis and comparison of the threedimensional morphogenesis as a function of time. However, for all species apart from Drosophila, for example the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, essentially no established standard operation procedures are available and the pool of data and resources is sparse. The goal of my PhD project was to address these limitations. I was able to accomplish the following milestones:
- Development of the hemisphere and cobweb mounting methods for the non-invasive imaging of Tribolium embryos in light sheet-based fluorescence microscopes and characterization of most crucial embryogenetic events.
- Comprehensive documentation of methods as protocols that describe (i) beetle rearing in the laboratory, (ii) preparation of embryos, (ii) calibration of light sheet-based fluorescence microscopes, (iv) recording over several days, (v) embryo retrieval as a quality control as well as (vi) data processing.
- Adaption of the methods to record and analyze embryonic morphogenesis of the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata and the two-spotted cricket Gryllus bimaculatus as well as integration of the data into an evolutionary context.
- Further development of the hemisphere method to allow the bead-based / landmark-based registration and fusion of three-dimensional images acquired along multiple directions to compensate the shadowing effect.
- Development of the BugCube, a web-based computer program that allows to share image data, which was recorded by using light sheet-based fluorescence microscopy, with colleagues.
- Invention and experimental proof-of-principle of the (i) AGameOfClones vector concept that creates homozygous transgenic insect lines systematically. Additionally, partial proof-of-principle of the (ii) AClashOfStrings vector concept that creates double homozygous transgenic insect lines systematically, as well as preliminary evaluation of the (iii) AStormOfRecords vector concept that creates triple homozygous transgenic insect lines systematically.
- Creation and performance screening of more than fifty transgenic Tribolium lines for the long-term imaging of embryogenesis in fluorescence microscopes, including the first Lifeact and histone subunit-based lines.
My primary results contribute significantly to the advanced fluorescence imaging approaches of insect species beyond Drosophila. The image data can be used to compare different strategies of embryonic morphogenesis and thus to interpret the respective phylogenetic context. My technological developments extend the methodological arsenal for insect model organisms considerably.
Within my perspective, I emphasize the importance of non-invasive long-term fluorescence live imaging to establish speciesspecific morphogenetic standards, discuss the feasibly of a morphologic ontology on the cellular level, suggest the ‘nested linearly decreasing phylogenetic relationship’ approach for evolutionary developmental biology, propose the live imaging of species hybrids to investigate speciation and finally outline how light sheet-based fluorescence microscopy contributes to the transition from on-demand to systematic data acquisition in developmental biology.
During my PhD project, I wrote a total of ten manuscripts, six of which were already published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Additionally, I supervised four Master and two Bachelor projects whose scientific questions were inspired by the topic of my PhD work.
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) acts as a molecular safeguard in ensuring faithful chromosome transmission during mitosis, which is regulated by a complex interplay between phosphatases and kinases including PLK1. Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) germline mutations cause aneuploidy and are responsible for familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). Here we study the role of PLK1 in colon cancer cells with chromosomal instability promoted by APC truncation (APC-ΔC). The expression of APC-ΔC in colon cells reduces the accumulation of mitotic cells upon PLK1 inhibition, accelerates mitotic exit and increases the survival of cells with enhanced chromosomal abnormalities. The inhibition of PLK1 in mitotic, APC-∆C-expressing cells reduces the kinetochore levels of Aurora B and hampers the recruitment of SAC component suggesting a compromised mitotic checkpoint. Furthermore, Plk1 inhibition (RNAi, pharmacological compounds) promotes the development of adenomatous polyps in two independent ApcMin/+ mouse models. High PLK1 expression increases the survival of colon cancer patients expressing a truncated APC significantly.
Visualization of cytosolic ribosomes on the surface of mitochondria by electron cryo‐tomography
(2017)
We employed electron cryo‐tomography to visualize cytosolic ribosomes on the surface of mitochondria. Translation‐arrested ribosomes reveal the clustered organization of the TOM complex, corroborating earlier reports of localized translation. Ribosomes are shown to interact specifically with the TOM complex, and nascent chain binding is crucial for ribosome recruitment and stabilization. Ribosomes are bound to the membrane in discrete clusters, often in the vicinity of the crista junctions. This interaction highlights how protein synthesis may be coupled with transport. Our work provides unique insights into the spatial organization of cytosolic ribosomes on mitochondria.
Quercetin is a flavonoid that is ubiquitously found in vegetables and fruits. Like other flavonoids, it is active in balancing cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and has a cyto-protective function. Previously, a link between ROS balancing, aging, and the activity of O-methyltransferases was reported in different organisms including the aging model Podospora anserina. Here we describe a role of the S-adenosylmethionine-dependent O-methyltransferase PaMTH1 in quercetin-induced lifespan extension. We found that effects of quercetin treatment depend on the methylation state of the flavonoid. Specifically, we observed that quercetin treatment increases the lifespan of the wild type but not of the PaMth1 deletion mutant. The lifespan increasing effect is not associated with effects of quercetin on mitochondrial respiration or ROS levels but linked to the induction of the PaMth1 gene. Overall, our data demonstrate a novel role of O-methyltransferase in quercetin-induced longevity and identify the underlying pathway as part of a network of longevity assurance pathways with the perspective to intervene into mechanisms of biological aging.
Inhibition of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons codes for negative reward prediction errors, and causally affects conditioning learning. DA neurons located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) display two-fold longer rebound delays from hyperpolarizing inhibition in comparison to those in the substantia nigra (SN). This difference has been linked to the slow inactivation of Kv4.3-mediated A-type currents (IA). One known suppressor of Kv4.3 inactivation is a splice variant of potassium channel interacting protein 4 (KChIP4), KChIP4a, which has a unique potassium channel inactivation suppressor domain (KISD) that is coded within exon 3 of the KChIP4 gene. Previous ex vivo experiments from our lab showed that the constitutive knockout of KChIP4 (KChIP4 KO) removes the slow inactivation of IA in VTA DA neurons, with marginal effects on SN DA neurons. KChIP4 KO also increased firing pauses in response to phasic hyperpolarization in these neurons. Here I show, using extracellular recordings combined with juxtacellular labeling in anesthetized mice, that KChIP4 KO also selectively changes the number and duration spontaneous firing pauses by VTA DA neurons in vivo. Pauses were quantified with two different statistical methods, including one developed in house. No other firing parameter was affected, including mean frequency and bursting, and the activity of SN DA neurons was untouched, suggesting that KChIP4 gene products have a highly specific effect on VTA DA neuron responses to inhibitory input.
Following up on this result, I developed a new mouse line (KChIP4 Ex3d) where the KISD-coding exon 3 of KChIP4 is selectively excised by cre-recombinase expressed under the dopamine transporter (DAT) promoter, therefore disrupting the expression of KChIP4a only in midbrain DA neurons. I show that these mice have a highly selective behavioral phenotype, displaying a drastic acceleration in extinction learning, but no changes in acquisition learning, in comparison to control littermates. Computational fitting of the behavioral data with a modified Rescorla-Wagner model confirmed that this phenotype is congruent with a selective increase in learning from negative prediction errors. KChIP4 Ex3d also had normal open field exploration, novel object preference, hole board exploration and spontaneous alternation in a plus maze, indicating that exploratory drive, responses to novelty, anxiety, locomotion and working memory were not affected by the genetic manipulation. Furthermore semi-quantitative IHC revealed that KChIP4 Ex3d mice have increased Kv4.3 expression in TH+ neurons, suggesting that the absence of KChIP4a increases the binding of other KChIP variants, which known to increase surface expression of Kv4 channels.
Furthermore, in the course of my experimental study I identified that the most used mouse line where cre-recombinase is expressed under the DAT promoter (DAT-cre KI) has a different behavioral phenotype during conditioning in relation to WT littermate controls. These animals displayed increased responding during the initial trials of acquisition and delayed response latency extinction, consistent with an increase in motivation, which is in line with a decrease in DAT function.
I propose a working model where the disruption of KChIP4a expression in DA neurons leads to an increase in binding of other KChIP variants to Kv4.3 subunits, promoting their increased surface expression and increasing IA current density; this then increases firing pauses in response to synaptic inhibition, which in behaving animals translates to an increase in negative prediction error-based learning.
Understanding the spatial and temporal dynamics of species assemblages is a main challenge in ecology. The mechanisms that shape species assemblages and their temporal fluctuations along tropical elevational gradients are particularly poorly understood. Here, we examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of bird assemblages along an elevational gradient in Ecuador. We conducted bird point counts at three elevations (1000, 2000 and 3000 m) on 18 1-ha plots and repeated the sampling eight times over two years (216 hours in total). For each plot, we obtained data of monthly temperatures and precipitation and recorded the overall resource availability (i.e., the sum of flower, fruit, and invertebrate resources). As expected, bird richness decreased from low to high elevations. Moreover, we found a significant decrease in bird abundance and richness and an increase in evenness between the most and least humid season at each of the three elevations. Climatic factors were more closely related to these temporal fluctuations than local resource availability. While temperature had significant positive effects on the abundance of birds at mid and high elevations, precipitation negatively affected bird abundance at low and mid elevations. Our study highlights that bird assemblages along tropical elevational gradients can show pronounced seasonal fluctuations. In particular, low temperatures and high precipitation seem to impose important constraints on birds. We conclude that potential changes in climate, due to global warming, are likely to affect the spatio-temporal dynamics of bird assemblages along tropical elevational gradients.
Background/Aims: Signaling of Gs protein-coupled receptors (GsPCRs) is accomplished by stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, causing an increase of the intracellular cAMP concentration, activation of the intracellular cAMP effectors protein kinase A (PKA) and Epac, and an efflux of cAMP, the function of which is still unclear.
Methods: Activation of adenylyl cyclase by GsPCR agonists or cholera toxin was monitored by measurement of the intracellular cAMP concentration by ELISA, anti-phospho-PKA substrate motif phosphorylation by immunoblotting, and an Epac-FRET assay in the presence and absence of adenosine receptor antagonists or ecto-nucleotide phosphodiesterase/pyrophosphatase2 (eNPP2) inhibitors. The production of AMP from cAMP by recombinant eNPP2 was measured by HPLC. Extracellular adenosine was determined by LC-MS/MS, extracellular ATP by luciferase and LC-MS/MS. The expression of eNPP isoenzymes 1-3 was examined by RT-PCR. The expression of multidrug resistance protein 4 was suppressed by siRNA.
Results: Here we show that the activation of GsPCRs and the GsPCRs-independent activation of Gs proteins and adenylyl cyclase by cholera toxin induce stimulation of cell surface adenosine receptors (A2A or A2B adenosine receptors). In PC12 cells stimulation of adenylyl cyclase by GsPCR or cholera toxin caused activation of A2A adenosine receptors by an autocrine signaling pathway involving cAMP efflux through multidrug resistance protein 4 and hydrolysis of released cAMP to AMP by eNPP2. In contrast, in PC3 cells cholera toxin- and GsPCR-induced stimulation of adenylyl cyclase resulted in the activation of A2B adenosine receptors.
Conclusion: Our findings show that stimulation of adenylyl cyclase causes a remarkable activation of cell surface adenosine receptors.
Endangered species of hosts are coupled with endangered species of parasites, which share the risk of co-extinction. Conservation efforts sometimes include breeding of rare species in captivity. Data on parasites of captive populations of endangered species is scarce and the ability of small numbers of captive host individuals to support the biodiversity of native parasites is limited. Examination of ectosymbionts of the critically endangered Philippine eagles and the endangered Mindanao Hawk-Eagle kept at the Philippine Eagle Center, Philippines, revealed three feather mite species despite regular treatment with insecticide powder. No other ectosymbiont taxa were detected. Studies in morphology and molecular phylogeny of these feather mites based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers indicate that species found were typical for Accipitridae. Three new pterolichoid feather mite species (Acari: Pterolichoidea) were described from two species of eagles (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) endemic to the Philippines: Hieracolichus philippinensis sp. n. (Gabuciniidae) and Pseudalloptinus pithecophagae sp. n. (Pterolichidae) from the Great Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi Ogilvie-Grant, 1896, and Pseudogabucinia nisaeti sp. n. (Kramerellidae) from the Mindanao Hawk-Eagle Nisaetus pinskeri Gould, 1863. The presence of H. philippinensis on P. jefferyi supports the recent finding that the Great Philippine Eagle belongs to the lineage of serpent eagles (Circaetinae) rather than to the Harpy and other eagles.
Background: Molecular hydrogen (H2) is an attractive future energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. Biologically and sustainably produced H2 could contribute significantly to the future energy mix. However, biological H2 production methods are faced with multiple barriers including substrate cost, low production rates, and low yields. The C1 compound formate is a promising substrate for biological H2 production, as it can be produced itself from various sources including electrochemical reduction of CO2 or from synthesis gas. Many microbes that can produce H2 from formate have been isolated; however, in most cases H2 production rates cannot compete with other H2 production methods.
Results: We established a formate-based H2 production method utilizing the acetogenic bacterium Acetobacterium woodii. This organism can use formate as sole energy and carbon source and possesses a novel enzyme complex, the hydrogen-dependent CO2 reductase that catalyzes oxidation of formate to H2 and CO2. Cell suspensions reached specific formate-dependent H2 production rates of 71 mmol g protein −1 h−1 (30.5 mmol g CDW −1 h−1) and maximum volumetric H2 evolution rates of 79 mmol L−1 h−1. Using growing cells in a two-step closed batch fermentation, specific H2 production rates reached 66 mmol g CDW −1 h−1 with a volumetric H2 evolution rate of 7.9 mmol L−1 h−1. Acetate was the major side product that decreased the H2 yield. We demonstrate that inhibition of the energy metabolism by addition of a sodium ionophore is suitable to completely abolish acetate formation. Under these conditions, yields up to 1 mol H2 per mol formate were achieved. The same ionophore can be used in cultures utilizing formate as specific switch from a growing phase to a H2 production phase.
Conclusions: Acetobacterium woodii reached one of the highest formate-dependent specific H2 productivity rates at ambient temperatures reported so far for an organism without genetic modification and converted the substrate exclusively to H2. This makes this organism a very promising candidate for sustainable H2 production and, because of the reversibility of the A. woodii enzyme, also a candidate for reversible H2 storage.
Mannitol is the major compatible solute, next to glutamate, synthesized by the opportunistic human pathogen Acinetobacter baumannii under low water activities. The key enzyme for mannitol biosynthesis, MtlD, was identified. MtlD is highly similar to the bifunctional mannitol‐1‐phosphate dehydrogenase/phosphatase from Acinetobacter baylyi. After deletion of the mtlD gene from A. baumannii ATCC 19606T cells no longer accumulated mannitol and growth was completely impaired at high salt. Addition of glycine betaine restored growth, demonstrating that mannitol is an important compatible solute in the human pathogen. MtlD was heterologously produced and purified. Enzyme activity was strictly salt dependent. Highest stimulation was reached at 600 mmol/L NaCl. Addition of different sodium as well as potassium salts restored activity, with highest stimulations up to 41 U/mg protein by sodium glutamate. In contrast, an increase in osmolarity by addition of sugars did not restore activity. Regulation of mannitol synthesis was also assayed at the transcriptional level. Reporter gene assays revealed that expression of mtlD is strongly dependent on high osmolarity, not discriminating between different salts or sugars. The presence of glycine betaine or its precursor choline repressed promoter activation. These data indicate a dual regulation of mannitol production in A. baumannii, at the transcriptional and the enzymatic level, depending on high osmolarity.
Hematopoietic differentiation is driven by transcription factors, which orchestrate a finely tuned transcriptional network. At bipotential branching points lineage decisions are made, where key transcription factors initiate cell type-specific gene expression programs. These programs are stabilized by the epigenetic activity of recruited chromatin-modifying cofactors. An example is the association of the transcription factor RUNX1 with protein arginine methyltransferase 6 (PRMT6) at the megakaryocytic/erythroid bifurcation. However, little is known about the specific influence of PRMT6 on this important branching point. Here, we show that PRMT6 inhibits erythroid gene expression during megakaryopoiesis of primary human CD34+ progenitor cells. PRMT6 is recruited to erythroid genes, such as glycophorin A. Consequently, a repressive histone modification pattern with high H3R2me2a and low H3K4me3 is established. Importantly, inhibition of PRMT6 by shRNA or small molecule inhibitors leads to upregulation of erythroid genes and promotes erythropoiesis. Our data reveal that PRMT6 plays a role in the control of erythroid/megakaryocytic differentiation and open up the possibility that manipulation of PRMT6 activity could facilitate enhanced erythropoiesis for therapeutic use.
Diploid transgenic organisms are either hemi- or homozygous. Genetic assays are, therefore, required to identify the genotype. Our AGameOfClones vector concept uses two clearly distinguishable transformation markers embedded in interweaved, but incompatible Lox site pairs. Cre-mediated recombination leads to hemizygous individuals that carry only one marker. In the following generation, heterozygous descendants are identified by the presence of both markers and produce homozygous progeny that are selected by the lack of one marker. We prove our concept in Tribolium castaneum by systematically creating multiple functional homozygous transgenic lines suitable for long-term fluorescence live imaging. Our approach saves resources and simplifies transgenic organism handling. Since the concept relies on the universal Cre-Lox system, it is expected to work in all diploid model organisms, for example, insects, zebrafish, rodents and plants. With appropriate adaptions, it can be used in knock-out assays to preselect homozygous individuals and thus minimize the number of wasted animals.
The mammalian thalamocortical system generates intrinsic activity reflecting different states of excitability, arising from changes in the membrane potentials of underlying neuronal networks. Fluctuations between these states occur spontaneously, regularly, and frequently throughout awake periods and influence stimulus encoding, information processing, and neuronal and behavioral responses. Changes of pupil size have recently been identified as a reliable marker of underlying neuronal membrane potential and thus can encode associated network state changes in rodent cortex. This suggests that pupillometry, a ubiquitous measure of pupil dilation in cognitive neuroscience, could be used as an index for network state fluctuations also for human brain signals. Considering this variable may explain task-independent variance in neuronal and behavioral signals that were previously disregarded as noise.
Cytokine regulation of high-output nitric oxide (NO) derived from inducible NO synthase (iNOS) is critically involved in inflammation biology and host defense. Herein, we set out to characterize the role of type I interferon (IFN) as potential regulator of hepatic iNOS in vitro and in vivo. In this regard, we identified in murine Hepa1-6 hepatoma cells a potent synergism between pro-inflammatory interleukin-β/tumor necrosis factor-α and immunoregulatory IFNβ as detected by analysis of iNOS expression and nitrite release. Upregulation of iNOS by IFNβ coincided with enhanced binding of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 to a regulatory region at the murine iNOS promoter known to support target gene expression in response to this signaling pathway. Synergistic iNOS induction under the influence of IFNβ was confirmed in alternate murine Hepa56.1D hepatoma cells and primary hepatocytes. To assess iNOS regulation by type I IFN in vivo, murine acetaminophen (APAP)-induced sterile liver inflammation was investigated. In this model of acute liver injury, excessive necroinflammation drives iNOS expression in diverse liver cell types, among others hepatocytes. Herein, we demonstrate impaired iNOS expression in type I IFN receptor-deficient mice which associated with diminished APAP-induced liver damage. Data presented indicate a vital role of type I IFN within the inflamed liver for fine-tuning pathological processes such as overt iNOS expression.
Motivation: Arabidopsis thaliana is a well-established model system for the analysis of the basic physiological and metabolic pathways of plants. Nevertheless, the system is not yet fully understood, although many mechanisms are described, and information for many processes exists. However, the combination and interpretation of the large amount of biological data remain a big challenge, not only because data sets for metabolic paths are still incomplete. Moreover, they are often inconsistent, because they are coming from different experiments of various scales, regarding, for example, accuracy and/or significance. Here, theoretical modeling is powerful to formulate hypotheses for pathways and the dynamics of the metabolism, even if the biological data are incomplete. To develop reliable mathematical models they have to be proven for consistency. This is still a challenging task because many verification techniques fail already for middle-sized models. Consequently, new methods, like decomposition methods or reduction approaches, are developed to circumvent this problem.
Methods: We present a new semi-quantitative mathematical model of the metabolism of Arabidopsis thaliana. We used the Petri net formalism to express the complex reaction system in a mathematically unique manner. To verify the model for correctness and consistency we applied concepts of network decomposition and network reduction such as transition invariants, common transition pairs, and invariant transition pairs.
Results: We formulated the core metabolism of Arabidopsis thaliana based on recent knowledge from literature, including the Calvin cycle, glycolysis and citric acid cycle, glyoxylate cycle, urea cycle, sucrose synthesis, and the starch metabolism. By applying network decomposition and reduction techniques at steady-state conditions, we suggest a straightforward mathematical modeling process. We demonstrate that potential steady-state pathways exist, which provide the fixed carbon to nearly all parts of the network, especially to the citric acid cycle. There is a close cooperation of important metabolic pathways, e.g., the de novo synthesis of uridine-5-monophosphate, the γ-aminobutyric acid shunt, and the urea cycle. The presented approach extends the established methods for a feasible interpretation of biological network models, in particular of large and complex models.
The continuous conversion of natural wildlife habitats into agricultural areas, as well as the fragmentation of the last wildlife refuges, is increasing the interface between people and wildlife. When wildlife negatively impacts on people and vice versa, we speak about human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). This definition includes losses on both sides and takes into consideration the rooting of most of these conflicts between different groups of interest, such as advocates for nature conservation and economic groups. The centres of highest biodiversity are located in developing countries, which are also characterized by poverty. In African and Asian countries, people living in the vicinity of national parks and other conservation areas mostly receive only little support through the government or conservation organisations. Especially for those people who are dependent on agriculture, damage to fields and harvests can have catastrophic consequences. If the species causing damage is protected by national or even international law, the farmer is not allowed to use lethal methods, but has to approach the authority in charge. If this agency, however, cannot offer appropriate support, resentment, anger or even hate develops, and the support for wildlife conservation activities declines. For this reason, HWCs were declared as one of the most important conservation topics today, being particularly relevant for large and threatened species such as the African and Asian elephant, hippopotamus and the greater one-horned rhino, as well as for large predators. Up to today, no general assessment scheme has been recommended for damage caused by protected wildlife species.
In my study, HWCs in Asia and Africa are compared, focussing on all herbivorous species identified which damaged crops. For the French NGO Awely, des animaux et des hommes, I developed a detailed assessment scheme suitable for all terrestrial ecosystems, and any type of HWCs and any species (Chapter 2). This HWC assessment scheme was used in four different study areas located in two African countries (South Luangwa/Zambia (SL), Tarangire/Tanzania (TA)) and two Asian countries (Bardia/Nepal (BA) and Manas/India (MA)). This scheme ran for six consecutive years (2009 to 2014) for Zambia, Nepal and India and two years (2010 to 2011) for Tanzania. To carry out the assessments, I trained local HWC officers (Awely Red Caps) to assess HWCs by field observations (measurement of damage, identification of species through signs of presence, landscape attributes etc.) and interviews with aggrieved parties (socio economic data). Results of this assessment are presented in Chapters 2-4.
To determine whether elephants prefer or avoid specific crop species, two field experiments were carried out, one in SL and one in BA (Chapter 5 and 6). For this, two test plots were set up and damage by elephants (and other herbivores) were quantified.
Within this doctoral thesis, 3306 damage events of 7408 aggrieved parties were analysed. In three out of the four study areas (SL, BA, MA), elephants caused the highest number of damage events compared to all other wildlife species, however, in TA, most fields were damaged by zebra. Furthermore, the greater one-horned rhino, hippopotamus, wild boar, bushpig, deer and antelope, as well as primates, caused damage to fields and harvests. Damage to houses and other property were nearly exclusively caused by elephants.
With this doctoral thesis I was able to show that season, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop played an important role for crop damaging behavior of herbivores (Chapter 2). Elephants especially damaged rice, maize and wheat and preferred all crop types in a mature stage of growth. In contrast, rhinos preferred wheat to rice and similar to antelope and deer, they preferred crops at earlier stages of growth, before ripening. Crop damage by wildlife species varied strongly in size; most damages fell below 40% of the total harvest per farmer, but in several cases (3 to 8% depending on the study area), harvests were completely destroyed. Interestingly, during times of low nutritional availability in the natural habitat (dry season), crop damages in all four study areas were significantly less than during other seasons.
In all four study areas, crop protection strategies, such as active guarding in the fields, chasing wildlife with noise or fire torches or erecting barriers, were used. In some cases protection strategies were combined. Analysis of data revealed that traditional protection strategies did not reduce the costs of damage (Chapter 3). In some cases, costs of damage, on protected fields were even higher than for unprotected fields. Only in MA did strategic and cohesive guarding significantly reduce crop damage by wildlife species.
Besides damage in the fields, elephants also caused damage to properties in the villages. In search for stored staple crops, they damaged houses, grain stores and kitchens. Such damage was analysed in three study areas (SL, BA, MA) (Chapter 4). Although property damage occurred less frequently compared to crop damage in the fields, the mean cost of this damage was found to be double in BA/MA and four times higher in SL, compared to the costs of crop damage in the fields. It is further remarkable that property damage significantly increased towards the dry season, when the harvest was brought into the villages.
The findings of this study underpin the assumption that wildlife herbivores, especially elephants, are lured to fields and crops because the highly nutritional food (crop) being readily available. Traditional crop protection is cost and labour intensive and does not reduce the costs of damage. For this reason, crop types, which are thought to be not consumed by elephants were systematically tested on their attractiveness in field experiments in SL and BA (Chapter 5 and 6). In SL, lemon grass, ginger and garlic were proven to be less attractive to African elephants than maize and in BA, basil, turmeric, chamomile, coriander, mint, citronella and lemon grass were found to be less attractive to Asian elephants than rice.
The results of this doctoral thesis are relevant for the management of wildlife conservation as they can lead to new approaches to the mitigation of HWCs in African and Asian countries. Finally, specific needs for more scientific research in this field have been identified.
Endogenous AJAP1 associates with the cytoskeleton and attenuates angiogenesis in endothelial cells
(2017)
The adherens junction associated protein 1 (AJAP1, aka shrew-1) is presumably a type-I transmembrane protein localizing and interacting with the E-cadherin-catenin complex. In various tumors, AJAP1 expression is reduced or lost, including hepatocellular and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, and glial-derived tumors. The aberrant expression of AJAP1 is associated with alterations in cell migration, invasion, increased tumor growth, and tumor vascularization, suggesting AJAP1 as a putative tumor suppressor. We show that AJAP1 attenuates sprouting angiogenesis by reducing endothelial migration and invasion capacities. Further, we show for the first time that endogenous AJAP1 is associated with the microtubule cytoskeleton. This linkage is independent from cell confluency and stable during angiogenic sprouting in vitro. Our work suggests that AJAP1 is a putative negative regulator of angiogenesis, reducing cell migration and invasion by interfering with the microtubule network. Based on our results and those of other authors, we suggest AJAP1 as a novel tumor suppressor and diagnostic marker.
The structural diversity of terpenoids is limited by the isoprene rule which states that all primary terpene synthase products derive from methyl-branched building blocks with five carbon atoms. With this study we discover a broad spectrum of novel terpenoids with eleven carbon atoms as byproducts of bacterial 2-methylisoborneol or 2-methylenebornane synthases. Both enzymes use 2-methyl-GPP as substrate, which is synthesized from GPP by the action of a methyltransferase. We used E. coli strains that heterologously produce different C11-terpene synthases together with the GPP methyltransferase and the mevalonate pathway enzymes. With this de novo approach, 35 different C11-terpenes could be produced. In addition to eleven known compounds, it was possible to detect 24 novel C11-terpenes which have not yet been described as terpene synthase products. Four of them, 3,4-dimethylcumene, 2-methylborneol and the two diastereomers of 2-methylcitronellol could be identified. Furthermore, we showed that an E. coli strain expressing the GPP-methyltransferase can produce the C16-terpene 6-methylfarnesol which indicates the condensation of 2-methyl-GPP and IPP to 6-methyl-FPP by the E. coli FPP-synthase. Our study demonstrates the broad range of unusual terpenes accessible by expression of GPP-methyltransferases and C11-terpene synthases in E. coli and provides an extended mechanism for C11-terpene synthases.
Rho GTPases control fundamental cellular processes and Cdc42 is a well-studied member of the family that controls filopodia formation and cell migration. Although the regulation of Cdc42 activity by nucleotide binding is well documented, the mechanisms driving its proteostasis are not clear. Here, we demonstrate that the highly conserved, RING domain containing E3 ubiquitin ligase XIAP controls the protein stability of Cdc42. XIAP binds to Cdc42 and directly conjugates poly ubiquitin chains to the Lysine 166 of Cdc42 targeting it for proteasomal degradation. Depletion of XIAP led to an increased protein stability and activity of Cdc42 in normal and tumor cells. Consistently, loss of XIAP enhances filopodia formation in a Cdc42-dependent manner and this phenomenon phenocopies EGF stimulation. Further, XIAP depletion promotes lung colonization of tumor cells in mice in a Cdc42-dependent manner. These observations shed molecular insights into ubiquitin-dependent regulation of Cdc42 and that of actin cytoskeleton.
Cells within a tissue form highly complex, cellular interactions. This architecture is lost in two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. To close the gap between 2D cell cultures and in vivo tissues, three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures such as spheroids or embryoid bodies were developed. To fully take advantage of the third dimension, imaging techniques are essential. The emerging field of "image-based systems biology" exploits the information in images and builds a connection between experimental and theoretical investigation of biological processes. Such interdisciplinary approaches strongly depend on the development of protocols to establish 3D cell cultures, innovations in sample preparation, well-suited imaging techniques and quantitative segmentation methods.
Although 3D cell cultures and image-based systems biology provide a great potential, 2D methods are still not completely replaced by 3D methods. This is mainly due to methodical and technical hurdles. Therefore, this thesis provides a significant contribution to overcome these hurdles and to further develop 3D cell cultures. I established computational and experimental methods related to 3D aggregates and investigated fundamental, cellular processes such as adhesion, growth and differentiation.
The automatic segmentation method "PAS" and "LoS" were developed in the context of this thesis. They extract essential biological properties such as the projected area or features of cell nuclei from 2D or 3D images of 3D aggregates. Both algorithms show their accuracy robustly over image data from different samples and different microscopes. In addition, the superior performance of PAS and LoS was proven in a comparison with state-of-the-art methods.
The PAS approach served as an essential basis for investigating cellular processes such as adhesion and growth which are tightly regulated to contribute to tissue integrity. These processes are involved in the formation of spheroids. The temporally resolved data of spheroid formation of three mammary epithelial cell lines revealed differences in their formation dynamics as well as in the onset of spheroid formation phases (aggregation, compaction and growth). Despite these differences, adhesion- and growth-associated proteins such as E-cadherin, actin, microtubules, and the focal adhesion kinase show similar importance in a particular phase. Notably, certain proteins (e.g. E-Cadherin) contribute differently to spheroid formation of cells from different cell types in terms of cell adhesion and growth. Overall, analyses of the individual phases of spheroid formation revealed the temporal coordination of fundamental tissue-specific processes. The results contribute to a better understanding of the maintenance and disruption of tissue integrity.
An important but yet unknown process is how cells accomplish to arrange themselves against the gravitational force to form a spheroid. Live imaging with light sheet-based microscopy provides the best solution for a temporally and in particular spatially resolved investigation of spheroid formation. Although the imaging possibilities increase with this particular microscopy technique, available sample preparation methods are rare. Therefore, I have significantly optimized "agarose beaker" as preparation method for 3D long-term imaging of spheroid formation. The data show that upward movement of the cells takes place early. This movement is initiated in the centre of the initially flat cell layer. Subsequently, the cells move from the periphery of the cell layer toward the centre. Cells rearrange within the spheroid which is followed by growth. It is very likely that 3D aggregates form by adopting an energetically favoured, spherical shape by increasing cell-cell or cell-matrix contacts.
Besides the knowledge gained from the examination of the self-assembly process in different contexts, fully formed cellular aggregates can serve as basis to investigate differentiation processes. Differentiation guide cell fate specification during early embryonic development (i.e. preimplantation) and is not fully understood yet. Due to the lack of an in vitro system for preimplantation, I have developed "blastoids". These are 3D multicellular aggregates of mouse embryonic stem cells which represent important phases of preimplantation and beyond. In qualitative and quantitative analyses, a strong similarity was proven between blastoids and the inner cell mass of in vivo mouse embryos. Further results strongly suggest that both, the cell number and the trophectoderm play a subordinate role for cell fate decision during preimplantation. Furthermore, 3D neighbourhood analyses have shown that both, blastoids and mouse embryos, do not show a random "salt-and-pepper" pattern during differentiation. Instead, they show a yet unknown local clustering of cells with identical fates, suggesting local cell interactions that influence cell fate decision. Furthermore, the data indicate that the maturation of the epiblast in the later stages of preimplantation is initiated by an interaction between cells of the epiblast and the primitive endoderm.
Using image-based systems biology, I have investigated fundamental cellular processes such as adhesion, growth and differentiation in the context of tissue integrity and early embryonic development using 3D cellular aggregates. This highly interdisciplinary work is a major contribution to 3D cell biology and demonstrates how cells bind and interact within a complex system. The main methods developed in this thesis as well as the biological findings can be used not only in further biological but also in medical and pharmacological studies. They have the potential to advance our understanding of complex biological systems and to provide new opportunities for practical applications.
The pyrrolobenzodiazepine tilivalline (1) was originally identified in the human gut pathobiont Klebsiella oxytoca, the causative agent of antibiotic-associated hemorrhagic colitis. Here we show the identification of tilivalline and analogs thereof in the entomopathogenic bacterium Xenorhabdus eapokensis as well as the identification of its biosynthesis gene cluster encoding a bimodular non-ribosomal peptide synthetase. Heterologous expression of both genes in E. coli resulted in the production of 1 and from mutasynthesis and precursor directed biosynthesis 11 new tilivalline analogs were identified in X. eapokensis. These results allowed the prediction of the tilivalline biosynthesis being similar to that in K. oxytoca.
Im Kindes- und Jugendalter gehoert das Rhabdomyosarkom zu den haeufigsten Weichteilsarkomen. Bisher belaeuft sich das Therapieverfahren auf chirurgische Entfernung, gefolgt von Chemotherapie, bzw. bei nicht-operablen Faellen auf Radiotherapie und Chemotherapie, jedoch haben sich die Ueberlebenschancen fuer Patienten mit einer Erkrankung in metastasiertem oder rezidiviertem Stadium trotz intensiver Forschung ueber mehrere Jahrzehnte hinweg kaum gebessert und bleiben bei unter 30%. Neue therapeutische Strategien versuchen das Immunsystem des Patienten zu modulieren und dieses gezielter oder aggressiver gegen Tumorzellen zu machen. Nebst direkter Injektion von Zytokinen oder Antikoerpern bietet die adoptive Immunzelltherapie einen vielversprechenden Ansatz. In der vorliegenden Arbeit lag der Fokus auf Natuerlichen Killer- (NK) Zellen, da diese ein hohes zytotoxisches Potential gegenueber Tumorzellen aufweisen. Eine der groessten Herausforderungen der NK-Zellforschung ist die Breitstellung ausreichender Mengen an NK-Zellen mit optimaler antitumoraler Funktion fuer den klinischen Einsatz. Viele aktuell erprobte NK-Zellexpansionsstrategien basieren auf der Verwendung von Hilfs- oder Feeder-Zellen (Versorgerzellen), die jedoch vor der Applikation in Patienten aus dem finalen Produkt entfernt werden muessen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten Feeder-zellfreie NK-Zellexpansionsprotokolle unter Verwendung von Gammakettenzytokinen getestet werden.
Interleukin (IL-) 15 erwies sich dabei vor allem fuer die Vermehrung der NK-Zellen als besonders foerderlich. Im Vergleich dazu fielen die Expansionsraten mit IL-2 oder IL-21 geringer aus. Interessanterweise wurde der expansionsfoerdernde Effekt von IL-15 durch dauerhafte Anwesenheit von IL-21 im Kulturmedium gehemmt. Ein kurzer, dreitaegiger IL-21-Boost am Ende der Expansionsphase wirkte sich wiederum positiv auf die NK-Zellexpansionsraten aus. Zudem zeigte sich durch IL-21 ein vermehrtes Auftreten von NK-Zellen des reiferen CD16posCD56dim Phaenotyps, der die zytotoxische Funktion vermittelt. Bei Degranulationsuntersuchungen wurden eine IL-21-induzierte Exozytoseaktivitaet und die vermehrte Ausschuettung von Perforin und Granzym B, welche Apoptose in den Zielzellen ausloesen, beobachtet. Vor allem der dreitaegige Boost mit IL-21 bewirkte eine gesteigerte Zytotoxizitaet gegenueber Tumorzellen, insbesondere gegenueber Rhabdomyosarkomzellen.
Auf dieser Grundlage bot es sich an fuer die NK-Zellexpansion ein Zwei-Phasen-Protokoll anzuwenden, bestehend aus einer initialen Proliferationsphase mit IL-15 und einem anschliessendem IL-21-Boost, durch den die antitumorale Funktionalitaet der NK-Zellen gesteigert wurde. Dieses IL-15+21boost-Protokoll wurde mit anderen Kombinationen aus den Gammakettenzytokinen IL-2, IL-15 und IL-21 verglichen und stellte sich hinsichtlich der NK-Zellexpansionsraten, der Degranulationskapazitaet und der damit verbundenen Zytotoxizitaet als den anderen Protokollen ueberlegen heraus.
Zytokinexpandierte NK-Zellen zeigten eine hoehere Rezeptorexpression an ihren Oberflaechen als unstimulierte Zellen. Die Expansion mit dem IL-15+21boost-Protokoll bewirkte die hoechste Dichte des Todesrezeptors TRAIL, jedoch auch der inhibitorischen KIR2D-Rezeptorfamilie. Fuer andere Oberflaechenmarker ergab sich jeweils eine mittlere Expressionsdichte verglichen mit dem IL-15- bzw. dem IL-15+21-Expansionsprotokoll. Die Sekretion von proinflammatorischen Zytokinen wie Interferon-gamma (IFN-g) und Tumor-Nekrose-Faktor-alpha (TNF-a) wurde zudem verstaerkt durch IL-21 angeregt, aber ebenso die Sekretion des immunsupprimierenden IL-10.
Weiter wurden die zytoinexpandierten NK-Zellen zur UEberpruefung ihrer in vivo Funktionalitaet anhand eines praeklinischen Xenograftmodells unter Verwendung von NOD SCID IL-2-Rgamma-/- (NSG) Maeusen und der Technologie der in-vivo-Biolumineszenzbildgebung getestet. Dabei konnte beobachtet werden, dass die NK-Zellen das Wachstum luciferaseexprimierender humaner Rhabdomyosarkome verlangsamten. Die Wirksamkeit der IL-15+21boost-expandierten NK-Zellen zeigte sich vor allem in einem kombinierten Ansatz, bei dem die Tumore zunaechst mit ionisierender Strahlung behandelt wurden und residuale Rhabdomyosarkomzellen anschliessend durch den adoptiven Transfer von humanen NK-Zellen in ihrem Wachstum gehemmt waren, solange die NK-Zelltherapie andauerte. Somit stellte sich die Kombination aus Bestrahlung und NK-Zelltransfer als wirksamer im Einsatz gegen Rhabdomyosarkome heraus als die alleinige Behandlung der Tumore durch Radiotherapie.
Zusammengefasst konnte in dieser Arbeit ein NK-Zellexpansionsprotokoll entwickelt werden, dass durch den ausschliesslichen Einsatz von Gammakettenzytokinen zu einem funktionalen NK-Zellprodukt fuehrte, welches auch in vivo lytische Aktivitaet gegenueber Rhabdomyosarkomzellen aufwies.
The major vault protein (MVP) is the predominant constituent of ubiquitous, evolutionarily conserved large cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein particles of unknown function. Vaults are multimeric protein complexes with several copies of an untranslated RNA. Double labeling employing laser-assisted confocal microscopy and indirect immunofluorescence demonstrates partial colocalization of vaults with cytoskeletal elements in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and nerve growth factor (NGF)-treated neuronlike PC12 cells. Transfection of CHO and PC12 cells with a cDNA encoding the rat major vault protein containing a vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein epitope tag demonstrates that the recombinant protein is sorted into vault particles and targeted like endogenous MVPs. In neuritic extensions of differentiated PC12 cells, there is an almost complete overlap of the distribution of microtubules and vaults. A pronounced colocalization of vaults with filamentous actin can be seen in the tips of neurites. Moreover, in NGF-treated PC12 cells the location of vaults partially coincides with vesicular markers. Within the terminal tips of neurites vaults are located near secretory organelles. Our observations suggest that the vault particles are transported along cytoskeletal-based cellular tracks.
In der vorliegenden dreiteiligen Studie werden Mongolische Wüstenrennmäuse untersucht, deren Hörspektren im tieffrequenten Bereich und deren Unterscheidungsfähigkeiten von Kommunikationsrufen denen des Menschen ähneln. Die extrazelluläre Aktivität im primären auditorischen Kortex (AI) der narkotisierten Versuchstiere, evoziert durch Reintöne und arteigene Kommunikationsrufe, wird in der linken (LH) und rechten Gehirnhemisphäre (RH) aufgenommen. Es werden Multikanalelektroden (16 Eingangskanäle) verwendet, welche eine simultane Aufnahme der neuronalen Aktivitäten aller kortikalen Schichten ermöglichen. Zur Analyse der neuronalen Mechanismen werden Wellenformen einzelner Elektrodenkanäle und Aktivitätsprofile, bestehend aus den Wellenformen aller Elektrodenkanäle in einem Zeitfenster von 600 ms, auf Ebene von Aktionspotentialen (MUA), lokalen Feldpotentialen (LFP) und Current-source-density (CSD) Analysen, untersucht. Während MUAs die neuronalen Aktionspotentiale im Nahfeld der Elektrode reflektieren, umfassen die LFPs die summierten Potentiale (inhibitorisch und exzitatorisch) von Neuronen eines größeren Areals. Die CSDs hingegen werden durch die Integration von LFP-Wellenformen benachbarter, linear angeordneter Elektrodenkanäle berechnet und ermöglichen so eine Lokalisation der Ursprünge geräuschspezifischer Aktivitätsflüsse.
Im ersten Teilprojekt werden CSD-Profile in Antwort auf unterschiedliche Reintöne untersucht, um die Aktivitätskomponenten, die so genannten Sinks, für weiterführende Analysen zu quantifizieren. Es können zwei primäre (s1 und s2), drei mittlere (s3-s5) und vier späte (s6-s9) Sinks in einem Zeitfenster von 600 ms definiert werden. Eine Veränderung der Stimulusfrequenz eine Oktave über und unter der charakteristischen Frequenz (CF), beziehungsweise des Lautstärkepegels = 24 dB über der minimalen Schwelle, führt zu qualitativen Veränderungen in der CSD-Profilstruktur. Die Sink s7 wird durch Stimuli mit niedrigem Lautstärkepegel weniger verlässlich evoziert, wohingegen die Sink s9 bei Stimuli eine Oktave über der CF verlässlicher evoziert wird. Die Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass im AI die spektralen Informationen eine Oktave über und unter der CF asymmetrisch integriert werden.
Auf Einzelschichtebene konnte bereits gezeigt werden, dass spektrotemporale Eigenschaften von Stimuli durch MUAs schlechter reflektiert wurden als durch LFPs, was vermutlich eine direkte Konsequenz der unterschiedlichen Ursprünge der Signaltypen ist. Daher werden im zweiten Teilprojekt die spezifischen Unterschiede der MUA-, LFP- und CSD-Antworten auf Ebene kortikaler Schichten und kompletter laminarer Profile untersucht, um die Unterschiede und den Informationsgehalt der drei Signaltypen zu charakterisieren. Signifikante Unterschiede, welche durch zwei Reintöne und sieben Kommunikationssignale evoziert werden, können verstärkt im mittleren und späten Latenzbereich und in granulären und infragranulären Schichten vorgefunden werden. Der Grad der Rufspezifizität ist in LFP und CSD-Antworten im Vergleich zu demjenigen in MUA-Antworten größer. Die Segregationsleistung ist im Vergleich zu einzelnen kortikalen Schichten in den von kortikalen Kolumnen abgeleiteten laminaren Profilen um den Faktor 1,8-2,6 erhöht. Die Neuronenpopulationen einzelner kortikaler Kolumnen sind vermutlich wichtig für die Kodierung von Geräuschen, welche sich in ihren spektrotemporalen Eigenschaften unterscheiden.
Viele vorangegangene Studien konnten zeigen, dass die Gehirnhemisphären akustische Signale asymmetrisch verarbeiten. Daher werden im dritten Hauptteil die laminaren Profile der LH und RH quantitativ und statistisch verglichen. Die MUA-, CSD-Profile und im geringeren Maße auch die LFP-Profile zeigen systematische Unterschiede auf signifikantem Niveau in der Dauer, Onset Latenz und vertikalen Ausdehnung bestimmter Aktivitäten. Kommunikationsrufe evozieren in der LH, welche beim Menschen auf Sprachstimuli spezialisiert ist, im Vergleich zur RH komplexere CSD-Profile. Die neuronale MUA-, LFP- und CSD-Aktivitätsstärke ist in der RH für weniger komplexe Stimuli teilweise signifikant erhöht. Die Asymmetrie in der Auftrittsverlässlichkeit der Sink s6 lässt vermuten, dass sich die intrakolumnäre Vernetzung in Schicht VIa zwischen der LH und RH unterscheidet. Die wenigen, signifikanten und nicht systematischen Unterschiede zwischen den Sink-Parametern der LH und RH nach kortikaler Ausschaltung mit dem GABAA-Rezeptor Agonist Muscimol weisen darauf hin, dass die Hemisphärenasymmetrie durch Prozesse des ipsilateralen Kortex maßgeblich beeinflusst wird.
The adult mammalian heart is unable to regenerate lost myocardial tissue after injury. In contrast, some lower vertebrates including zebrafish are able to undergo complete epimorphic regeneration following multiple types of cardiac injury. During the process of regeneration, spared zebrafish cardiomyocytes in the vicinity of the injured area undergo dedifferentiation and proliferation, thereby giving rise to new cardiomyocytes which replace the injured muscle. Insights into the molecular networks controlling these regenerative processes might help to develop novel therapeutic strategies to restore cardiac performance in humans.
While TGF-β signaling has been implicated in zebrafish cardiac regeneration, the role of individual TGF-β ligands remains to be determined. Here, I report the opposing expression response of two TGF-β ligand genes, mstnb and inhbaa, during zebrafish heart regeneration. Using gain- and loss-of-function approaches, I show that these ligands exert opposite effects on cardiac regeneration and specifically on cardiomyocyte proliferation. Notably, I show that overexpression of mstnb and loss of inhbaa negatively regulate cardiomyocyte proliferation and therefore disturb cardiac regeneration. In contrast, loss of mstnb and activation of inhbaa not only promote physiological cardiomyocyte proliferation but also enhance cardiac regeneration. I also identify Inhbaa as a mitogen which promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation independent of the well-established Nrg-ErbB signaling. Mechanistically, I unraveled that Mstnb and Inhbaa function through alternate Activin type 2 receptor complexes to control the activities of the signal transducers, Smad2 and Smad3, thereby regulating cardiomyocyte proliferation.
Altogether, I reveal novel and unidentified opposite functions of two TGF-β ligands during cardiac development and regeneration, resulting in a pro-mitogenic as well as an anti-mitogenic effect on cardiomyocytes. This study should therefore stimulate further research on targeting specific TGF-β family members to generate novel regenerative therapeutic strategies.
Core Facilities (CF) for advanced light microscopy (ALM) have become indispensable support units for research in the life sciences. Their organizational structure and technical characteristics are quite diverse, although the tasks they pursue and the services they offer are similar. Therefore, throughout Europe, scientists from ALM‐CFs are forming networks to promote interactions and discuss best practice models. Here, we present recommendations for ALM‐CF operations elaborated by the workgroups of the German network of ALM‐CFs, German Bio‐Imaging (GerBI). We address technical aspects of CF planning and instrument maintainance, give advice on the organization and management of an ALM‐CF, propose a scheme for the training of CF users, and provide an overview of current resources for image processing and analysis. Further, we elaborate on the new challenges and opportunities for professional development and careers created by CFs. While some information specifically refers to the German academic system, most of the content of this article is of general interest for CFs in the life sciences.
Establishing a yeast-based screening system for discovery of human GLUT5 inhibitors and activators
(2017)
Human GLUT5 is a fructose-specific transporter in the glucose transporter family (GLUT, SLC2 gene family). Its substrate-specificity and tissue-specific expression make it a promising target for treatment of diabetes, metabolic syndrome and cancer, but few GLUT5 inhibitors are known. To identify and characterize potential GLUT5 ligands, we developed a whole-cell system based on a yeast strain deficient in fructose uptake, in which GLUT5 transport activity is associated with cell growth in fructose-based media or assayed by fructose uptake in whole cells. The former method is convenient for high-throughput screening of potential GLUT5 inhibitors and activators, while the latter enables detailed kinetic characterization of identified GLUT5 ligands. We show that functional expression of GLUT5 in yeast requires mutations at specific positions of the transporter sequence. The mutated proteins exhibit kinetic properties similar to the wild-type transporter and are inhibited by established GLUT5 inhibitors N-[4-(methylsulfonyl)-2-nitrophenyl]-1,3-benzodioxol-5-amine (MSNBA) and (−)-epicatechin-gallate (ECG). Thus, this system has the potential to greatly accelerate the discovery of compounds that modulate the fructose transport activity of GLUT5.
A full understanding of the origin, formation and degradation of volatile compounds that contribute to wine aroma is required before wine style can be effectively managed. Fractionation of grapes represents a convenient and robust method to simplify the grape matrix to enhance our understanding of the grape contribution to volatile compound production during yeast fermentation. In this study, acetone extracts of both Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries were fractionated and model wines produced by spiking aliquots of these grape fractions into model grape juice must and fermented. Non-targeted SPME-GCMS analyses of the wines showed that several medium chain fatty acid ethyl esters were more abundant in wines made by fermenting model musts spiked with certain fractions. Further fractionation of the non-polar fractions and fermentation of model must after addition of these fractions led to the identification of a mixture of polyunsaturated triacylglycerides that, when added to fermenting model must, increase the concentration of medium chain fatty acid ethyl esters in wines. Dosage-response fermentation studies with commercially-available trilinolein revealed that the concentration of medium chain fatty acid ethyl esters can be increased by the addition of this triacylglyceride to model musts. This work suggests that grape triacylglycerides can enhance the production of fermentation-derived ethyl esters and show that this fractionation method is effective in segregating precursors or factors involved in altering the concentration of fermentation volatiles.
Characterizing the hologenome of Lasallia pustulata and tracing genomic footprints of lichenization
(2017)
The lichen symbiosis – consisting of fungal mycobionts and photoautotroph photobionts (green algae or cyanobacteria) – is globally successful. It covers an estimated 6% of the global surface with habitats ranging from deserts to the arctic. This success is reflected in the diversity of the mycobionts, with around 21% of all fungal species participating in lichen symbioses that can be facultative or obligate. Lichenization is furthermore evolutionary old, with fossil evidence for lichens reaching back 415 million years. For an individual fungal lineage, the Lecanoromycetes, the lichenization happened around 300 million years ago. This longstanding symbiotic relationship and the diversity of observed symbiotic dependency make them promising models to study the genomic consequences that follow the establishment of symbioses. Despite this, only little is known about the genomic effects of lichenization and extreme symbiotic dependency. To fill this gap we sequenced the hologenome of the lichen Lasallia pustulata, where the mycobiont could so far not been cultivated, suggesting that it might be more dependent on its symbionts.
As the poor culturability of lichen symbionts renders their genomes inaccessible to standard sequencing practices, we evaluated the extent to which different metagenome sequencing- and de novo assembly-strategies can be used to sequence and reconstruct the genomes of the individual symbionts. We find that the abundances of individual genomes present in the L. pustulata hologenome vary substantially, with the mycobiont being most abundant. Using in silico generated data sets and real Illumina sequencing data for L. pustulata we observe that the skewed abundances prevent a contiguous assembly of the underrepresented genomes when using only short-read sequencing. We conclude that short-read sequencing can offer first insights into lichen hologenomes. The fragmentation of the reconstructions hinders downstream analyses into the genomic consequences of lichenization though, as these are focused on identifying the gain and loss of genes.
We thus demonstrate a hybrid genome assembly strategy that is based on both short- and long-read sequencing. We show that this strategy is capable of creating highly contiguous genome reconstructions, not only for the L. pustulata mycobiont but also its photobiont Trebouxia sp., along with substantial amounts of the bacterial microbiome. A subsequent analysis of the microbiome of L. pustulata – performed over nine different samples collected in Germany and Italy – showed a stable taxonomic composition across the geographic range. We find that Acidobacteriaceae, which are known to thrive in nutrient poor habitats, are the dominant taxa. These would make them well adapted for the co-habitation with L. pustulata, which largely grows on rocks. Whether the Acidobacteriaceae are functionally involved in the lichen symbiosis is unclear so far.
As further comparative genomic studies rely on comprehensive genome annotations, we evaluate the completeness and fidelity of the gene annotations for the mycobiont L. pustulata as well as four further Lecanoromycetes. This reveals that un- and mis-annotated genes impact all evaluated genomes, with artificially joined genes and unannotated genes having the largest impact. In addition to these factors we find that the sequence composition – especially G/C-rich inverted repeats – lead to sequencing errors that interfere with the gene prediction. We minimize the effects of these artifacts through a rigorous curation.
Given the extremely sparse taxon sampling of available green alga genomes, we focus our search for the genomic footprints of lichenization on the mycobionts. We compare the genomes of the Lecanoromycetes to their closest relatives, the Eurotiomycetes and Dothideomycetes. This reveals that the last common ancestor of the Lecanoromycetes has lost around 10% of its genes after they split from the non-lichenized ancestor they share with the Eurotiomycetes. These losses are furthermore enriched, showing an excessive loss of genes involved with the degradation of polysaccharides. The loss of these genes fits a change from an ancestral saprotrophic lifestyle that depends on degrading complex plant matter, to the symbiotic lifestyle that relies on simpler nutrients provided by the photobionts. While the last common ancestor of the Lecanoromycetes additionally gained around 400 genes these could so far not be further characterized due to a lack of functionally annotated reference data.
As the mycobiont L. pustulata could so far not been grown in axenic culture, we initially expected to find an extensive genomic remodeling compared to the other mycobionts that easily grow in culture. We do not find evidence for this. Analyzing both the contraction of gene families and the loss of genes, we observe that L. pustulata and Umbilicaria muehlenbergii – its close relative that is easily grown in culture – share most of these. Furthermore, L. pustulata does not show an excessive loss of evolutionary old and well-conserved genes. These effects are mirrored on the functional level, as neither gene family contractions nor gene losses show a functional enrichment. This is partially due to the lack of functional reference data, analogous to the genes gained in the Lecanoromycetes, rendering their characterization hard. Thus, further studies on the genomic consequences of lichenization and differences in symbiotic dependence will have to be conducted, including larger taxon sets. This will be even more important for the photobionts, as the Chlorophyta are even more sparsely sampled today, hindering an effective functional and evolutionary study.
Tissue size regulation is critical for the normal functioning of the organ as well as to prevent unwanted pathogenesis such as cancer. The Hippo signaling pathway is well known for its robust regulation of tissue growth by the negative regulation of its nuclear effectors YAP1 and WWTR1. In this study, I have described the role of Yap1/Wwtr1 in zebrafish development, with a primary emphasis on the cardiovascular system.
I have generated zebrafish yap1 and wwtr1 mutants by CRISPR/CAS9. The mutant alleles are likely to be nonfunctional due to a premature stop codon and they show evidence of nonsense-mediated decay. Given that Yap1 and Wwtr1 are closely related proteins and have overlapping functions, I am given the opportunity to perform combinatorial analysis of the mutations on zebrafish development. Together with molecular probing tools, high-throughput sequencing and high-resolution imaging, I showed that
1. Double yap1;wwtr1 mutants exhibit severe posterior elongation phenotype, but somitogenesis appears to proceed as usual.
2. Yap1 and Wwtr1 may play an important role in PCV development and secondary angiogenic sprouting. However, key experiments will be needed to elucidate the direct role of Yap1 and Wwtr1 on these processes.
3. wwtr1-/- larvae hearts have a reduction in trabeculation, but in mosaic WT hearts, mutant cardiomyocytes prefer to populate the trabecular layer. My studies revealed that the mutant compact wall could not support trabeculation, which explains the hypotrabeculation phenotype of wwtr1-/- hearts. Additionally, Wwtr1 is required for myocardial Notch activity and can inhibit compact wall cardiomyocytes from entering the trabecular layer.
In summary, the Hippo signaling pathway, through Yap1/Wwtr1 has important regulatory functions in growth control. My work has revealed a surprising role for Yap1/Wwtr1 in tissue morphogenesis such as posterior tail morphogenesis and specific developmental processes of the cardiovascular system. It will be of interest to elucidate the regulation of Yap1/Wwtr1 in individual cells that translates into the complex cellular behaviors that drives morphogenesis.
NMR spectroscopy is a powerful technique to study ribonucleic acids (RNAs) which are key players in a plethora of cellular processes. Although the NMR toolbox for structural studies of RNAs expanded during the last decades, they often remain challenging. Here, we show that solvent paramagnetic relaxation enhancements (sPRE) induced by the soluble, paramagnetic compound Gd(DTPA-BMA) provide a quantitative measure for RNA solvent accessibility and encode distance-to-surface information that correlates well with RNA structure and improves accuracy and convergence of RNA structure determination. Moreover, we show that sPRE data can be easily obtained for RNAs with any isotope labeling scheme and is advantageous regarding sample preparation, stability and recovery. sPRE data show a large dynamic range and reflect the global fold of the RNA suggesting that they are well suited to identify interaction surfaces, to score structural models and as restraints in RNA structure determination.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. Aging is among the greatest risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular disease comprises several diseases, for example myocardial infarction, elevated blood pressure and stroke. Many processes are known to promote or worsen cardiovascular disease and in the present study, cellular senescence and inflammatory activation were of special interest, as they have a strong association to aging and can be seen as hallmarks of cellular aging.
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are noncoding RNAs with a length of more than 200 nucleotides. In recent years, numerous regulatory functions were shown for these transcripts and lncRNAs were shown to directly interact with DNA, RNA and proteins. The long noncoding RNA H19 was among the first described noncoding RNAs and was initially shown to act as a tumor suppressor. More recently, several studies showed oncogenic roles for H19. In regards to the cardiovascular system, H19 was not analyzed before.
We show that H19 is the most profoundly downregulated lncRNA in endothelial cells of aged mice compared to young littermates. Microarray analysis of human primary endothelial cells upon pharmacological H19 depletion revealed an involvement of H19 in cell cycle regulation. Loss of H19 in human endothelial cells in vitro led to reduced proliferation and to increased senescence. H19 depletion was shown to counteract proliferation before, but none of the described mechanisms applied to endothelial cells. We show that the reduction in proliferative capacity and the pro-senescent function of H19 is most probably mediated by an upregulation of p16ink4A and p21 upon H19 depletion.
When we compared the angiogenic capacity of aortic endothelial cells from young and aged mice in an aortic ring assay, rings from aged mice showed a reduced cumulative sprout length. Interestingly, pharmacological inhibition of H19 in aortic rings of young animals, where H19 is highly expressed, was sufficient to reduce the cumulative sprout length to levels we observed from aged animals. Furthermore, overexpression of human H19 in aortic rings of aged mice, where H19 is poorly expressed, rescued the impaired angiogenic capacity of aged endothelial cells.
We generated inducible endothelial-specific H19 knockout mice (H19iEC-KO) and subjected these animals to hind limb ischemia surgery followed by perfusion analysis in the hind limbs by laser-doppler velocimetry and histological analysis. Perfusion in the operated hind limb was increased in H19iEC-KO compared to Ctrl littermates, which was in contrast to a reduction in capillary density in the operated hind limbs of H19iEC-KO animals compared to Ctrl littermates and to our previous results. Analysis of arteriogenesis revealed an increase in collateral growth upon EC-specific H19 depletion in the ischemic hind limbs, which explains the increase in perfusion despite the reduction in capillary density. Further characterization of the animals revealed an increase in leukocyte infiltration into the tissue in the ischemic hind limbs upon endothelial-specific H19 depletion, indicating a potential role of H19 in inflammatory tissue activation.
Reanalysis of the microarray data from human primary endothelial cells upon H19 depletion revealed an association of H19 with inflammatory signaling and more specifically with IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling. Analysis of cell surface adhesion molecule expression revealed an upregulation of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on mRNA level and an increase of the abundance of the two proteins on the cell surface of human primary endothelial cells. Consequently, adhesion of isolated human monocytes to human primary endothelial cells was increased upon H19 depletion in vitro. Interestingly, TNF-α mediated inflammatory activation of primary human endothelial cells repressed H19 expression. H19 did not function via previously described mechanisms. We excluded a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) function for H19 in endothelial cells and showed that miR-675, which is processed from H19, does not play a role in the endothelium. Furthermore, H19 did not regulate previously described genes or pathways.
Analysis of transcription factor activity upon H19 depletion and overexpression revealed a differential activity of STAT3. STAT3 phosphorylation at TYR705 and thus activation was increased upon H19 depletion. Inhibition of STAT3 activation using a small compound inhibitor abolished the effects of H19 depletion on mRNA expression of p21, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 and on proliferation, indicating that the effects of H19 are at least partially mediated via STAT3. STAT3 was shown to have positive effects on the cardiovascular system before, most likely due to upregulation of VEGF in a STAT3-dependent manner. We were not able to confirm previously described mechanisms for STAT3 in the present study and propose a new mechanism of action for the H19-dependent regulation of STAT3. Taken together, these results identify the long noncoding RNA H19 as a pivotal regulator of endothelial cell function. Figure 38 summarizes the described functions of H19 in endothelial cells.
We generated transgenic tomato plants with altered expression of heat stress transcription factor HsfA1. Plants with 10-fold overexpression of HsfA1 (OE plants) were characterized by a singleHsfA1 transgene cassette, whereas plants harboring a tandem inverted repeat of the cassette showed cosuppression (CS plants) by posttranscriptional silencing of the HsfA1 gene connected with formation of small interfering RNAs. Under normal growth conditions, major developmental parameters were similar for wild-type (WT), OE, and CS plants. However, CS plants and fruits were extremely sensitive to elevated temperatures, because heat stress-induced synthesis of chaperones and Hsfs was strongly reduced or lacking. Despite the complexity of the plant Hsf family with at least 17 members in tomato, HsfA1 has a unique function as master regulator for induced thermotolerance. Using transient reporter assays with mesophyll protoplasts from WT tomato, we demonstrated that plasmid-encoded HsfA1 and HsfA2 were well expressed. However, in CS protoplasts the cosuppression phenomenon was faithfully reproduced. Only transformation with HsfA2 expression plasmid led to normal expression of the transcription factor and reporter gene activation, whereas even high amounts of HsfA1 expression plasmids were silenced. Thermotolerance in CS protoplasts was restored by plasmid-borne HsfA2, resulting in expression of chaperones, thermoprotection of firefly luciferase, and assembly of heat stress granules.
We have recently shown that caspase-8 is a new substrate of Polo-like kinase 3 (Plk3) that phosphorylates the protein on residue T273 thereby promoting its pro-apoptotic function. In the present study we aimed to investigate the clinical relevance of Plk3 expression and phosphorylation of caspase-8 at T273 in patients with anal squamous cell carcinoma (SSC) treated with 5-fluorouracil and mitomycin C-based chemoradiotherapy (CRT). Immunohistochemical detection of the markers was performed in pretreatment biopsy specimens of 95 patients and was correlated with clinical/histopathologic characteristics including HPV-16 virus load/p16INK4a expression and cumulative incidence of local and distant failure, cancer specific survival (CSS), and overall survival (OS). We observed significant positive correlations between Plk3 expression, pT273 caspase-8 signal, and levels of HPV-16 virus DNA load/p16INK4a detection. Patients with high scores of Plk3 and pT273 caspase-8 showed increased local control (p = 0.011; p = 0.001), increased CSS (p = 0.011; p = 0.013) and OS (p = 0.024; p = 0.001), while the levels of pT273 caspase-8 were significantly associated (p = 0.033) with distant metastases. In multivariate analyses Plk3 expression remained significant for local failure (p = 0.018), CSS (p = 0.016) and OS (p = 0.023). Moreover, a combined HPV16 DNA load and Plk3 or pT273 caspase-8 variable revealed a significant correlation to decreased local failure (p = 0.001; p = 0.009), increased CSS (p = 0.016; p = 0.023) and OS (p = 0.003; p = 0.003). In conclusion these data indicate that elevated levels of Plk3 and pT273 caspase-8 are correlated with favorable clinical outcome in patients with anal SCC treated with concomitant CRT.
Regulation of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor trafficking in response to neuronal activity is critical for synaptic function and plasticity. Here, we show that neuronal activity induces the binding of ephrinB2 and ApoER2 receptors at the postsynapse to regulate de novo insertion of AMPA receptors. Mechanistically, the multi-PDZ adaptor glutamate-receptor-interacting protein 1 (GRIP1) binds ApoER2 and bridges a complex including ApoER2, ephrinB2, and AMPA receptors. Phosphorylation of ephrinB2 in a serine residue (Ser-9) is essential for the stability of such a complex. In vivo, a mutation on ephrinB2 Ser-9 in mice results in a complete disruption of the complex, absence of ApoER2 downstream signaling, and impaired activity-induced and ApoER2-mediated AMPA receptor insertion. Using compound genetics, we show the requirement of this complex for long-term potentiation (LTP). Together, our findings uncover a cooperative ephrinB2 and ApoER2 signaling at the synapse, which serves to modulate activity-dependent AMPA receptor dynamic changes during synaptic plasticity.
The cardiovascular system (CVS) consists of heart and blood vessels, forming a close circulatory loop. All tissues depend on the nutrients and molecular oxygen (O2) delivered by the blood. Therefore, it is not surprising that the CVS is one of the first working systems and the heart is the first functional organ in the forming embryo (Baldwin 1996). The building blocks of blood vessels are endothelial cells (ECs), which form the endothelium, a specialized epithelium that defines the luminal surface of the vessels (Pugsley and Tabrizchi 2000). The process of blood vessel development comprises several steps. The first events occurring are the formation of new vessels de novo to constitute the primary vascular loop known as vasculogenesis. During vasculogenesis the vascular precursors, known as angioblasts, migrate and coalesce to form the axial vessels. Subsequently, the main vessels undergo a specification step where they acquire either arterial or venous identity. As the embryo increases in size, the main vascular loop needs to increase in complexity. In order to reach all the different parts of the developing organs, new blood vessels are formed from pre-existing ones, a phenomenon known as angiogenesis (Gore et al. 2012).
Mature blood cells have a short lifespan. Therefore, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are required throughout lifetime to constantly form new blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Interestingly, endothelial and immune cells development have been shown to converge at different points during their development, one of which is developmental hematopoiesis. During embryogenesis, definitive hematopoiesis occurs in a tissue called hemogenic endothelium (HE), a specialized subset of ECs at the ventral wall of the dorsal aorta (DA). HE acquires hematopoietic potentials and gives rise to HSCs, through a process known as endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition (EHT). During EHT, these specialized ECs extrude from DA and colonize the so-called aorta-gonadmesonephros (AGM) region, forming the native HSCs (Paik and Zon 2010).
As vascular development requires different steps, the molecular pathways involved are many. The Notch signaling pathway has been demonstrated to be one of the main players in vascular development. Among other functions, Notch signaling has been shown to be important during EHT. In the murine model, Runx1, a master regulator of HSC formation, has been shown to be transcriptionally regulated by NOTCH1 through GATA2 activation. This observation was later corroborated by knockdown studies for notch1a and notch1b in zebrafish (Butko, Pouget, and Traver 2016). Another essential pathway for vascular development is the HIF pathway. Hif-1α, Hif-1β and Hif-2α mouse mutants show severe vascular defects that result in early embryonic lethality (Simon and Keith 2008), which hinders a deep analysis of the phenotypes incurring in the mutant embryos. In addition, deletion of Hif-1α specifically in myeloid cells showed abnormalities in the motility, invasiveness, and adhesion of macrophages (Cramer et al. 2003). Intriguingly, Hif-1α deletion in vascular endothelial cadherin-expressing cells led to a significant but partial reduction of HSC number, suggesting that other players may be involved in this pathway (Imanirad et al. 2014).
Zebrafish embryos have been shown to be tolerant to hypoxia at very early stages of development (Padilla and Roth 2001). Also, zebrafish embryos develop externally and this allows to finely manipulate the environment where they grow (Lieschke and Currie 2007). These features make zebrafish an ideal model to investigate how hypoxia and Hif transcription factors affect vertebrate vascular development. In this study, I will examine the impact of hypoxia on zebrafish vascular development. Specifically, I will dissect the role of hif-1α in macrophage-EC interactions during vascular development and repair. Moreover, I show redundant functions for hif-1α and hif-2α in HSC development upstream of Notch signaling.
Secretins form multimeric channels across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that mediate the import or export of substrates and/or extrusion of type IV pili. The secretin complex of Thermus thermophilus is an oligomer of the 757-residue PilQ protein, essential for DNA uptake and pilus extrusion. Here, we present the cryo-EM structure of this bifunctional complex at a resolution of ~7 Å using a new reconstruction protocol. Thirteen protomers form a large periplasmic domain of six stacked rings and a secretin domain in the outer membrane. A homology model of the PilQ protein was fitted into the cryo-EM map. A crown-like structure outside the outer membrane capping the secretin was found not to be part of PilQ. Mutations in the secretin domain disrupted the crown and abolished DNA uptake, suggesting a central role of the crown in natural transformation.
Deciphering the ecological functions of fungal root endophytes based on their natural occurrence
(2017)
Plants are colonized by a large diversity of fungi, some residing on the surface and others penetrating the plant tissues, the latter referred to as fungal endophytes (endon Gr., within; phyton, plant; de Bary 1879). Despite the saprotrophic potential of fungal endophytes, they are not found to cause visible disease symptoms to the host. Plants are colonized simultaneously by various fungal species, which form rich and diverse endophytic assemblages. Although it is hypothesized that fungal endophytes contribute to the fitness of their hosts and to the functioning of ecosystems, the ecological function of fungal endophytic assemblages remains cryptic. The aims of this doctoral thesis are to gain insight to the ecological functions of root fungal endophytes, by deciphering their roles in ecosystems based on their natural occurrence and the structure of their assemblages. The thesis focuses on studying the diversity and structure of the endophytic mycobiome within roots of two annual and widespread plant hosts Microthlapsi perfoliatum and M. erraticum (Brassicaceae) in several locations across northern Mediterranean and central Europe. The thesis is composed by six Chapters, with a primary focus on Chapter 1, 2 and 3.
Chapter 1 (Glynou et al., 2016) aimed at characterizing the diversity of fungal endophytes in roots at a continental scale and at assessing the factors affecting the structure of endophytic assemblages with the use of cultivation-based methods. For that, root samples were collected from 52 plant populations, along with a collection of soil, bioclimatic, geographic and host data. Cultivation of surface-sterilized root samples on culture media and isolation of fungal colonies in pure culture generated 1,998 fungal colonies. Grouping of sequences into Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs), based on the 97% similarity of the isolates’ rDNA Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequence, generated in total 296 OTUs, representing taxa mostly within the phylum Ascomycota with a minor representation of Basidiomycota. Endophytic assemblages were mostly correlated with variation in bioclimatic conditions. Interestingly, despite the large diversity revealed, the assemblages were dominated by only six OTUs related to the orders Hypocreales, Pleosporales and Helotiales, which had a widespread distribution across populations but with some following patterns of ecological preferences.
Chapter 2 aimed at characterizing the uncultivable fraction of the root fungal endophytic diversity, which was not possible to capture in Chapter 1. High-throughput sequencing via the
Illumina Miseq platform was implemented in 43 of the 52 original populations and mostly in the same root samples. In comparison with the cultivation-based approach, the HTS managed to cover the overall diversity within samples. It revealed a large non-cultivated endophytic diversity but the same cultivable fungi dominated assemblages. Moreover, the endophytic diversity was grouped mostly within fungal orders with demonstrated ability to grow in culture and taxonomically related groups were found to have divergent ecological preferences.
The genetic identity of the most abundant OTUs was further investigated in Chapter 3 (Glynou et al., 2017), aiming to unravel genotypic variability, which was possibly overlooked due to the use of lTS, as a universal genetic marker, and could explain their high abundance and widespread distribution. Multi-locus gene sequencing and AFLP profiling for the five most abundant OTUs suggested a low within-OTU genetic variability and show that these fungi have ubiquitous distribution and are not limited by environmental conditions within the ecological ranges of the study. A selection of endophytes frequently isolated in Chapter 1 was functionally characterized in Chapter 4 (Kia et al., 2017) based on the isolates’ traits and interactions with plants. In Chapter 5 (Cheikh-Ali et al., 2015) fungal cultures of Exophiala sp. with differential colony structure where investigated for their production of secondary metabolites. Moreover, Chapter 6 (Maciá-Vicente et al., 2016) comprises the description of the new species Exophiala radicis based on morphological and molecular characteristics.
Compilation of all results shows that the fungal endophytic diversity in roots of Microthlaspi spp. is high but few widespread OTUs dominate the assemblages, and have unlimited dispersal ability. These fungi seem also to have a wide niche breadth and are not affected by environmental filtering. The findings indicate that the local environment but also processes of competitive exclusion determine the structure of endophytic assemblages. In addition, the fungal endophytes associated with Microthlapsi spp. likely have saprotrophic activity however the interactions with plants are likely context-dependent. Further research is needed to assess the biotic interactions among endophytes and their effect on the structure of fungal endophytic assemblages. Ultimately, the findings of this thesis are useful to shed light on the processes underlying the structure of endophytic assemblages. They also upraise the need to describe diversity by combining genetic, metabolic and physiological data, in order to disentangle the elusive ecological roles of the endophytic mycobiome.
Ziel dieser Dissertation war es, die biologische Rolle der Autophagie für die Entwicklung, Alterung und mitochondriale Qualitätskontrolle in dem Ascomyceten Podospora anserina zu untersuchen. Folgende Ergebnisse wurden dabei erzielt:
1. Der Verlust einer funktionalen Autophagie-Maschinerie ist in P. anserina mit einem Defekt der Sporen-Entwicklung bzw. -Keimung charakterisiert.
2. Es konnten drei Methoden zur Untersuchung der Autophagie in P. anserina etabliert werden: 1) Die Verwendung eines Gfp::PaAtg8-Stamms ermöglicht die Fluoreszenzmikroskopische Bestimmung der Autophagosomen-Anzahl; 2) Die phänotypische Charakterisierung des PaAtg1-Deletionsstamms unter verschiedenen Stressbedingungen (z. B. Stickstoffmangel, Rapamycin) liefert Hinweise auf eine mögliche Autophagie-abhängige Stressadaption; 3) Die Verwendung des „GFPcleavage assays“ ermöglicht einen quantitativen Nachweis genereller und selektiver Autophagie (hier: Mitophagie).
3. In zwei voneinander unabhängigen Experimenten wurde ein altersabhängiger Anstieg der Autophagie für P. anserina demonstriert: Das Autophagie-Niveau nimmt in gealterten P. anserina-Kulturen zu. Gleichzeitig resultiert der Verlust der Autophagie in ∆PaAtg1 in eine reduzierte Lebensspanne. Unter Stressbedingungen (hier: Stickstoffmangel) wird dieser positive Einfluss der Autophagie auf die Lebensspanne im Wildtyp sogar noch verstärkt.
4. Der unerwartet „gesunde“ Phänotyp der PaSod3-Deletionsmutante ist abhängig von einer funktionalen Autophagie-Maschinerie. Der Mitophagie wurde eine besondere Rolle als Kompensationsmechanismus für den Verlust von PaSOD3 zugeteilt, da das Mitophagie-Niveau in dieser Mutante erhöht ist. Am Beispiel dieser Mutante, für die ein erhöhter Superoxid-Ausstoß nachgewiesen wurde, konnte eine Dosis-abhängige Wirkung von ROS in P. anserina identifiziert werden. Eine geringe zelluläre ROSMenge verursacht eine mitohormetische Reaktion, die eine Induktion der Mitophagie zur Folge hat und sich positiv auf den Organismus auswirkt. Übersteigt die zelluläre ROS-Dosis einen kritischen Punkt, kommt es zur Induktion des autophagischen Zelltods und damit zum vorzeitigen Tod des Individuums.
5. Der Verlust der PaCLPXP-Protease führt zu Beeinträchtigungen in der Funktion und Zusammensetzung der mitochondrialen Atmungskette. Dieses Defizit im Energiemetabolismus wird über eine Induktion der AOX, vor allem aber über eine ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 127 gesteigerte Autophagie kompensiert. Die deutlich verlängerte Lebensspanne der verschiedenen PaClpXP-Deletionsmutanten (∆PaClpX, ∆PaClpP und ∆PaClpXP) ist abhängig von einer funktionalen Autophagie-Maschinerie. Interessanterweise konnte keine kompensatorische Funktion der Autophagie oder Mitophagie für den Verlust der mitochondrialen i-AAA-Protease PaIAP in P. anserina nachgewiesen werden.
Autophagie/Mitophagie stellt einen übergeordneten Qualitätskontrollmechanismus in P. anserina dar, der den Organismus sehr effektiv vor zellulären Schäden und Dysfunktionen bewahrt und einen positiven Einfluss auf die Alterung, Entwicklung und Energieversorgung einnimmt.
Tissue integrity is defined by the composition and connection of cells as a structural and functional unit. It is modulated by a magnitude of processes including differentiation, survival, controlled death and adhesion of cells. Besides, external factors such as physical forces are also involved. A suitable model system to study all modalities of tissue integrity is the mammary gland. Postnatally and within the reproductive phase, the mammary gland undergoes morphological and functional modifications that periodically loosen or strengthen tissue integrity. An important point in the development of the mammary gland is the regression during weaning, also termed involution. The transition from lactation to involution is important for a controlled loss of tissue integrity. In this transition, collective cell death is initiated but not yet prominent enabling the mammary gland to fully recover lactation.
In this thesis, modalities of tissue integrity were investigated using three-dimensional cell cultures (i.e. spheroids) and the mammary gland as model systems. In the context of this thesis, I established (1) an immunofluorescence staining protocol and its detailed evaluation. Furthermore, I studied (2) the role of cell survival during mammary gland development, (3) the effect of physical forces that modulate tissue integrity and (4) the contribution of proteins to cell adhesion and growth.
Since a homogeneous fluorescence stain of the specimen is necessary for quantitative analysis, an immunofluorescence staining protocol was established to stain large spheroids in toto. The evaluation contributes qualitative and quantitative criteria that judge the specificity, intensity and homogeneity of the stain. Based on this approach, it was possible to demonstrate the morphological and functional characteristics that spheroids share with the mammary gland in vivo. These characteristics included the synthesis of extracellular matrix, the development of polarized acinar structures and lactogenic differentiation.
The role of cell survival during mammary gland development was analyzed by means of the expression profile of the pro-survival protein BAG3. The expression of BAG3 differed in the progress of mammary gland development. While the expression was low during pregnancy, it rose in the lactation phase and peaked within the first days of involution, indicating that BAG3 is associated with early involution in the mammary gland. In vitro experiments related the expression of BAG3 to cell survival in mammary epithelial cells.
Physical forces naturally occur during developmental processes influence tissue integrity during the initiation of mammary gland involution. The influence of physical force applied as compression on mammary epithelial spheroids was investigated. A morphological analysis showed that following a lag, the cell nuclei volume changed upon compression. A short-term compression induced the activation of caspases. A prolonged compression reduced the activity of caspases. This suggests the induction of a process that allows cells the adaption to changing environmental conditions. BAG3 is known to be involved in mechanical stress-induced autophagy, also known as chaperone assisted selective autophagy (CASA). Compression of spheroids did not induce CASA. The experimentally applied strain was not comparable to the strain found in the alveolar cells during involution in vivo. Thus, whether or not CASA is activated during mammary gland involution remains elusive. Nevertheless, the methodical approach to apply compression on spheroids in vitro is a model to study the influence of physical forces on cell aggregates.
Apart from cell survival and physical forces, growth and adhesion of cells affect tissue integrity. A spheroid formation assay and subsequent data analysis and computational modeling enabled the investigation of these processes in a non-adhesive environment. The analysis suggested that spheroid formation follows a reaction-controlled process, in which cells do not necessarily form a connection when they collide. The loss of function of either E-cadherin or actin strongly inhibited the formation of a spheroid. The analysis further revealed that neither E-cadherin nor actin influence the chance of the cells to form a connection when they collide. Both molecules are more important in stabilizing established connections. Depolymerization of microtubules still allowed spheroids to form, but the formation was decelerated and growth of the final spheroids was inhibited. The results from computational modeling suggested that microtubules act on cell adhesion through different mechanisms, which also vary among different cell types. The inhibition of FAK phosphorylation at Y397, a downstream target of integrin signaling, and the analysis of FAK protein levels in spheroids showed that integrin-mediated signaling is not prominent in three-dimensional spheroids formed from non-invasive cells. A deletion of BAG3 gene expression increased the number of dead cells in forming spheroids suggesting that BAG3 predominantly affects cell survival.
The results of this thesis identified and characterized adhesion- and survival-associated proteins that are important for tissue integrity. This thesis suggests that a BAG3-dependent cell survival mechanism is prominent at the beginning of mammary gland involution. Future studies will have to identify the related factors and inducers of tissue integrity loss in the mammary gland. This will shed light on the physiology of the organ and could explain the disorders that destroy its integrity. In addition, this thesis contributes to a better understanding of spontaneous cell aggregation, the aggregate organization and implies a role of cell migration in these processes. Future studies that focus on three-dimensional cell migration could explain, how cell migration is promoted and to which extent it supports tissue integrity.
Savannas provide essential ecosystem services for human well-being in West Africa. Thus, ecosystem change not only directly affects biodiversity but also human livelihoods. Human land use considerably shaped these savanna ecosystems for millennia, particularly agriculture, livestock grazing, logging and the collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). NTFPs are wild plant products and comprise all organic matter from herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees (excluding timber). Current increasing land use pressure through fast demographic changes is widely esteemed as a severe threat for savanna biodiversity and the socio-economy of rural communities. In consideration of the pivotal role of NTFP species for biodiversity and livelihoods, it is important to evaluate the effect of increasing land use change on savanna vegetation and on its provisioning service for human well-being. Thus, the major aim of this thesis is to investigate the impacts of land use intensification on vegetation composition, diversity and function and its consequences for provisioning ecosystem services (NTFPs) and human well-being in a West African savanna.
The research for this study was conducted in the North Sudanian vegetation zone of south-eastern Burkina Faso, where population growth exceeds the nationwide trend. Generally, Burkina Faso belongs to the worldwide poorest countries, where nearly one quarter of the population suffers from malnutrition (FAO 2014). The integration of NTFPs and particularly wild food species into rural household economies is, thus, an important measure in the national combat against poverty and food insecurity (FAO 2014). Against this background, I focus on vegetation changes, the economic importance of NTFPs as well as the decrease and substitution of wild food species in this study.
Vegetation resurveys of different vegetation types since the early 1990s showed that land use change led to more pronounced changes in the herbaceous than in the woody vegetation layer. Most woody vegetation types stayed stable in species composition and richness, even though some highly useful tree species (Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa) declined in some woody vegetation types. In contrast, in most herbaceous vegetation types species richness increased and species composition considerably changed. This change might be explained by a general ruderalisation process through a pronounced increase of wide-ranging herbaceous species. However, in spite of a general species increase in the herbaceous layer, a decrease of preferred herbaceous fodder species was found. Thus, the decline of useful species in both layers is alarming. Herbaceous vegetation types also showed more pronounced changes in plant functional trait characteristics in comparison to woody vegetation types. However, an increase of smaller plant species and species with a high diaspore terminal velocity (VTerm) was found in both vegetation layers. Since these two trait responses are generally related to grazing and browsing, the strong increase of livestock herds is likely to be responsible for the detected vegetation changes.
In addition to the vegetation study, interviews showed that all useful food species were widely considered to decline. The two economically most important tree species, the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) and the locust bean tree (Parkia biglobosa) that contribute with 70% to wild food income, were considered among the most declining species of all cited wild food species. On this matter, local perceptions of species decline and results from field observations are in accordance. However, a wide range of cited substitutes indicated a great knowledge on alternative plant species in the area. Most wild food species are, however, substituted by other highly valued wild food species. Although our results suggest that rural communities are able to cope with the decrease or absence of wild food species, growing decline of one species would concurrently increase the pressure on other native food species. Therefore, the need to counteract the decrease of highly useful wild food species should be of high priority in management measures. In general, I showed that NTFPs are an essential component in rural households, since it contributed with 45 % to total household income. Significant differences in NTFP dependency between the two investigated villages and across the three main ethnic groups were detected, reflecting different traditional uses and harvesting practices. In general, it was shown that poorer households depend more on NTFP income than wealthier households. Against the background of this study, management strategies for agroforestry systems and poverty alleviation should consider local differences, and ethnicity-dependent NTFP-use patterns.
Overall, the combination of field studies on temporal and functional vegetation change with socio-economic and ethno-botanic interviews increases the knowledge on qualitative and quantitative vegetation changes and on the consequences for rural populations. This thesis gives a thorough insight into decreasing trends of economically valued plant species and thus gives evidence on the consequences of vegetation changes for ecosystem services of West African savanna ecosystems. Further, different NTFP-dependencies and use preferences according to socio-economic and cultural variables, such as ethnicity, present a valuable basis for specific decision-making and should be considered in management plans.
SR proteins function in nuclear pre-mRNA processing, mRNA export, and translation. To investigate their cellular dynamics, we developed a quantitative assay, which detects differences in nucleocytoplasmic shuttling among seven canonical SR protein family members. As expected, SRSF2 and SRSF5 shuttle poorly in HeLa cells but surprisingly display considerable shuttling in pluripotent murine P19 cells. Combining individual-resolution cross-linking and immunoprecipitation (iCLIP) and mass spectrometry, we show that elevated arginine methylation of SRSF5 and lower phosphorylation levels of cobound SRSF2 enhance shuttling of SRSF5 in P19 cells by modulating protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions. Moreover, SRSF5 is bound to pluripotency-specific transcripts such as Lin28a and Pou5f1/Oct4 in the cytoplasm. SRSF5 depletion reduces and overexpression increases their cytoplasmic mRNA levels, suggesting that enhanced mRNA export by SRSF5 is required for the expression of pluripotency factors. Remarkably, neural differentiation of P19 cells leads to dramatically reduced SRSF5 shuttling. Our findings indicate that posttranslational modification of SR proteins underlies the regulation of their mRNA export activities and distinguishes pluripotent from differentiated cells.
Protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs) support endoplasmic reticulum redox protein folding and cell-surface thiol-redox control of thrombosis and vascular remodeling. The family prototype PDIA1 regulates NADPH oxidase signaling and cytoskeleton organization, however the related underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here we show that genes encoding human PDIA1 and its two paralogs PDIA8 and PDIA2 are each flanked by genes encoding Rho guanine-dissociation inhibitors (GDI), known regulators of RhoGTPases/cytoskeleton. Evolutionary histories of these three microsyntenic regions reveal their emergence by two successive duplication events of a primordial gene pair in the last common vertebrate ancestor. The arrangement, however, is substantially older, detectable in echinoderms, nematodes, and cnidarians. Thus, PDI/RhoGDI pairing in the same transcription orientation emerged early in animal evolution and has been largely maintained. PDI/RhoGDI pairs are embedded into conserved genomic regions displaying common cis-regulatory elements. Analysis of gene expression datasets supports evidence for PDI/RhoGDI coexpression in developmental/inflammatory contexts. PDIA1/RhoGDIα were co-induced in endothelial cells upon CRISP-R-promoted transcription activation of each pair component, and also in mouse arterial intima during flow-induced remodeling. We provide evidence for physical interaction between both proteins. These data support strong functional links between PDI and RhoGDI families, which likely maintained PDI/RhoGDI microsynteny along > 800-million years of evolution.
Surface water can contain a complex mixture of organic micropollutants (i.e. residues of pharmaceuticals or biocides). Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) do not completely remove a broad range of anthropogenic chemicals and therefore represent a leading point source. To upgrade WWTPs, technical solutions based on oxidative and sorptive processes have been developed and successfully implemented. Acknowledging these substantial advances, this thesis focuses on another key topic and aims to investigate whether improved biological treatment processes likewise effectively remove anthropogenic micropollutants from wastewater. The work conducted on this topic was part of two European research projects (ATHENE, ENDETECH).
The ATHENE project aimed to go beyond the state-of-the-art by developing biological wastewater treatment processes that exploit the full potential of biodegradation. With the objective to explore the potential of complementary strictly anaerobic conditions within the biological wastewater treatment, combinations of aerobic and anaerobic treatments on site of a WWTP were implemented. Based on pre-experiments, two promising treatment combinations were selected for a more comprehensive evaluation. An aerobic treatment was paired with an anaerobic pre-treatment under iron-reducing conditions, and an activated sludge treatment was combined with an anaerobic post-treatment under substrate-limiting conditions. For the evaluation of these processes, an effect-based assessment was applied and combined with chemical data of 31 selected target organic micropollutants as well as ten metabolites. To assess the removal of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), yeast based reporter gene assays covering seven receptor-mediated mechanisms of action including (anti-)estrogenicity, (anti-) androgenicity, retinoid-like, and dioxin-like activity were conducted. Furthermore, the removal of unspecific toxicity (Microtox assay) and oxidative stress response as a marker for reactive toxicity (AREc32 assay) were analyzed to cover micropollutants acting via a non-specific mechanism of action. Moreover, to assess toxicity of the whole effluent in vivo, standardized in vivo bioassays with four aquatic model species (Desmodesmus subspicatus, Daphnia magna, Lumbriculus variegatus, Potamopyrgus antipodarum) were performed.
The combination of aerobic and anaerobic treatments resulted in a low additional removal of the selected target organic micropollutants (by 14-17%). In contrast, the removal of endocrine and dioxin-like activities (by 17-75%) and non-specific in vitro toxicities (by 27-60%) was significantly enhanced. Compared to technical solutions (i.e. ozonation), the combination with an anaerobic pre-treatment under iron-reducing conditions was likewise effective in removing the estrogenic activity as well as the unspecific toxicity, whereas anti-androgenic activity and dioxin-like activity were less effectively removed. Exposure to effluents of the conventional activated sludge treatment did not induce adverse in vivo effects in the investigated aquatic model species. Accordingly, no further improvement in water quality could be observed. In conclusion, the combination of aerobic and anaerobic treatment processes significantly enhanced the removal of specific and non-specific in vitro toxicities. Thus, an optimization of the biological wastewater treatment can lead to a substantially improved detoxification. These capacities of a treatment technology can only be uncovered by complementary effect-based measurements.
The global objective of the ENDETECH project was to develop a biotechnological solution to eliminate recalcitrant pharmaceuticals in wastewater direct from sites, where high loads are expected (i.e. hospitals). For this purpose, laccase, an enzyme mainly found in wood decaying fungi, was immobilized on ceramic membranes for application in bioreactors. In a proof of principle experiment, the performance of immobilized laccase in removing a mixture of 38 antibiotics without and in combination with a natural mediator (syringaldehyde; SYR) was investigated. For the evaluation of the enzymatic membrane bioreactors, chemical data on the elimination of the selected target antibiotics was combined with the outcomes of two in vitro bioassays. Growth inhibition tests with an antibiotic sensitive Bacillus subtilis strain were conducted to assess the residual antibiotic activity of the effluents, and Microtox assays were performed to detect a potential formation of toxic by-products.
The treatment by laccase without SYR did not reduce the load of antibiotics significantly. In contrast, in combination with a SYR concentration of 10 µmol L-1, 26 out of 38 antibiotics were removed by >50% after 24 h treatment. Moreover, increasing the SYR concentration to 1000 µmol L-1 resulted in a further improvement of the antibiotic removal. 32 out of 38 antibiotics were removed by over 50%, whereby 17 were almost completely eliminated (>90%). However, the treatment with laccase in combination with SYR resulted in a time-dependent increase of unspecific toxicity. While SYR alone did not affect B. subtilis, the combination of laccase with SYR led to a strong time-dependent growth inhibition up to 100%. Similar to that, a time-dependent increase of unspecific toxicity in the Microtox assay was observed. In conclusion, the laccase-mediator process successfully degrades a broad spectrum of antibiotics and thus represents a promising technology to treat wastewater from sites, where high loads are expected. However, further research is required to reduce the formation of unspecific toxicity before an implementation of this technology can be considered.
The degradation of nonfunctional mitochondrial proteins is of fundamental relevance for maintenance of cellular homeostasis. The heteromeric CLPXP protein complex in the mitochondrial matrix is part of this process. In the fungal aging model Podospora anserina, ablation of CLPXP leads to an increase in healthy lifespan. Here, we report that this counterintuitive increase depends on a functional autophagy machinery. In PaClpXP mutants, autophagy is involved in energy conservation and the compensation of impairments in respiration. Strikingly, despite the impact on mitochondrial function, it is not mitophagy but general autophagy that is constitutively induced and required for longevity. In contrast, in another long-lived mutant ablated for the mitochondrial PaIAP protease, autophagy is neither induced nor required for lifespan extension. Our data provide novel mechanistic insights into the capacity of different forms of autophagy to compensate impairments of specific components of the complex mitochondrial quality control network and about the biological role of mitochondrial CLPXP in the control of cellular energy metabolism.
Ligand stimulation of CD95 induces activation of Plk3 followed by phosphorylation of caspase-8
(2016)
Upon interaction of the CD95 receptor with its ligand, sequential association of the adaptor molecule FADD (MORT1), pro-forms of caspases-8/10, and the caspase-8/10 regulator c-FLIP leads to the formation of a death-inducing signaling complex. Here, we identify polo-like kinase (Plk) 3 as a new interaction partner of the death receptor CD95. The enzymatic activity of Plk3 increases following interaction of the CD95 receptor with its ligand. Knockout (KO) or knockdown of caspase-8, CD95 or FADD prevents activation of Plk3 upon CD95 stimulation, suggesting a requirement of a functional DISC for Plk3 activation. Furthermore, we identify caspase-8 as a new substrate for Plk3. Phosphorylation occurs on T273 and results in stimulation of caspase-8 proapoptotic function. Stimulation of CD95 in cells expressing a non-phosphorylatable caspase-8-T273A mutant in a rescue experiment or in Plk3-KO cells generated by CRISPR/Cas9 reduces the processing of caspase-8 prominently. Low T273 phosphorylation correlates significantly with low Plk3 expression in a cohort of 95 anal tumor patients. Our data suggest a novel mechanism of kinase activation within the Plk family and propose a new model for the stimulation of the extrinsic death pathway in tumors with high Plk3 expression.