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The ALICE experiment was proposed in 1993, to study strongly interacting matter at extreme energy densities via a comprehensive investigation of nuclear collisions at the LHC. Its physics programme initially focused on the determination of the properties of the Quark-Gluon Plasma (QGP), a deconfined state of quarks and gluons and was extended along the years, covering a diverse ensemble of observables related to Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), the theory of strong interactions. The experiment has studied Pb-Pb, Xe-Xe, p-Pb and pp collisions in the multi-TeV energy range, during the Run 1 and Run 2 data taking periods at the LHC (2009-2018). The aim of this review article is to gather and summarise a selection of ALICE physics results and to discuss their implications on the current understanding of the macroscopic and microscopic properties of strongly interacting matter at the highest temperature reached in the laboratory. It will be shown that it is possible to have a quantitative description of the properties of the QGP produced in Pb--Pb collisions. We also show that various features, commonly ascribed to QGP formation, are detected for a wide range of interacting system sizes. Precision measurements of QCD-related observables not directly connected to the study of the QGP will also be discussed. Prospects for future measurements with the ALICE detector and its foreseen upgrades will also be briefly described.
The performance of the electromagnetic calorimeter of the ALICE experiment during operation in 2010-2018 at the Large Hadron Collider is presented. After a short introduction into the design, readout, and trigger capabilities of the detector, the procedures for data taking, reconstruction, and validation are explained. The methods used for the calibration and various derived corrections are presented in detail. Subsequently, the capabilities of the calorimeter to reconstruct and measure photons, light mesons, electrons and jets are discussed. The performance of the calorimeter is illustrated mainly with data obtained with test beams at the Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron or in proton-proton collisions at s√=13 TeV, and compared to simulations.
The performance of the electromagnetic calorimeter of the ALICE experiment during operation in 2010–2018 at the Large Hadron Collider is presented. After a short introduction into the design, readout, and trigger capabilities of the detector, the procedures for data taking, reconstruction, and validation are explained. The methods used for the calibration and various derived corrections are presented in detail. Subsequently, the capabilities of the calorimeter to reconstruct and measure photons, light mesons, electrons and jets are discussed. The performance of the calorimeter is illustrated mainly with data obtained with test beams at the Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron or in proton-proton collisions at √s = 13 TeV, and compared to simulations.
The measurement of the production of f0(980) in inelastic pp collisions at √s=5.02 TeV is presented. This is the first reported measurement of inclusive f0(980) yield at LHC energies. The production is measured at midrapidity, |y|<0.5, in a wide transverse momentum range, 0<pT<16 GeV/c, by reconstructing the resonance in the f0(980) →π+π− hadronic decay channel using the ALICE detector. The pT-differential yields are compared to those of pions, protons and ϕ mesons as well as to predictions from the HERWIG 7.2 QCD-inspired Monte Carlo event generator and calculations from a coalescence model that uses the AMPT model as an input. The ratio of the pT-integrated yield of f0(980) relative to pions is compared to measurements in e+e− and pp collisions at lower energies and predictions from statistical hadronisation models and HERWIG 7.2. A mild collision energy dependence of the f0(980) to pion production is observed in pp collisions from SPS to LHC energies. All considered models underpredict the pT-integrated 2f0(980)/(π+ +π−) ratio. The prediction from the canonical statistical hadronisation model assuming a zero total strangeness content of f0(980) is consistent with the data within 1.9σ and is the closest to the data. The results provide an essential reference for future measurements of the particle yield and nuclear modification in p–Pb and Pb–Pb collisions, which have been proposed to be instrumental to probe the elusive nature and quark composition of the f0(980) scalar meson.
Measurement of electrons from beauty-hadron decays in pp and Pb–Pb collisions at √sNN = 5.02 TeV
(2023)
The production of electrons from beauty-hadron decays was measured at midrapidity in proton-proton (pp) and central Pb-Pb collisions at center-of-mass energy per nucleon-nucleon pair sNN−−−√ = 5.02 TeV, using the ALICE detector at the LHC. The cross section measured in pp collisions in the transverse momentum interval 2<pT<8 GeV/c was compared with models based on perturbative quantum chromodynamics calculations. The yield in the 10% most central Pb-Pb collisions, measured in the interval 2<pT<26 GeV/c, was used to compute the nuclear modification factor RAA, extrapolating the pp reference cross section to pT larger than 8 GeV/c. The measured RAA shows significant suppression of the yield of electrons from beauty-hadron decays at high pT and does not show a significant dependence on pT above 8 GeV/c within uncertainties. The results are described by several theoretical models based on different implementations of the interaction of heavy quarks with a quark-gluon plasma, which predict a smaller energy loss for beauty quarks compared to light and charm quarks.
Measurement of electrons from beauty-hadron decays in pp and Pb-Pb collisions at √sNN = 5.02 TeV
(2023)
The production of electrons from beauty-hadron decays was measured at midrapidity in proton-proton (pp) and central Pb-Pb collisions at center-of-mass energy per nucleon-nucleon pair sNN−−−√ = 5.02 TeV, using the ALICE detector at the LHC. The cross section measured in pp collisions in the transverse momentum interval 2<pT<8 GeV/c was compared with models based on perturbative quantum chromodynamics calculations. The yield in the 10% most central Pb-Pb collisions, measured in the interval 2<pT<26 GeV/c, was used to compute the nuclear modification factor RAA, extrapolating the pp reference cross section to pT larger than 8 GeV/c. The measured RAA shows significant suppression of the yield of electrons from beauty-hadron decays at high pT and does not show a significant dependence on pT above 8 GeV/c within uncertainties. The results are described by several theoretical models based on different implementations of the interaction of heavy quarks with a quark-gluon plasma, which predict a smaller energy loss for beauty quarks compared to light and charm quarks.
Understanding the role of parton mass and Casimir colour factors in the quantum chromodynamics parton shower represents an important step in characterising the emission properties of heavy quarks. Recent experimental advances in jet substructure techniques have provided the opportunity to isolate and characterise gluon emissions from heavy quarks. In this work, the first direct experimental constraint on the charm-quark splitting function is presented, obtained via the measurement of the groomed shared momentum fraction of the first splitting in charm jets, tagged by a reconstructed D0 meson. The measurement is made in proton-proton collisions at s√ = 13 TeV, in the low jet transverse-momentum interval of 15≤pjet chT<30 GeV/c where the emission properties are sensitive to parton mass effects. In addition, the opening angle of the first perturbative emission of the charm quark, as well as the number of perturbative emissions it undergoes, is reported. Comparisons to measurements of an inclusive-jet sample show a steeper splitting function for charm quarks compared with gluons and light quarks. Charm quarks also undergo fewer perturbative emissions in the parton shower, with a reduced probability of large-angle emissions.
Understanding the role of parton mass and Casimir colour factors in the quantum chromodynamics parton shower represents an important step in characterising the emission properties of heavy quarks. Recent experimental advances in jet substructure techniques have provided the opportunity to isolate and characterise gluon emissions from heavy quarks. In this work, the first direct experimental constraint on the charm-quark splitting function is presented, obtained via the measurement of the groomed shared momentum fraction of the first splitting in charm jets, tagged by a reconstructed D0 meson. The measurement is made in proton-proton collisions at s√ = 13 TeV, in the low jet transverse-momentum interval of 15≤pjet chT<30 GeV/c where the emission properties are sensitive to parton mass effects. In addition, the opening angle of the first perturbative emission of the charm quark, as well as the number of perturbative emissions it undergoes, is reported. Comparisons to measurements of an inclusive-jet sample show a steeper splitting function for charm quarks compared with gluons and light quarks. Charm quarks also undergo fewer perturbative emissions in the parton shower, with a reduced probability of large-angle emissions.
The measurement of the production of deuterons, tritons and 3He and their antiparticles in Pb-Pb collisions at √sNN = 5.02 TeV is presented in this article. The measurements are carried out at midrapidity (y|< 0.5) as a function of collision centrality using the ALICE detector. The pT-integrated yields, the coalescence parameters and the ratios to protons and antiprotons are reported and compared with nucleosynthesis models. The comparison of these results in different collision systems at different center-of-mass collision energies reveals a suppression of nucleus production in small systems. In the Statistical Hadronisation Model framework, this can be explained by a small correlation volume where the baryon number is conserved, as already shown in previous fluctuation analyses. However, a different size of the correlation volume is required to describe the proton yields in the same data sets. The coalescence model can describe this suppression by the fact that the wave functions of the nuclei are large and the fireball size starts to become comparable and even much smaller than the actual nucleus at low multiplicities.
Hadronic resonances are used to probe the hadron gas produced in the late stage of heavy-ion collisions since they decay on the same timescale, of the order of 1 to 10 fm/c, as the decoupling time of the system. In the hadron gas, (pseudo)elastic scatterings among the products of resonances that decayed before the kinetic freeze-out and regeneration processes counteract each other, the net effect depending on the resonance lifetime, the duration of the hadronic phase, and the hadronic cross sections at play. In this context, the Σ(1385)± particle is of particular interest as models predict that regeneration dominates over rescattering despite its relatively short lifetime of about 5.5 fm/c. The first measurement of the Σ(1385)± resonance production at midrapidity in Pb-Pb collisions at sNN−−−√=5.02 TeV with the ALICE detector is presented in this Letter. The resonances are reconstructed via their hadronic decay channel, Λπ, as a function of the transverse momentum (pT) and the collision centrality. The results are discussed in comparison with the measured yield of pions and with expectations from the statistical hadronization model as well as commonly employed event generators, including PYTHIA8/Angantyr and EPOS3 coupled to the UrQMD hadronic cascade afterburner. None of the models can describe the data. For Σ(1385)±, a similar behaviour as K∗(892)0 is observed in data unlike the predictions of EPOS3 with afterburner.