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To overcome poor treatment response of pediatric high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), novel treatment strategies are required to reactivate programmed cell death in this malignancy. Therefore, we take advantage of using small-molecule antagonists of Inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins, so called Smac mimetics such as BV6, which are described to overcome apoptosis resistance and thereby sensitize tumor cells for several apoptotic stimuli. To address the question whether redox alterations can sensitize leukemic cells for Smac mimetic-mediated cell death, we interfered with the cellular redox status in different ALL cell lines. Here, we show for the first time that redox alterations, mediated by the glutathione depleting agent Buthioninesulfoximine (BSO), prime ALL cells for BV6-induced apoptosis. Besides ALL cell lines, BV6/BSO cotreatment similarly synergizes in cell death induction in patient-derived primary leukemic samples. In contrast, the combination treatment does not exert any cytotoxicity against peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) or mesenchymal stroma cells (MSCs) from healthy donors, suggesting some tumor selectivity of this treatment. We also identify the underlying molecular mechanism of the novel synergistic drug interaction of BSO and BV6. We demonstrate that both agents act in concert to increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation and finally apoptotic cell death. Enhanced ROS levels in the combination treatment account for cell death induction, since several ROS scavengers, like NAC, MnTBAP and Trolox attenuate BSO/BV6-induced apoptosis. BSO/BV6-induced ROS can be mainly classified as lipid peroxides, since the vitamin E derivate α-Tocopherol as well as Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), which both specifically reduce lipid-membrane peroxides, prevent lipid peroxidation, caspase activation and cell death induction. Vice versa, GPX4 knockdown and pharmacological inhibition of GPX4 by RSL3 or Erastin enhance BV6-induced cell death. Importantly, cell death induction critically depends on the formation of a complex consisting of RIP1/FADD/Caspase-8, since all complex components are required for ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death induction. Taken together, we demonstrate that BSO and BV6 cooperate to induce ROS production and lipid peroxidation which are eventually required for caspase activation and cell death execution. Collectively, findings of this study indicate that BV6-induced apoptosis is mediated via redox alterations offering promising new treatment strategy to overcome apoptosis resistance in ALL.
In this thesis the integral membrane protein diacylglycerol kinase (DAGK) from E.coli is investigated with solid-state NMR. The aim is to gain an insight into the enzyme’s mechanism through integration of kinetic, structural and dynamic data. The biological function of DAGK is the transfer of the γ-phosphate group from Mg*ATP to diacylglycerol (DAG) building phosphatidic acid (PA)[6] as port of the membrane-derived oligosaccharide cycle[31,34]. Surprisingly, DAGK does not share structural or sequential similarities with other kinases[12]. Typical sequence motives found in other kinases, which catalyze phosphoryl transfer reactions, are not found[13]. In its physiological form DAGK is a homo-trimer with nine transmembrane helices, three catalytic centers and a size of 39.6 kDa.
First, the set-up of a real-time 31P MAS NMR experiment is shown. This experiment allows measuring in real-time the simultaneous ATP hydrolysis in the aqueous phase and lipid substrate phos-phorylation in the membrane phase with atomic resolution under magic angle spinning[56]. After fast transfer of the sample into the NMR spectrometer the enzymatic reaction is started with a temperature jump. This approach of real-time MAS NMR in a dual-phase system was demonstrated for the lipid substrate analogs dioleoyl- (DOG) and dibutyrylglycerol (DBG), with a C8 and C4 aliphatic chain, respectively. The combination of 31P direct and cross polarization functions as a dynamic filter. In the 31P direct polarized experiment nuclei in both phases are detected, while in the 31P cross polar-ized experiment, only nuclei in the membrane phase are detected. Rates for substrate turnover, i.e. degradation of γP-, βP, αP-ATP and build-up of βP-, αP-ADP, free phosphate as side reaction, and PA are obtained, which reveal a Michaelis-Menten behavior with regard to Mg*ATP and DBG. Here Mg*ATP and DBG follow a random-equilibrium model, where every substrate can bind indepen-dently from the other substrate. Analyses of the peak integrals from educts and products of the enzymatic reaction, revealed the stoichiometry of the reaction: 1.5 ATP molecules are used to phos-phorylate one DBG molecule. The excess of ATP is attributed to the basal ATPase activity. Further-more, experiments with ATPγS, usually regarded as a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, where carried out. Surprisingly, DAGK hydrolyzes ATPγS and also transfers the thio-phosphate group to the lipid acceptor DBG, which points to a certain degree of plasticity in the active center. A phosphorylated enzyme intermediate was not detected. These results suggest the building of a ternary complex of Mg*ATP, DBG and DAGK performing a direct-phosphoryl transfer reaction, without passing through a phosphorylated enzyme intermediate. Experiments with the transition state analog ortho-vanadate (Vi) showed a decoupling of the ATP hydrolysis activity from lipid substrate phosphorylation. This indicates a specific transfer site for the γ-phosphate group from ATP to DAG, which can be blocked by Vi.
A general disadvantage of NMR spectroscopy compared to other spectroscopic methods is its inherent low sensitivity. One possible starting point for the improvement of signal-to-noise per unit time is the reduction of the spin-lattice relaxation time of protons[209]. Usually 95 % of the experi-mental time is required for the relaxation of the 1H to equilibrium. The addition of paramagnetic species can be used to reduce the 1H T1[233]. In a comprehensive study four different paramagnetic agents were tested: Cu2+-EDTA, Cu2+-EDTA-tag, Gd3+-TTAHA and Gd3+-DOTA. The titration of these paramagnetic complexes showed the principle feasibility of this approach, but differences between the tested species exist. The most promising complex is Gd3+-DOTA which, at a concentration of 2 mM, causes a 10-time improvement of signal-to-noise ratio per unit time. This allowed measuring 2D 13C-13C correlation spectra of proteoliposomes in one tenth of the usual required experimental time (i.e. 10 hours vs. 4 days) with good signal-to-noise.
For the investigation of structural or dynamic changes in the protein upon substrate interaction with MAS NMR, the spectral properties CP efficiency and resolution of the DAGK in liposomes needed to be improved. The most critical step during sample preparation is the reconstitution of the membrane protein from detergent micelles into a membrane of synthetic lipids under detergent removal. For this procedure the important criteria are enzymatic activity, measured in a coupled ATPase assay[55], and homogeneity of the proteoliposomes, which was tested e.g. on a discontinuous sucrose step gradient. Therefore an extensive study was carried out, in which different detergents, lipids and lipid mixtures, techniques for detergent removal and different protein-to-lipid ratios were tested. A direct correlation between high ATPase activity and good resolution was not found. Moreover, active DAGK in a mixture of DMPC and cholesterol, which emulates the membrane features of a membrane containing DAG, showed the best CP efficiency and resolution.
The assignment of the protein backbone and amino acid side chains the first mandatory step towards the investigation of structural and dynamical features influencing and defining the enzymatic mechanism by MAS NMR. As the assignment procedure is very time consuming for a total protein, a special labeling scheme for DAGK was developed, which allows assigning most of the protein areas presumably involved in enzyme catalysis. The assignment of DAGK with solution NMR[132] was not transferable to the MAS NMR spectra. Most important for the assignment process were the unique pairs[335], two consecutive amino acids which only appear once in the amino acid sequence. These unique pairs served as anchor points. Five different multinuclear MAS NMR experiments (DARR, NCO, NCA, NCACX, NCOCX) were required for the sequential assignment. It was possible to assign 35 % of the total amino acid sequence with one sample and 8 experiments acquired at 850 MHz. The secondary structure analysis showed subtle differences to the DAGK assignment with solution NMR[132], which can be attributed to the different environment in lipid bilayers and detergent micelles.
Data about structural and dynamical changes under substrate interaction can reveal details about the enzymatic mechanism. Therefore changes in chemical shift in 2D heteronuclear correlation experiments in the apo-state and under substrate saturated conditions with the substrates Mg*AMP-PNP, a non-hydrolysable ATP-analog, DOG, a mixture of Mg*AMP-PNP and DOG as well as inhibited by Vi were recorded. The most significant peak changes were observed at the interface membrane-cytoplasm as well as the the N-terminal amphipathic helix. The residues revealing chemical shift perturbations correlate with conserved residues or such residues, for which importance for catalysis and/or folding could be shown in mutation studies[8]. Especially noticeable were the changes at the amino acids Asn 72, Lys 64, His 87, Tyr 86 and Asp 95.
Beside changes of the chemical shift, changes of line width or signal doubling were observable. These changes can point to a correlation with dynamic reorientations in the μs-ms time regime, which are most relevant for enzymatic processes. The protein backbone dynamics in the apo-state as well as saturated with the substrates or inhibited with Vi were investigated with a 15N-CODEX experiment, which is based on the reorientation of the CSA tensor upon dynamical changes[350]. Specific effects of the different substrates or analogs on the protein backbone dynamic were revealed complementing the structural data and the chemical shift perturbation experiments.
During my thesis, I worked on two different membrane proteins. One is a bacterial secondary transporter and the second is a human mitochondrial calcium channel.
The first part of my thesis involves the structural and biochemical characterization of an L-carnitine/ γ-butyrobetaine antiporter from bacteria called CaiT. The aim of the project was to understand the Na+ independence of CaiT and to determine the crystal structures of CaiT in different conformations to expand the mechanistic understanding of substrate/ product antiport in CaiT.
The study revealed how a positively charged amino acid side chain (arginine 262) in CaiT could structurally and functionally mimic a sodium ion. Additionally, various crystal structures of CaiT obtained in this study demonstrate that the central substrate-binding site is highly dynamic and can accommodate the substrate in various orientations.
In the second part of my thesis, I was able to optimize the expression and purification conditions for the human mitochondrial calcium uniporter or the MCU. Understanding how this channel functions can help us unravel the mechanism of calcium uptake by mitochondria. Secondary structure prediction analysis in combination with mass spectrometry of degraded MCU products obtained during the purification of the full-length protein led to the identification of a stable MCU construct. This study resulted in the successful purification of milligram quantities of stable MCU protein for the first time. Further optimization may be required to obtain more homogenous protein that is amenable for crystallization.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes. It catalyses the conversion of arachidonic acid to the hydroperoxy intermediate 5(S)-hydroperoxy-6- trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-HpETE). In a second step 5-LO catalyses a dehydration reaction forming the unstable epoxide intermediate 5(S)-trans-5,6-oxido-7,9- trans-11,14-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (leukotriene A4 , LTA4). The 5-LO gene is subjected to versatile regulation mechanisms. Apart from regulation by DNA-methylation and histone acetylation / deacetylation 5-LO gene expression can be regulated by the differentiation inducers calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) 5-LO gene expression. In the myeloid cell lines Mono Mac 6 (MM6) and HL-60, differentiation with both agents caused a prominent upregulation of 5-LO mRNA level, of 5-LO protein expression and of 5-LO activity. Treatment with calcitriol alone already has an impact on 5-LO gene expression which is additionally potentiated by TGFβ treatment. Previous nuclear run-off analysis and reporter gene analysis could not associate the 5-LO promoter with the induction of 5-LO mRNA expression mediated by calcitriol and TGFβ. Inclusion of the 5-LO coding sequence (cds) and inclusion of the 5-LO cds plus the last four introns of the gene (J to M) in the 5-LO promoter construct pN10 led to an enhanced reporter gene activity. The inductions were dependent on vitamin D receptor (VDR) and retinoid x receptor (RXR) cotransfection. Therefore the work was concentrated on identifying elements outside the 5-LO promoter region which contribute to the calcitriol / TGFβ effect on 5-LO mRNA expression. Insertion of the LTA4 hydrolase coding sequence – a coding sequence of similar size - instead of the 5-LO cds led to a loss of the calcitriol / TGFβ effect (pN10LTA4Hcds 1-fold induction). Therewith, it was proven that the presence of the 5-LO cds is crucial for the upregulating effect of calcitriol / TGFβ on 5-LO mRNA level. Cloning of the SV40 promoter instead of pN10 upstream of the 5-LO cds still showed inducibility by treatment with the inducers which argues for a promoter unspecific effect. Insertion of the 5-LO cds in a promoterless basic vector (pGL3cds) displayed same inductions by calcitriol / TGFβ treatment as the 5-LO promoter 5-LO cds construct (pN10cds). Thus, the effect of the inducers is not dependent on the 5-LO promoter under the in vitro conditions of the reporter gene assay. Hence, further cloning was done with promoterless constructs. Through 5-LO cds deletion constructs a positive regulating region in exon 10 to 14 was discovered. To adapt the natural gene context the last four introns (J-M) of the 5-LO gene were inserted in a promoterless construct containing exon 10 to 14 (pGL3cdsΔABInJM). 5end deletion constructs of it revealed putative vitamin D responsive elements (VDREs) in exon 12 and intron M. Mutation of the putative VDREs led to a reduced calcitriol effect –more prominent when the putative VDRE in intron M was mutated (reduction of 40%). Moreover another putative VDRE in exon 10 with an adjacent SMAD binding element (SBE) was detected. SMAD proteins are effector proteins of TGFβ signalling. Gelshift experiments demonstrated in vitro binding of the VDR-RXR heterodimer to those three putative VDREs. By chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay in vivo binding of VDR and RXR was shown to the VDRE in the region of exon 10, exon 12 and intron M. 8h and 24h incubation with calcitriol / TGFβ resulted in enhanced expression of VDR in each of the examined regions. The VDR is able to bind to the VDRE without its ligand, whereas this goes along with corepressor recruitment and thus the VDR has a repressive effect on transcription. Histone H4 acetylation was increased when MM6 cells were treated for 8h or 24h with calcitriol or the combination of calcitriol / TGFβ. This finding implies that at that point of time corepressors associated with the VDR are replaced by coactivators. It seems convincing that 5-LO transcription is mainly promoted by calcitriol alone which leads to a more accessible chromatin structure. Previous data indicated that calcitriol and TGFβ upregulate 5-LO RNA maturation and 5- LO transcript elongation. Thus several elongation markers were investigated by ChIP analysis: Histone H3 lysine 36 (H3K36) trimethylation and H4K20 monomethylation were detected in the analysed regions in exon 10, exon 12 and intron M. In region exon 10 the H3K36 trimethylation status was enhanced after 24h calcitriol or calcitriol / TGFβ treatment. An increased H4K20 monomethylation status in all regions was observed when MM6 cells were treated for 24h with calcitriol / TGFβ. 24h treatment with both agents also enhanced the recruitment of the elongation form of RNA polymerase II, which is phosphorylated at serine 2 of the carboxyterminal domain, to the investigated regions. These findings prove the positive regulating role for calcitriol and TGFβ on 5-LO transcript elongation. A putative mechanism of the effect of calcitriol and TGFβ on 5-LO RNA maturation might be the elevated phosphorylation of serine 2 of the RNA Polymerase II which is known to be followed by recruiting polyadenylating factors.
5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes, converting arachidonic acid to 5-HPETE, and in a second step 5-HPETE to leukotriene A4. Although the 5-LO promoter possesses characteristics of so called housekeeping genes, such as lack of TATA/CCAAT boxes and existence of several Sp1 binding sites, the 5 -LO gene is tissue specifically expressed in primarily immune competent cells of myeloid origin including granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells and B-lymphocytes. 5-LO gene expression in MM6 and HL-60 cells is strongly induced after differentiation of the cells with TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3. In some monocytic cancer cell lines, such as HL-60 TB and U937, TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment are not able to activate 5-LO gene transcription. It was demonstrated, that in these cell lines the 5-LO core promoter is heavily methylated and that only demethylation by the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-aza-2 deoxycytidine (Adc) upregulated the 5-LO mRNA levels. It was also shown that the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA could induce 5-LO mRNA levels, but only in 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta inducible MM6 cells. Interestingly the 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta effect on 5-LO expression is reduced, when combined with TsA. Reporter gene assays revealed that 5-LO promoter activity is strongly induced after 24 h treatment with 330 nM TsA (construct N10 up to 35 fold in HeLa cells). The effect is dependent on the presence of the proximal Sp1 binding site GC4 (-53 bp to –48 bp in relation to the major TIS) in both HeLa and MM6 cells. In vitro binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to this site has been demonstrated in gel shift assays and DNase I footprints. Mutation of the binding site resulted in a loss of basal promoter activity in both 5-LO negative HeLa cells and in 5-LO positive MM6 cells, as well as in the loss of TsA inducibility. The mutational study of different Sp1 binding sites in a larger promoter context revealed the interaction or respectively the additive effect of the multiple Sp1 binding sites of the 5-LO promoter on basal as well as on TsA upregulated promoter activity. However, GC4 seems to be of special relevance for both the basal promoter activity, possibly recruiting the basal transcription machinery, as well as for the TsA induced upregulation of 5-LO promoter activity. TsA does not alter the protein expression levels of Sp1 and Sp3 as investigated in Western blot analysis, neither in HeLa nor in MM6 cells. DNA affinity purification assays revealed that TsA had no effect on the DNA affinity of Sp1 or Sp3. In vitro binding of both Sp1 and Sp3 to the 5-fold GC box, GC4 and GC5 was demonstrated by DAPA analysis, but histone deacetylase inhibition did not change the associated protein amounts. Finally, in vivo binding of Sp1 and Sp3 was investigated in chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) in MM6 cells. TsA clearly induced the association of both proteins to the promoter area surrounding the TIS. Upon TsA treatment also RNA polymerase II binding to the area surrounding the TIS (-318 to +52 bp) was increased and even initiated in the more distal promoter parts –1049 to –292 bp, which are negatively regulated in reporter gene assays. Interestingly histone H4 is already highly acetylated without TsA treatment and the acetylation status of H4 remains unchanged after histone deacetylase inhibition, indicating an open chromatin structure of the 5-LO gene in MM6 cells. In a cotransfection study with Sp1 and Sp3, the transactivating potential of factors was investigated and in accordance with the ChIP data, Sp1 and Sp3 increased the promoter activity, but only after TsA treatment. In gel shift assays, the influence of DNA methylation on Sp1 binding was investigated. The results indicate different roles for the three proximal promoter sites. Whereas Sp1 binding to the 5-fold GC box and GC4 is impaired by DNA methylation, binding to GC5 is even increased. A cotransfection study with methylated 5-LO promoter constructs and the murine methyl-CpG binding proteins suggest MBD1 involvement in the regulation of the 5-LO promoter. Since in gel shifts Sp1 binding is inhibited by DNA methylation, at least to the 5-fold GC box and the activating element GC4, and similarly the mutation/deletion of the same sites strongly reduces or inhibits promoter activity, it is likely to assume, that the loss of promoter activity after in vitro methylation is in the first place due to impaired Sp1/Sp3 binding. Together the data underline the importance and complexity of Sp1/Sp3 binding to the GC rich sites in the regulation of 5-LO promoter activity in response to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA as well as in respect to DNA methylation.
Inhibitoren der Apoptose (IAP, inhibitor of apoptosis) Proteine spielen eine wichtige Rolle in Bezug auf Zelltodregulation und es ist anzunehmen, dass eine Dysregulation dieser Proteine zu einer Tumorentwicklung und Tumorprogression beiträgt. Erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAP Proteinen verhindern die Aktivierbarkeit des Zelltodprogrammes von Tumorzellen und eine Reihe von Studien konnte bereits erhöhte IAP Level in Tumorzelllinien sowie in primären Tumorproben nachweisen. Des Weiteren korrelieren erhöhte Expressionslevel von IAPs in Tumoren mit Behandlungsresistenzen und schlechten Prognosen für die Patienten.
Das diffuse großzellige B-Zell Lymphom (DLBCL, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma) zählt zu den häufigsten Subtypen der Non-Hodgkin Lymphome (NHL) mit 40 % aller neu diagnostizierten NHL Fälle. DLBCL ist eine sehr heterogene Erkrankung die in drei verschiedene Gruppen klassifiziert wurde: aktivierter B-Zell Typ (ABC, activated B-cell), Keimzentrum B-Zell Typ (GCB, germinal center B-Cell) und Mediastinaler großzelliger B-Zell Typ (PMBL, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma). Erhöhte Expressionslevel von zellulärem IAP1 (cIAP, cellular IAP) und cIAP2 wurden ebenfalls in primären Tumorproben von DLBCL Patienten nachgewiesen. Smac mimetics wurden entwickelt, um IAPs zu antagonisieren und stellen damit eine Behandlungsstrategie für DLBCL Patienten dar, denn ca. 40 % aller DLBCL Patienten entwickeln ein Rezidiv oder erreichen gar keine Remission unter Standardtherapie. Jedoch ist der Effekt von Smac mimetics in einer Einzelbehandlung limitiert, weswegen Kombinationstherapien mit Smac mimetics eine vielversprechende Strategie für ihren klinischen Einsatz darstellen. Aus diesem Grund haben wir in dieser Arbeit den Effekt von Smac mimetic in Kombination mit Proteasom-Inhibitoren analysiert und einen speziellen Fokus auf den molekularen Mechanismus des ausgelösten Zelltodsignalweges gelegt.
Die Kombination verschiedener Konzentrationen des Smac mimetics BV6 mit dem Proteasom-Inhibitor carfilzomib (CFZ) löst in allen drei getesteten DLBCL Subtypen (ABC, GCB und PMBL) Zelltod aus. Die Kalkulation des Kombinationsindexes (CI, combination index) sowie des Bliss Scores, zwei quantitative Parameter zur Bestimmung eines Synergismus, zeigen, dass fast alle getesteten Kombinationen einen Synergismus aufweisen. Dies verdeutlicht, dass eine Co-Behandlung von BV6 und CFZ eine wirksame Kombination ist um Zelltod in DLBCL Zelllinien auszulösen. Außerdem zeigt eine Kombination von BV6 mit anderen Proteasom-Inhibitoren wie ixazomib (IXA) oder oprozomib (OPR), ebenfalls eine synergistische Reduktion der Zellviabilität. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der detektierte Effekt nicht auf eine Substanz limitiert ist, sondern, dass ein genereller Effekt von Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitoren vorliegt, um Zellviabilität in DLBCL zu reduzieren. BV6 und CFZ induzieren einen apoptotischen Zelltod, da sie die Spaltung und Aktivierung von Initiator- und Effektorcaspasen (Caspasen-3, -7, -8 und -9) initiieren und sich der induzierte Zelltod mit Hilfe des Caspasen-Inhibitors zVAD.fmk verhindern lässt. Die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ führt zu einer Akkumulation von NIK, ein Protein welches zur Aktivierung des non-kanonischen NF-kB Signalweges benötigt wird. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigen jedoch, dass NIK nicht an der Zelltodinduktion beteiligt ist, da eine siRNA-basierte Herunterregulierung des NIK Proteins keinen Einfluss auf die Zelltodinduktion nimmt. Ebenfalls ist der Zelltod unabhängig von dem TNFa Signalweg, da weder eine Behandlung mit dem TNFa Inhibitor Enbrel den Zelltod verringern kann noch eine zusätzliche Gabe von TNFa den Zelltod erhöht. Weitere mechanistische Studien zeigen eine kritische Rolle der mitochondrialen Apoptose für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod. Unter Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ wurde eine Aktivierung von BAX und BAK nachgewiesen, welche beide mit verantwortlich für die Porenbildung in der mitochondrialen Membran sind. Eine Herunterregulation dieser beiden Proteine mittels siRNA reduziert signifikant den durch BV6/CFZ-induzierten Zelltod auf ein Minimum. Gleichzeitig löst eine Co-Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ einen Verlust des mitochondrialen Membranpotentials (LOMMP, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential) aus. In Übereinstimmung mit den vorherigen Experimenten, zeigen wir eine Akkumulation von mitochondrialen reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS; reactive oxygen species), sowie einen generellen Anstieg des allgemeinen ROS Levels. Eine Behandlung mit BV6/CFZ zeigt eine deutliche Akkumulation des pro-apoptotischen Proteins NOXA. Um dessen funktionelle Relevanz zu überprüfen, wurde die Proteinmenge von NOXA mittels siRNA stark reduziert. Eine Behandlung mit der Kombination aus BV6 und CFZ zeigt daraufhin eine signifikant reduzierte Zelltodinduktion, was die funktionelle Relevanz von NOXA für den BV6/CFZ-vermittelten Zelltod unterstreicht. Immunopräzipitationsstudien zeigen, dass in RIVA und U2932 Zellen NOXA konstitutiv an seinen anti-apoptotischen Bindungspartner MCL-1 gebunden ist, was die Zellen bereits darauf vorbereitet Apoptose zu durchlaufen. Dieses sogenannte „primen“ für Apoptose wird durch die Behandlung mit BV6 und CFZ weiter verstärkt, da es die Bindung zwischen NOXA und MCL-1 weiter erhöht. Dadurch wird die Balance zwischen pro- und anti-apoptotischen Proteinen zu Gunsten der pro-apoptotischen Proteine verschoben und die Induktion von Apoptose begünstigt.
Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass DLBCL Zelllinien sensitiv auf eine Behandlung mit Smac mimetic und Proteasom-Inhibitor reagieren und damit eine mögliche neue Behandlungsstrategie für diese heterogene Tumorerkrankung darstellt.
Biomoleküle, insbesondere Membranproteine (MPs), sind oftmals sehr sensitiv gegenüber ihrer chemischen Umgebung, wie pH-Wert, Puffer, Salzkonzentration und vielen weiteren Faktoren. MPs stabil und funktional in Lösung zu halten ist nicht trivial. Sie stellen deshalb eine besondere Herausforderung bei der Analyse von biologischen Systemen dar. Aus diesem Grund wurden und werden nach wie vor sogenannte membrane mimicking-(MM-) Systeme, wie beispielsweise Nanodiscs (NDs) oder styrene-maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs), untersucht und entwickelt, um MPs eine naturähnliche Umgebung in Form einer Lipid-Doppelschicht zu bieten und sie so in ihrer natürlichen Konformation und natürlichen Funktionsweise/Aktivität in Lösung zu halten.
Laser induced liquid bead ion desorption (LILBID) Massenspektrometrie (MS) hat sich als hervorragende analytische Methode herausgestellt, um MPs in Kombination mit MM-Systemen zu untersuchen. LILBID-MS bietet nicht nur die Möglichkeit Proteine an sich zu identifizieren, sondern ermöglicht ebenfalls eine zerstörungsfreie Analyse von nicht-kovalent gebundenen Proteinkomplexen, sowie die Detektion einzelner Subkomplexe eines Proteinkomplexes. Auch die Analyse von Protein-Ligand-Wechselwirkungen ist möglich. Bei der LILBID-Ionisationsmethode werden kleine Tröpfchen erzeugt, die einen wässrig gelösten Analyt enthalten. Die Analyt-Tröpfchen werden anschließend mittels IR-Laser bestrahlt, wodurch der Analyt freigesetzt und massenspektrometrisch analysiert werden kann.
Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich zum einen mit der Analyse des Lyse-Proteins ΦX174-E der Bakteriophage ΦX174, zum anderen mit Untersuchungen zur Histidinkinase SpaK aus B. subtilis in Kombination mit MMs. Weiterhin wird die Frage geklärt, ob und wie gut sich LILBID-MS zur Analyse von Saposin-Nanopartikel-(SapNPs)-solubilisierten MPs eignet. Darüber hinaus wird in dieser Dissertation die Darstellung von SapNP-solubilisierten MPs mittels zellfreier Proteinsynthese näher charakterisiert und untersucht welche Parameter aus präparativer Sicht optimiert werden können.
In vorausgegangenen Analysen von ND-solubilisierten MPs mittels LILBID-MS zeigte sich, dass manche in Verbindung mit NDs genutzten Lipide unerwünschte Signale im Spektrum zur Folge haben, die aus massiven Lipid-Anhaftungen am MSP oder dem Analyten resultieren. Überlappungen der m/z-Signale verschiedener Analyt- und/oder Komplexkomponenten mit diesen Lipid-Cluster-Signalen kann wiederum zum Verlust von Informationen führen. Daher beschäftigt sich ein weiterer Teil dieser Arbeit mit der Frage, ob durch den Einsatz von UV-schaltbaren Lipiden der Anwendungsbereich und/oder die Auflösung von LILBID-MS erweitert und verbessert werden kann.
Um biologische Prozesse zu verstehen ist es ebenfalls wichtig die zeitlichen/kinetischen Aspekte einer Reaktion zu untersuchen/kennen, sowie molekulare Prozesse gezielt zu kontrollieren. Licht hat sich hierbei als ein hervorragendes Werkzeug in der Analytik, sowie in der molekularen Prozesskontrolle etabliert. Licht bietet den Vorteil sehr selektiv eingesetzt werden zu können und sowohl orts- als auch zeitaufgelöst Informationen liefern zu können. Das gezielte Triggern einer Reaktion oder einer Protein-Protein-Interaktion kann beispielsweise durch sog. photo-cleaving von photolabilen Schutzgruppen ermöglicht werden. Bisweilen bietet die native MS nur wenig Möglichkeiten schnelle Reaktionen zu analysieren und kinetische Informationen zu gewinnen. Daher beschäftigt sich ein weiterer Teil dieser Dissertation damit zu untersuchen, ob und wie sich lichtgesteuerte Reaktionen im LILBID-Ionisationsprozess induzieren und gegebenenfalls auch zeitlich analysieren und charakterisieren lassen können.
Komplexe biologische Phänotypen resultieren aus einem koordinierten Zusammenspiel von einer Vielzahl von Genen. Um zu verstehen, wie Krankheiten durch genetische Dysfunktionen
entstehen können, ist es unabdingbar die genetischen Interaktionsnetzwerke in menschlichen Zellen zu entschlüsseln. Eine Identifizierung von Kontext-abhängigen genetischen Interaktionen kann bedeutende Erkenntnisse über die Beziehung von Phänotyp und Genotyp liefern und erklären, wie synergistische Gen-Funktionen die Entstehung von komplexen Krankheiten bedingen.
Gepoolte, kombinatorische CRISPR (kurz für: clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) Screens stellen eine wirkungsvolle Methode zur simultanen Untersuchung potentieller Interaktionen von einer großen Anzahl von Genen dar. Mit sogenannten multiplex CRISPR
gRNA Bibliotheken werden im Rahmen großangelegter Screens vielzählige kombinatorische Gen-Knockouts in Zellen generiert. Diese multiplex CRISPR gRNA Bibliotheken können aus bis zu hunderttausenden Plasmiden bestehen, die jeweils für eine andere gRNA-Kombination kodieren und auf ein spezifisches Gen-Paar abzielen. Im Gegensatz zu CRISPR Screens für Einzel-Knockouts gehen multiplex CRISPR Screens zur Identifizierung von genetischen Interaktionen mit zusätzlichen Herausforderungen einher: Zum einen wächst der verbundene Arbeitsaufwand für die Konstruktion der multiplex CRISPR gRNA Bibliotheken proportional mit der Anzahl der gewünschten Ziel-Gene, welche die Diversität der Bibliothek bestimmt. In einer idealen gRNA-Bibliothek wären alle gRNA-Sequenzen gleich häufig vorhanden. Jedoch weisen
gRNA-Bibliotheken aufgrund von technischen Beschränkungen gRNA-Sequenzen mit höherer, beziehungsweise niedriger Abundanz auf. Konventionelle Methoden zur Herstellung von
gRNA-Bibliotheken basieren beispielsweise auf iterativen, gepoolten Klonierungsschritten mit PCR-amplifizierten Oligonucleotiden, welche zu einer Ungleichverteilung oder zum Verlust von gRNA-Sequenzen führen können. Daher bieten Methoden zur gRNA-Bibliotheken-Generierung Optimierungspotenzial. Da die Reproduzierbarkeit der Screen-Ergebnisse durch die sogenannte Screening Coverage sichergestellt werden muss, erfordert eine Erhöhung der
Bibliotheks-Diversität gleichzeitig auch eine Vergrößerung des Versuchsmaßstabs und ist mit umfangreichem Zellkultur-Arbeitsaufwand verbunden. Die Screening Coverage gibt die
durchschnittliche Abundanz der einzelnen gRNA-Sequenzen in der Zellpopulation während des Screens an. Aktuelle Richtlinien empfehlen eine Screening Coverage, die zwischen dem 200- bis 1000-fachen Wert der Bibliotheks-Diversität liegt, allerdings fehlen bisher genaue Angaben die auf die verwendete gRNA Bibliothek abgestimmt sind. Deshalb stellt die benötigte Screening Coverage bisher einen limitierenden Faktor dar, der die Anzahl der möglichen Ziel-Gene-Kombinationen in einem Screen beschränkt.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit stellen wir eine neue Methode zur Generierung von multiplex gRNA Bibliotheken mit hohen Diversitäten vor. Die Methode, genannt 3Cs (covalently-closed circular-synthesized) Multiplexing, umgeht iterative, gepoolte Klonierugsschritte mit Restriktionsenzymen und PCR-Amplifikation von gRNA-kodierenden Oligonucleotiden. Wir
zeigen, dass 3Cs Multiplexing auf robuste Weise zur Herstellung von gleichmäßig verteilten multiplex gRNA Bibliotheken verwendet werden kann. Der Verteilungs-Skew, auch Skew-Ratio oder Bibliotheksbreite genannt, ist ein Maß zur Ermittlung der Gleichverteilung der gRNA-Sequenzen in der Bibliothek. Wir zeigen, dass 3Cs multiplex Bibliotheken typischerweise einen Verteilungs-Skew von 2.5 aufweisen, was unter den üblichen Werten von Einzel-gRNA Bibliotheken liegt.
Wir nahmen an, dass die gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung die Robustheit von gepoolten CRISPR Screens beeinflussen könne und deshalb bei der Auswahl einer geeigneten Screening
Coverage berücksichtigt werden müsse. Um den Einfluss der gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung auf die Screen-Qualität in Abhängigkeit von der verwendeten Screening Coverage zu untersuchen, generierten wir zwei künstlich fehlverteilte multiplex gRNA-Bibliotheken. Diese wurden, zusätzlich zu einer nahezu gleichverteilten multiplex gRNA-Bibliothek, jeweils mit einer 20- und 200-fachen Screening Coverage in einem kombinatorischen Proliferationsscreen angewandt.
Dadurch konnten wir die gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung als den bestimmenden Parameter für die benötigte Screening Coverage identifizieren. Zusätzlich konnten wir zeigen, dass 3Cs multiplex gRNA-Bibliotheken auf Grund ihrer gleichmäßigen Verteilung mit minimierter Screening Coverage eingesetzt werden können, was zu einer 10-fachen Reduktion des assoziierten Arbeitsaufwands führt. Während bisherige Richtlinien für gepoolte CRISPR Screens die initiale
gRNA-Bibliotheksverteilung nicht berücksichtigen, empfehlen wir die Screening Coverage an dieser auszurichten.
Autophagie ist ein streng regulierter zellulärer Prozess, der den Lysosomen Abbau von intrazellulärem Material steuert und im Zusammenhang mit zahlreichen menschlichen Erkrankungen steht. Da Autophagie in eine Vielzahl von Signalwegen integriert ist, bietet es außerdem therapeutische Ansatzpunkte zur Behandlung von Krankheiten. Die Identifizierung von synergistischen Funktionen zwischen Autophagie-Genen könnte unser Verständnis über die molekularen Mechanismen, die der Regulation der Autophagie zu Grunde liegen, erweitern und dadurch neuartige Behandlungen ermöglichen.
Um genetische Interaktionen von Autophagie-Genen zu untersuchen haben wir eine 3Cs multiplex gRNA Bibliothek generiert, die auf menschliche Autophagie-Genkombinationen
abzielt. In dieser Arbeit demonstrieren wir die Funktionalität der 3Cs Autophagie multiplex gRNA Bibliothek unter Anwendung minimierter Screening Coverage in zwei verschiedenen Screen-Ausführungen: In einem Proliferationsscreen konnten wir Geninteraktionen
identifizieren, deren Verlust zu einer gesteigerten oder verringerten Zellproliferation führt. Unter diesen resultierte der Knockout von WDR45B-PIK3R4 zur stärksten Suppression der Proliferation, während die Depletion von ATG7-KEAP1 zu extrem verstärkter Proliferation beitrug. Unter Einsatz eines Autophagie-Reporters konnten wir in einem Autophagie Screen genetische Interaktionen aufdecken, die essentiell für Autophagie sind, darunter die
Interaktionen zwischen ATG2A-ATG2B , GABARAPL2-WIPI2 und ULK4-SQSTM1.
Wir glauben, dass 3Cs Multiplexing in Zukunft breite Anwendung in verschiedenen biologisch relevanten Feldern finden kann und die Entschlüsselung von kontext-abhängigen genetischen Interaktionen voranbringen und so das Verständnis für die Entstehung von komplexen pathologischen Phänotypen erweitern wird.
Mitochondria are important for cellular health and their dysfunction is linked to a variety of diseases, especially neurodegeneration. Thus, the renewal and degradation of dysfunctional mitochondria is crucial for the well-being of organisms. The selective digestion of damaged mitochondria via the lysosome (mitophagy), is the main pathway to do so.
In my dissertational work, I investigated the connection between protein misfolding, protein import into mitochondria and the degradation of mitochondria via mitophagy. Here, I present a new model for the initiation of mitophagy without collapse of the membrane potential. This model provides the link between protein import into mitochondria, stress signal transduction to the cytosol and the mitochondrial stress sensor PINK1. To comprehensively examine how mitophagy can be triggered, I performed a genome-wide CRISPR knockout screen utilizing the mitophagy reporter mitochondrial mKEIMA. Thereby, I observed numerous novel gene deletions that induce mitophagy. Prominently, I identified an accumulation of gene deletions of the protein import and of protein quality control factors. I validated several of those and examined HSPA9 (mitochondrial HSP70) and LONP1 (a mitochondrial matrix AAA protease) in more detail, regarding their effect on mitophagy and protein import. For this, I used an established fluorescence-based, mitochondrial-targeted EGFP, as well as a newly-developed pulsed-SILAC mass spectrometry approach (mePRODmt). Depletions of both genes resulted in reduced protein import and PINK1-dependent mitophagy. Strikingly, I did not observe any loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, which was hitherto believed to be essential for activation of PINK1-mediated mitophagy. Literature shows that certain mitochondrial stressors can also induce mitophagy without mitochondrial membrane depolarization, which I confirmed with my assays. Next, I characterized the impact of LONP1 and HSPA9 depletion, which are involved in proteostasis maintenance, and the mtHSP90 inhibitor GTPP on mitochondrial protein folding in more detail. GTPP treatment and LONP1 depletion both resulted in the accumulation of an insoluble protein fraction, as judged by proteomic analysis. This insoluble protein fraction enriched several components of the presequence translocase-associated motor PAM, including TIMM44. TIMM44 acts as a link between the translocon, the import pore of the inner mitochondrial membrane (TIM) complex and the PAM complex. Thus, I hypothesized that TIMM44 dissociates from the TIM complex upon protein folding stress, when it becomes part of the insoluble protein fraction. To validate this model, I measured the TIMM44 interactome upon proteostasis disturbance using proximity labeling. Indeed, interaction of TIMM44 with the import pore was almost completely abolished, explaining the loss of matrix-targeted import upon protein folding stress. From these findings, I reasoned that an import reduction mediated by the PAM complex would likely also inhibit the degradation of PINK1. Consistent with this hypothesis, I observed that mitophagy induced by HSPA9 or LONP1 deletion was prevented when PINK1 was genetically deleted. In comparison, non-processed PINK1 was stabilized on mitochondria in wild type cells when mitochondrial protein import was impaired. On this basis, I drew the conclusion that the loss of mitochondrial import was the stress signal, which leads to the stabilization of PINK1, as it could not be processed anymore via the inner mitochondrial membrane protease PARL. PINK1 auto-activates itself upon accumulation and signals to the cytosol that this mitochondrion is damaged. Mitophagy is subsequently initiated by the ubiquitin kinase activity of PINK1. As a result, the autophagy apparatus gets activated, damaged mitochondria are engulfed by a double membrane and removed via lysosomal digestion. This proposed model is, to the best of my knowledge, the first to provide an explanation for protein folding stress-induced and protein import inhibition-triggered mitophagy without mitochondrial depolarization. The model thus extends the PINK1/PARKIN-dependent mitophagy pathway to milder stresses and clears some of the open questions in the field. Furthermore, this work is also important, because protein misfolding stress and dysfunctional mitochondria are two hallmarks of neurodegeneration. In particular, mitochondrial protein import inhibition during Parkinson’s and Huntington disease might be driver of mitochondrial dysfunction. Hence, I hope and anticipate that the newly developed protein import method, mePRODmt, and the proposed model will be beneficial to further characterize underlying processes and to establish which factors prevent or drive these disorders on molecular level.
In this thesis, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are used to study the interaction of different proteins with lipid bilayers. MD simulations can be used as a “computational microscope” to gain atomistic insights into the interactions between proteins and lipids that can barely be accessed in such detail by experimental methods. The different chapters of this thesis address the lipid sensing functionality of amphipathic helices (AHs) when bound to membranes, the folding of AHs at lipid-water interfaces as well as the conformational dynamics of the HIV-1 Env glycoproteins in viral-like and experimental bilayers. In the last chapter the possibilities to enhance the performance of MD simulations are explored, leading to a more efficient usage of computational resources.
In this thesis, the structure of the C-terminal domain of presenilin-1, the catalytic component of the y-secretase complex, is investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The ysecretase complex has a definitive role in the pathogenic development of Alzheimer's disease, in that it mediates the cleavage of aprecursor to create the amyloid ß peptide. Aggregates of amyloid ß which form amyloid plaques are the most overt clinieal feature observed in the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer's patient. In addition, many of the mutations found in the aggressive early onset familial Alzheimer's disease have been linked to presenilin-1, highlighting its importance in disease progression and deeming it an important target for investigation. One of the greatest challenges for the structural investigation of the y-secretase components is their low expression yields in cell-based systems. We therefore applied continuous-exchange cell-free expression to obtain sufficient amounts of protein for our structural studies. An added benefit of the cell-free expression system is the freedom to incorporate any desired combination of stable-isotope labels directly into sampies. We were therefore able to develop a labeling scheme which targets the amino acid composition of transmembrane a-helices, allowing us to simplify an assignment procedure whieh tends to be cumbersome and diffieult for most a-helical transmembrane proteins. The y-secretase complex is a member of the intramembrane cleaving proteases which, as their name implies, cleave their transmembrane substrates within the bilayer. Single particle analysis of the y-secretase (1) as weil as crystal structures of rhomboid (2) and S2P (3) have revealed the presence of hydrophilie po res within the membrane where catalysis occurs. In light of evidence that certain elements of CTF reside in close proximity or even contribute to the formation of the hydrophilic pore, we chose to study the structure of CTF in mieelles, whieh may be better suited to accommodate CTF in isolation as compared with solid membranes in the absence of the other y-secretase components. The structure of CTF was solved to 1.7 A (backbone r.m.s.d) and revealed the presence of unusual features, including a partially membrane-spanning helix which situates the catalytic asparte at its N-terminus in what would be the center of the membrane where catalysis is proposed to occur, as weil as a severely kinked helix which is partially embedded beneath the surface of the membrane (P6). Interestingly, similar features have been observed in the crystal structure of the GlpG rhomboid. In addition, a soluble helix was found in the long N-terminal loop of CTF which until now has been described as unstructured. The first part of the thesis is designed to provide an introduction to Alzheimer's disease, the role of y-secretase and its presenilin-l catalytic component in disease progression, as weil as cell-free expression and liquid-state NMR techniques involved in the structural investigation of membrane proteins. In chapter 2, the reader is familiarized with the history, the clinical manifestation, and biochemical features of Alzheimer's disease. The chapter goes further to describe the role of the y-secretase complex and its individual components in disease progression and substrate processing. Chapter 3 focuses more specifically on presenilin-l in the context of the newly emerging class of intramembrane proteases. In chapter 4, attention is shifted to the cell-free expression system with special focus on the expression of membrane proteins, and chapter 5 explores the various liquid-state NMR techniques that were required for the characterization of CTF. The second part of the thesis is cumulative and contains original research, method, and review articles that were produced during the course of study. Chapter 6 explores the various techniques and innovations used to study membrane proteins using continuous exchange cell-free expression coupled with NMR spectroscopy. In chapter 7, a new technique, transmembrane segment targeted labeling, is described as a tool that facilitates the backbone assignment of transmembrane proteins which display severe overlap in NMR spectra. Chapter 8 presents the novel NMR structure of the C-terminal fragment of presenilin-l solved in SOS micelles.
The formation and maintenance of a defined three-dimensional structure is a prerequisite for most proteins in order to fulfill their function in the native context. However, there are proteins, which are intrinsically unstructured and thus natively unfolded. In addition, the misfolding and aggregation of many proteins can lead to severe diseases. The investigation of non-native states of proteins significantly contributes to the understanding of protein folding and misfolding. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the only known technique that can provide information on structure and dynamics of non-native states of proteins at atomic resolution. Unfolded and non-native states of proteins have to be treated as ensembles of rapidly interconverting conformers and their observed properties are ensemble and time averaged. In this thesis, hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and mutants thereof have been investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The reduction of its four disulfide bridges and the successive methylation of the cysteine residues renders HEWL permanently non-native (‘HEWL-SMe’). Alternatively, the exchange of the eight cysteines for alanines results in very similar states (‘all-Ala-HEWL’). Under these conditions, HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL do not resemble random coil conformations, but exhibit residual secondary and tertiary structure. The presence of hydrophobic clusters and long-range interactions around the proteins six tryptophan residues and the modulation of these properties by single-point mutants has been observed. For the NMR spectroscopic investigation, HEWL has been isotopically labelled in E. coli by expression into inclusion bodies. After purification, the 1HN, 15NH, 13Calpha, 13Cbeta, 13C’, 1Halpha and 1Hbeta resonances of HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL have been assigned almost completely using three-dimensional NMR experiments. The analysis of secondary chemical shifts revealed regions in the proteins sequence — particularly around the six tryptophan residues—with significantly populated alpha-helix like conformations. In order to further elucidate the influence of the tryptophan side chains, a set of two new pulse sequences has been developed that allowed for the successful assignment of the 13Cg, 15Ne and 1HNe resonances in these side chains. This knowledge was eventually exploited in the interpretation of two-dimensional 15N-1H photo-CIDNP spectra, which revealed a differential solvent accessibility of the tryptophan residues in all-Ala-HEWL but not in the single point mutant W62G-all-Ala-HEWL. In addition, heteronuclear R2 relaxation rates have been determined for the indole 15Ne nuclei of all-Ala-HEWL and W62G. While in the wild-type like all-Ala-HEWL, the rates are different among the six tryptophan residues, in W62G they are more uniform. Together with relaxation data from the amide backbone, these results indicate the significant destabilization of the hydrophobic clusters in the absence of W62. In contrast, in the W108G mutant the profile of the R2 relaxation rates was not found to be significantly altered. No evidence was found by R1rho relaxation rates and relaxation dispersion measurements for conformational exchange on slower (micro- to millisecond) timescales. Residual dipolar couplings have been determined for non-native HEWL in order to retrieve structural information of these states. The differences of the W62G and the wild-type like non-native HEWL is also picked up in NH-RDCs of these proteins aligned in polyacrylamide gels. Significant positive RDCs are observed in the regions of the hydrophobic clusters in all-Ala-HEWL, but to a much lesser degree in W62G. So far, all attempts to simulate RDCs from generated non-native ensembles failed even when including long-range contacts or specific phi/psi backbone angle propensities. However, the measured RDCs can be used to cross-validate structural ensembles of non-native HEWL generated by molecular dynamics simulations that are based on restraints from the other experimental data, such as the differential solvent accessibilities from the photo-CIDNP experiments and the data on the hydrophobic clustering gained from the combined mutational and relaxation studies. Finally, non-native HEWL has been investigated for the first time using two-dimensional NMR in organic solvents, which are able to induce secondary structures and ultimately lead to amyloid formation. Under these conditions severe line broadening was observed, which was attributed to exchange between different — mostly a-helical— conformations. In summary, in this thesis methods have been developed, optimized and successfully applied for the structural and dynamical characterization of non-native states of proteins and the effect of single-point mutants on the properties of such ensembles has been investigated. Data has been gained that can considerably contribute to the further elucidation of the nature of non-native states of HEWL by molecular dynamics simulations.
Necroptosis is an immunogenic form of programmed cell death characterized by plasma membrane accumulation of activated mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) that eventually leads to membrane disruption and release of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Necroptotic cell death is tightly controlled by checkpoints, including compartmentalization as well as post-translational modifications (PTMs), like phosphorylation and ubiquitination of receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIPK) 1, RIPK3 and MLKL. Removal of plasma membrane-located activated MLKL via endocytosis or exocytosis can counteract necroptosis, but up till now, the exact mechanisms by which necroptosis is regulated downstream of MLKL activation and oligomerization are not fully understood.
Ubiquitination is a key post-translational modification that regulates various cellular processes including cell survival and cell death signaling via ubiquitination of RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL. M1-linked (linear) poly-ubiquitination is mediated exclusively by the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) which critically regulates cell fate and immune signaling via death receptors such as TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1).
In this study, we demonstrate that M1 poly-Ubiquitin (poly-Ub) increases during necroptosis which can be blocked by inhibition of LUBAC activity with the small-molecule HOIL-1-interacting protein (HOIP) inhibitor HOIPIN-8 or by loss of LUBAC catalytic subunit HOIP. Intriguingly, HOIPIN-8, as well as the HOIP inhibitor gliotoxin, and HOIP knockdown effectively prevent TNFα/smac mimetic/zVAD.fmk-induced necroptotic cell death in cells of human origin, without affecting necroptotic RIPK1 and RIPK3 phosphorylation, necrosome formation and oligomerization of phosphorylated MLKL. We demonstrate that HOIPIN-8 treatment inhibits MLKL translocation to intracellular membranes and accumulation in plasma membrane hotspots as well as MLKL exocytosis. We further confirm that HOIPIN-8 treatment suppresses necroptotic cell death in primary human pancreatic organoids (hPOs). Using time-lapse imaging and live/dead staining, we demonstrate loss of organoid structure and hPO cell death induced by smac mimetics and caspase inhibitors, thus providing a novel platform to investigate necroptosis in near physiological settings. Inhibition of LUBAC activity with HOIPIN-8 prevents hPO collapse and extends cell viability. Of note, loss of the M1 Ub-targeting deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) OTU DUB with linear linkage specificity (OTULIN) and cylindromatosis (CYLD) in human cell lines does not affect necroptosis induction and HOIPIN-8-mediated rescue of necroptosis. Intriguingly, inhibition of LUBAC activity with HOIPIN-8 does not block necroptotic cell death in murine cell lines.
Using massive analyses of cDNA ends (MACE)-seq-based global transcriptome analysis we confirm that necroptosis induces a pro-inflammatory cytokine profile which is dependent on LUBAC function and necroptotic signaling. Loss of LUBAC activity prevents the MLKL-dependent production and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines.
Finally, we identify Flotillin-1 and -2 (FLOT1/2) as putative targets of necroptosis-induced M1 poly-Ub. Ubiquitin-binding in ABIN and NEMO (UBAN)-based pulldowns of M1 poly-ubiquitinated proteins revealed enrichment of FLOTs after necroptosis induction which is dependent on LUBAC activity and can be blocked with necroptosis inhibitors Nec-1s, GSK’872 and NSA, targeting RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL, respectively. Of note, loss of FLOT1/2 potentiates necroptosis suppression induced by LUBAC inhibition with HOIPIN-8.
Together, these findings identify LUBAC-mediated M1 poly-Ub as an important mediator of necroptosis and identify FLOTs as novel putative targets of LUBAC-mediated M1 poly-Ub during necroptosis. In addition, by modeling necroptosis in primary human organoids, we further expand the spectrum of experimental models to study necroptosis in human cellular settings.
The RAF family of kinases constitutes the members A, B and CRAF. They mediate RAS signaling by linking it to the MEK/ERK transduction module, which regulates cellular processes such as cell proliferation, migration, survival and cell death. As the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK (MAPK) pathway is found to be activated in human cancers, the RAF kinases have been exploited as valuable therapeutic targets and RAF inhibitors show promising results in the clinic, esp. with tumors harboring an activating BRAFV600E mutation. However, RAF inhibitors paradoxically accelerate metastasis in RAS mutant and BRAF wildtype tumors. They also become ineffective over time in BRAFV600E tumors because of reactivation of downstream mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling by promoting RAF dimerization. Aims of the present work were 1) to investigate the role of ARAF kinase in the paradoxical activation of the enzymatic cascade by RAF inhibitors downstream of mutated RAS and 2) to study the consequences of the loss of ARAF function on signal transduction in vitro and in vivo (nude mice). We have engineered several cell lines that would allow the study of basal and RAF inhibitor induced effects on MAPK activation, tumor cell migration and invasion.
In summary, we were able to show that the RAF isoform ARAF has an obligatory role in promoting MAPK activity and tumor cell invasion in a cell type dependent manner. In these cell types, ARAF depletion prevented the activation of MAPK kinase 1 (MEK1) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and led to a significant decrease of protrusions growing out of tumor cell spheroids in a three-dimensional (3D) culture that were otherwise induced by BRAFV600E-specific or BRAF/CRAF inhibitors (GDC-0879 and sorafenib, respectively). RAF inhibitors stimulated homodimerization of ARAF and heteromerization of BRAF with CRAF and the scaffolding protein KSR1. However, induced oligomerization was not sufficient to activate MAPK signaling if ARAF was depleted. By employing full length recombinant kinases, we were able to show for the first time that the three RAF isoforms competed for the binding to MEK1. In cell culture models, the overexpression of dimer-deficient ARAF mutants impaired the interaction between ARAF and endogenous MEK1 and thus prevented the subsequent phosphorylation of MEK1 and ERK1/2. Our findings reveal a new role for ARAF in directly activating the MAPK cascade through homodimerization and thereby promoting tumor cell invasion, suggesting the conserved RAF-dimer interface as a target for RAS- and RAF mediated cancer therapy.
Collectively, we provide evidence for the dual role ARAF plays in controlling MAPK signaling and cancer as loss of ARAF promoted strong lung metastasis formation in nude mice. Preliminary data describing the underlying mechanisms behind ARAF-regulated metastases have been presented and discussed.
The research presented in this thesis characterizes U2AF homology motifs (UHM) and their interactions with UHM ligand motifs (ULM) in the context of splicing regulation. UHM domains are a subgroup of RNA recognition motifs (RRM) originally discovered in the proteins U2AF65 and U2AF35. Whereas canonical RRMs are usually involved in binding of RNA, UHM domains bind tryptophan containing linear protein motifs (ULM) instead. In the first article, we analyze the complex network of interactions between splicing factors and RNA that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´ splice site of an intron. The protein U2AF65 binds a pyrimidine-rich element in introns and recruits U2snRNP by binding its protein component SF3b155. My contribution was to define the binding site of the protein U2AF65 to the intrinsically unstructured N-terminus of the scaffolding protein SF3b155. I could show that the UHM domain of U2AF65 recognizes a ULM in SF3b155, and that this binding site is not overlapping with the binding sites of other splicing factors, like p14, to SF3b155. As the U2AF65-UHM:SF3b155-ULM interaction is mutually exclusive with an interaction between U2AF65-UHM and a ULM in the splicing factor SF1, which was reported to initially recognize the branch point sequence, my results provide the molecular details on how SF3b155 replaces SF1 during spliceosomal reorganizations. In the second article, we show that overexpression of the UHM domain of the splicing factor SPF45 induces exon 6 skipping in the pre-mRNA of Fas (CD95/APO-1). I provide evidence for in vitro binding of SPF45-UHM to ULM sequences in the splicing factors U2AF65, SF1, and SF3b155. I crystallized free and SF3b155-bound SPF45 UHM and solved both structures by X-ray crystallography. The analysis of the complex interface and sequence differences in the ULMs allowed me to design mutations of SPF45-UHM, which selectively inhibit binding to distinct ULMs. After assessing the ULM binding properties in vitro, we could show that the activity of SPF45-UHM in influencing the splicing pattern of Fas relies on interactions with SF3b155 and/or SF1, but that an interaction with U2AF65 is dispensable. A mechanism for the activity of SPF45-UHM could thus be engaging in ULM interactions and thus interfering with the network of interactions that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´splice site, as described above. In the third article, we describe an unusual flexible homodimerization mode of the UHM in the splicing factor Puf60, which enables simultaneous interactions with ULM sequences on other splicing factors. I could show that the NMR relaxation properties of Puf60-UHM are inconsistent with a model of a rigid dimer, but rather indicate a dimerization via a flexible linker. I identified a flexible loop in the peptide backbone of Puf60-UHM, and showed that mutiation of acidic residues in this loop impairs the dimerization. To analyze the dimerization interface in further detail, I solved the structure of Puf60-UHM by X-ray crystallography. The acidic residues in the flexible loop of one UHM dimer subunit mediate the dimerization by contacting basic residues on the β-sheet surface of the other dimer subunit. Differences in the four dimer interfaces observed for the eight molecules in the asymmetric unit of the crystal support the model of an undescribed, flexible mode of dimerization, and thus complement the NMR relaxation data. Furthermore, I could show that the Puf60-UHM dimer and U2AF65-UHM contact different ULM sequences on the SF3b155 N-terminus in vitro, thus providing a possible explanation for the mutual cooperative activation of Puf60 and U2AF65 in splicing assays described in the literature. The fourth article is a review about recent research on the recognition of DNA double strand breaks (DSB) by covalent histone modifications. The p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is a DSB sensor and a checkpoint protein for mitosis. Recent crystallographic evidence indicates that 53BP1 recognizes DSB sites by binding histone H4 dimetylated at lysine 20 (H4-K20). We provide a comprehensive overview of the atomic resolution structures that revealed how proteins can specifically recognize histone tail modifications, especially methylated lysines, to read the information stored in what is called the histone code.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in various signalling mechanisms. Redox homeostasis is important in cancer cells, since they are dependent on upregulated antioxidant defence pathways to cope with elevated ROS levels. Therefore, targeting the antioxidant defence system and/ or increasing ROS to a lethal level may be a feasible strategy to counteract cancer cell progression.
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is the most frequent malignant childhood cancer, displaying on one side resistance to cell death induction and on the other side elevated ROS levels. Therefore, inducing ferroptosis, a ROS- and iron-dependent cell death pathway might be useful to trigger cell death in ALL as a novel treatment strategy. In the first study of this thesis we observed that RSL3, a glutathione (GSH) peroxidase 4 (GPX4) inhibitor, triggered ROS accumulation and lipid peroxidation which contributed to ferroptotic cell death. These observations were based on suppression of RSL3 stimulated cell death using different ferroptosis inhibitors like Ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1), Liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1), as well as iron chelator Deferoxamine (DFO) and the vitamin E derivate α-Tocopherol (α-Toc). RSL3-triggered ROS and lipid peroxide production were also inhibited through Fer-1 and α-Toc. Furthermore, lipoxygenases (LOX) were activated upon RSL3 stimulation and contributed to ferroptotic cell death in ALL as well. Selective inhibition of LOX with the 12/15-LOX inhibitor Baicalein and the pan-LOX inhibitor nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) abolished RSL3-induced ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death. In addition, RSL3 induced lipid peroxide-dependent ferroptotic cell death in FAS-associated Death Domain (FADD)-deficient, death receptor-induced apoptosis resistant cells, demonstrating that ferroptosis might circumvent apoptosis resistance.
The second part of the study revealed that RSL3 and Erastin (Era), a GSH-depleting agent, inhibiting the cystine/glutamate antiporter system xc- and ferroptosis inducer, cooperated with the Smac mimetic BV6 to trigger cell death in ALL cells. RSL3/BV6 and Era/BV6 combination-induced cell death was dependent on ROS accumulation, but independent of caspases and key modulators of necroptosis. RSL3/BV6-treated ALL cells exhibited classical features of ferroptotic cell death with iron-dependency, ROS accumulation and lipid peroxidation which was diminished through either pharmacological inhibition (Fer-1, DFO, α-Toc) or genetic inhibition by overexpressing GPX4. Interestingly, Era/BV6-induced cell death in ALL cells was independent of iron but dependent on ROS accumulation, since α-Toc rescued from Era/BV6-triggered ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death. Moreover, inhibition of lipid peroxide formation through the addition of Fer-1 or by overexpressing GPX4 failed to rescue from Era/BV6-triggered cell death, even if Era/BV6-stimulated lipid peroxidation was diminished. Likewise, Fer-1 protected from RSL3/BV6-, but not from Era/BV6-generated ROS production, leading to the assumption that other ROS besides lipid-based ROS contributed to cell death in Era/BV6-treated cells. In summary, while RSL3/BV6 induced ferroptosis in ALL, Era/BV6 stimulated a ROS dependent cell death, which was neither dependent on iron nor caspases or receptor-interacting protein (RIP) kinase 1 nor 3. Additionally, using Erastin alone did not trigger ferroptotic cell death in ALL. Finally, with these two studies we tried to unravel the molecular pathway of ferroptosis by using RSL3 and Erastin as well described ferroptosis stimulators. Here, we demonstrate the possibility of a novel treatment strategy to reactivate programmed cell death by impeding redox homeostasis in ALL.
Since ALL failed to induce ferroptosis upon Erastin treatment, we investigated in the third part of this thesis a new model system to induce ferroptosis upon Erastin and RSL3 exposure. Previous studies revealed that rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cells might be susceptible to oxidative stress-induced compounds. To this end, we used Erastin as a prototypic ferroptosis stimulus and GSH-depleting agent and demonstrated that GSH depletion, ROS and lipid ROS accumulation contributed to cell death. Additionally, Fer-1, Lip-1, DFO, lipophilic vitamin E derivate α-Toc and GSH, a cofactor of GPX4, protected from Erastin stimulated ROS accumulation, lipid peroxidation and cell death. Also, the use of a broad spectrum protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor Bisindolylmaleimide I (Bim1), a PKCα and ß selective inhibitor Gö6976 and siRNA-mediated knockdown of PKCα suppressed Erastin-mediated cell death in RMS. Moreover broad spectrum nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX) inhibitor Diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) and a more selective NOX1/4 isoform inhibitor GKT137831 abrogated Erastin-generated ROS formation, lipid peroxidation and cell death. With this, we demonstrate that RMS are vulnerable to ferroptotic cell death and investigated the molecular mechanism of ferroptosis by unravelling that PKC and NOX could have a pivotal role in ROS-mediated ferroptosis signalling in RMS. In this regard, ferroptosis inducers may act as a possible novel treatment strategy for RMS, especially those with poor clinical outcome.
Recently, two of the most common types of bone cancers in children and young adults have been proven to exhibit vulnerability to poly(ADP)-ribose polymerase, (PARP) inhibitors (e.g. olaparib, talazoparib). Ewing’s sarcoma (ES) are reported to harbor a fusion gene EWS-FLI1 (85%), inducing tumorigenesis. Additional, as the fusion gene acts as aberrant transcription factor, it similarly induces elevated PARP expression levels sensitizing ES to PARP inhibition. Second, by an exome sequencing approach in a set of primary osteosarcomas (OS) we identified mutation signatures being reminiscent of BRCA deficiency. Therefore, the sensitivity of a panel of OS cell lines to either talazoparib single treatment or in combination with several chemotherapeutic drugs was investigated.
To screen ES tumor cell lines against PARP inhibitors we applied four different PARP inhibitors (talazoparib, olaparib, niraparib and veliparib) that are frequently being used for clinical studies. We combined those PARP inhibitors with a set of chemotherapeutics (temozolomide (TMZ), SN-38, etoposide, ifosfamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and actinomycin D) that are part of the first-line therapy of ES patients. Here, we demonstrate how PARP inhibitors synergize with TMZ or SN-38 to induce apoptosis, whereas the combination of PARP inhibitors with the other drugs are not favorable. By investigation of key checkpoints in the molecular mechanisms of cell death, the pivotal role of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis mediating the synergy between olaparib and TMZ was revealed.
Employing talazoparib monotherapy in combination with or without several chemotherapeutic drugs (TMZ, SN-38, cisplatin, doxorubicin, methotrexate and etoposide/carboplatin), the correlation between homologous recombination (HR) repair deficiency (BRCAness) and the response to talazoparib as prototypical PARP inhibitor was validated in different OS cell lines. By calculation of combination indices (CI) and fraction affected (Fa) values, we identified TMZ as the most potent chemotherapeutic drug in combination with talazoparib inducing the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in OS.
In our studies of two independent tumor entities with contrary genetic background we identified the combination of PARP inhibitor and TMZ as being most effective. Our studies point out that after TMZ induced DNA methylation and concomitant PARP trapping, DNA damage-imposed checkpoint kinase activation consequently induces G2-cell cycle arrest. Subsequent, PARP inhibitor/TMZ causes MCL-1 degradation, followed by activation of BAK and BAX, succeeding in loss of mitochondrial outer membrane potential (LMMP) and activation of downstream effector-caspases in mitochondrial apoptosis. Our findings emphasize the importance of PARP inhibition in order to chemosensitize ES, which express high PARP levels, or OS that bear features of BRCAness.
Three types of post-translation modifications (PTMs) containing N-glycosylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitylation were characterized in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) on a global scale using quantitative mass spectrometry based proteomics technology in this study.
DLBCL is the most common type of malignant lymphomas and has a heterogeneous gene expression profiling, phenotype and clinical response to chemotherapy. DLBCL is a good model for the correct classification of cancers into molecularly different subtypes, which benefits for the selection of rational therapeutic strategies. It resulted in two histologically indistinguishable subtypes-activated B-cell-like (ABC) subgroup and germinal center B-cell-like (GCB) subgroup according to gene expression profiling. Signals originating from the B-cell receptor (BCR), the key protein on the surface of B cells, promote growth and survival of DLBCL. Antigen-dependent/independent BCR signaling is found in DLBCL subtypes.
Recent researches reveal that glycosylation plays role in human cells via site-specific regulation. Aberrant N-glycosylation in BCR-related effectors, such as, CD79a, immunoglobulin M or G (IgM or IgG), has been found to be associated with lymphoid malignancies. However, accurate quantification of intact glycopeptides and their individual glycan moieties in a cell-wide manner is still challenging. Here we established a site-specific quantitative N-glycoproteomics platform termed SugarQuant. It included a fast sample preparation workflow using Protein Aggregation Capture (PAC), an optimized multi-notch MS3 acquisition workflow (Glyco-SPS-MS3), a self-developed R-based tool (GlycoBinder). The robustness and accuracy of quantitation in SugarQuant were proved in a study using the different amounts of TMT-labelled IgM N-glycopeptides spiked into a background of TMT-labelled yeast peptides. Next, we used SugarQuant to identify and quantify more than 5000 unique glycoforms in Burkitt’s lymphoma cells treated with a series of doses of 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-L-fucose (2FF) and determine the more accurate site-specific glycosylation changes that occurred upon inhibition of fucosylation compared to using MS2 analysis. It revealed that 2FF-sensitive N-glycosylation on key players in BCR-mediated signaling in DG75. Furthermore, 2FF treatment also affects phosphorylation of the key players involving in B cell receptor signaling.
Then we investigated the site-specific quantitative N-glycoproteome in the cell lines of DLBCL subtypes using SugarQuant. More than 7000 unique intact glycopeptides (glycoforms) were quantified in five ABC DLBCL and four GCB DLBCL cell lines. The glycoproteome mapping (intact glycopeptide expressions) in each cell line allows to segregate DLBCL subtypes. The majority of these glycoforms were from the key cell-surface BCR effectors, such as IgM, CD79 and PTPRC. Lastly, we investigated the change of fucosylated glycopeptides in TMD8 cell line upon knockout of the fucosyltransferase FUT8, which is responsible for core-fucose synthesis, and by the treatment with 2FF. The results revealed that FUT8 might also regulate the synthesis of sub/terminal fucose on glycan chain and the inhibition of fucosylation increased the sialyated glycopeptide expression.
Phosphorylation is involved in regulating multiple processes as an important mediator in BCR signaling. Likewise, ubiquitylation plays vital roles in the activation of the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) pathway in BCR signaling. There are two vital upstream BCR-proximal tyrosine kinases, Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) and spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK), which regulate the auto-phosphorylation and phosphorylation of other proteins in BCR signaling pathway. Here we investigated the dynamics of downstream phosphorylation and ubiquitylation signaling in ABC DLBCL and GCB DLBCL cell lines upon the inhibitions of BTK and SYK using quantitative proteomics strategy. In the phosphoproteome analysis, a large dataset of quantified phosphorylation sites was obtained in the three ABC and four GCB DLBCL cell lines. BCR signaling in the subtypes of DLBCL cell lines was found to be highly individual in distinct cell lines. These significantly regulated phosphorylation events in each cell line with individual treatment were involved in multiple Reactome pathways, such as, M phase, signaling by Rho GTPases and diseases of signal transduction. Moreover, the gene regulation-related biological processes including chromosome organization and medication, DNA metabolic process, nuclear export, were involved in the DLBCL cell lines. In the ubiquitinome analysis, we identified more than 15,000 ubiquitylation sites in two ABC and one GCB cell lines upon the inhibition of BTK and SYK. The different ubiquitylation events observed in ABC and GCB subtypes revealed distinct BCR signaling pathways in two subtypes. The similar signaling perturbations across each cell line upon BTK and SYK inhibition, which were obtained from the significantly regulated ubiquitylated peptides expression, revealed the cell-type-specific concordance in ubiquitylation regulation upon BTK and SYK inhibition. These ubiquitylation modified proteins who bore the significantly regulated ubi-peptides in the samples were also found to be highly involved in gene regulatory processes.
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Necroptosis is a programmed cell death pathway that is implicated in a variety of human diseases. In recent years, increasing knowledge has been gained on the necroptotic signaling cascade. Nevertheless, the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in necroptosis is still ambiguous. In this study, we reveal that ROS critically regulate BV6/TNFα-induced necroptotic signaling in FADD-deficient Jurkat cells and in zVAD-treated MV4-11 cells. We show that several ROS scavengers such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), N-acetylcysteine (NAC), α-tocopherol (αToc) and ethyl pyruvate (EP) significantly reduce ROS production and BV6/TNFα–induced cell death. Importantly, ROS are produced prior to cell death induction and promote the assembly of the Receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIP)1/RIP3 necrosome complex via a potential positive feedback loop since on the one hand radical scavengers diminish RIP1/RIP3 necrosome formation and since on the other hand RIP1 or RIP3 silencing attenuates ROS production. Furthermore, the deubiquitinase CYLD contributes to BV6/TNFα-induced ROS generation, necrosome assembly and cell death since CYLD knockdown attenuates all these events. Of note, knockdown of the downstream effector protein mixed lineage kinase domain like (MLKL) only partly reduces BV6/TNFα-triggered ROS production and cell death and does not affect necrosome formation. Contrary to expectations, the MLKL inhibitor Necrosulfonamide (NSA) not only decreases BV6/TNFα-stimulated ROS production and cell death but also attenuates RIP1/RIP3 necrosome assembly pointing to additional and MLKL-independent anti-necroptotic effects of NSA. Interestingly, silencing of the potential necroptotic excecutors mitochondrial proteins phosphoglycerate mutase family member 5 (PGAM5) or Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) does not affect BV6/TNFα-induced cell death. Consistently, mitochondrial perturbations are not implicated in BV6/TNFα-induced cell death since mitochondrial membrane potential and respiration remain stable along with to BV6/TNFα-triggered necroptosis induction. Interference with the mitochondrial potential by depolarizing agents such as FCCP reduces BV6/TNFα-induced necroptosis indicating that proper mitochondrial function or a well-defined redox status is required for necroptotic cell death execution. This study demonstrates that ROS are critically involved in BV6/TNFα-induced necroptosis and thus provides novel insights into the redox regulation of necroptotic signaling.
In der vorliegenden Dissertation stand die Aufklärung der Funktion und Regulation von p21 in der Mitose im Mittelpunkt. p21 ist als Cdk-Inhibitor und Schlüsselregulator bekannt, der in viele fundamentale zelluläre Prozesse involviert ist: Zellzyklusregulation, Apoptose, Seneszenz, Zellmigration und Dynamik des Zytoskeletts, Transkription, Differenzierung sowie DNA-Reparatur, aber auch in die Umprogrammierung induzierter pluripotenter Stammzellen (Besson et al. 2008; Abbas und Dutta 2009; Jung et al. 2010).
Die unkontrollierte Proliferation von Zellen ist mit der Tumorgenese assoziiert und wird unter anderem durch die Fehlregulation von p21, aber auch durch die wichtigen mitotischen Kinasen Cdk1, im Komplex mit ihrer regulatorischen Untereinheit Cyclin B1, sowie Plk1 bedingt. Zudem ist das Fehlen von p21 oder die Fehllokalisation in das Zytoplasma mit einer schlechteren Prognose für den Patienten und Chemotherapie-Resistenz von Tumoren verbunden (Abukhdeir und Park 2008). Aufgrund der zunehmenden Inzidenz und Mortalität von Krebserkrankungen ist es daher von besonderem klinischem Interesse, die molekularen Ursachen für die Entstehung maligner Tumorerkrankungen aufzuklären. Bislang existieren kaum Studien über welche molekularen Mechanismen die Funktionen von p21, dem wichtigsten Cdk-Inhibitor, der zum Beispiel durch die Anwendung niedermolekularer Inhibitoren wie BI 2536, das sich bereits in klinischen Phase II Studien befindet (Strebhardt 2010), beeinflusst wird, während der Mitose reguliert werden.
In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde daher die physiologische Rolle des Cdk-Inhibitors bzw. Regulators p21 während der Mitose untersucht und mit der Kinaseaktivität von Cdk1/Cyclin B1, wie auch Plk1 korreliert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass p21 während der Mitose stark exprimiert wird und dass mitotisches p21 in verschiedenen Krebszelllinien unabhängig von dem p53-Status in einer phosphorylierten Form vorkommt, welche mit der Aktivität von Cdk1 und weniger mit der von Cdk2 assoziiert ist. Durch Untersuchungen der isogenen HCT116-Zelllinien mit und ohne p21 wurde aufgezeigt, wie wichtig p21 für den ordnungsgemäßen Ablauf der Mitose ist. Ohne p21 sind sowohl die Anaphase wie auch die Zytokinese verlängert, die Zellen ordnen die Chromosomen fehlerhaft in der Metaphaseplatte an (congression Fehler), besitzen weitaus mehr lagging Chromosomen und fast 20 % der Zellen weisen im Versuchsverlauf Polyploidie auf. Durch den Verlust des Cdk-Regulators p21 kommt es zur Fehlregulation von Cdk1 und seiner Substrate (wie MCAK) und es treten die oben beschriebenen Probleme auf.
Weiterhin phosphoryliert Cdk1/Cyclin B1 p21 an Ser-130 in vitro und ex vivo in der frühen Phase der Mitose, der Prophase bzw. Prometaphase. Die nicht phosphorylierbare p21 Form S130A befindet sich hauptsächlich im Zellkern und führt zu vermehrtem Auftreten von congression Fehlern, während die S130D-Mutante, die die Phosphorylierung durch Cdk1 vortäuscht, schneller degradiert wird und zudem den Phänotyp der HCT116 p21-/- Zellen verstärkt. Zellen, die S130D exprimieren, benötigen mehr Zeit für das Durchlaufen der Mitose. Hier ist vor allem die Metaphase stark verlängert, aber auch Anaphase und Zytokinese. Dies führt zu congression Fehlern und zu Polyploidie. Diese Ergebnisse bestätigen, wie wichtig die zeitlich korrekte Phosphorylierung von p21 und die dadurch vermittelte Aktivierung von Cdk1/Cyclin B1 ist.
Darüber hinaus stabilisiert die Suppression von Plk1 das p21 Protein, was darauf hinweist, dass die Degradation von p21 während der Prometaphase von Plk1 kontrolliert wird. Dies wird von der Tatsache unterstützt, dass Ser-114, wie auch Ser116 von Plk1 in vitro phosphoryliert wird. Die Deregulation von p21 durch Plk1, SS114/116AA bzw. SS114/116DD induziert Chromosomenfehler, wodurch die molekularen Mechanismen, warum fehlreguliertes Plk1 die Tumorgenese fördert, hervorgehoben werden.
Nach Abschluss der bisherigen Untersuchungen steht fest, dass man sich von der starren Rolle von p21 als Tumorsuppressor und Akteur während der G1/S-Phase lösen muss. Der Cdk-Inhibitor p21 trägt entscheidend zur mitotischen Progression bei, vor allem bedingt durch die zeitlich ordnungsgemäße Inaktivierung bzw. Aktivierung von Cdk1/Cyclin B1, der Kinase, die wiederum zahlreiche für die Mitose essentielle Proteine reguliert. In Zukunft muss zum besseren Verständnis der Rolle von p21 in der Mitose die genaue Abfolge der Ereignisse unter Einbeziehung der Degradationsmechanismen eingehender untersucht werden.
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), a neoplastic disorder of blood cells of the lymphoid lineage, is the most frequent childhood cancer. In spite of increasing survival rates, the outcome for adults, infants or relapsed patients is still less favorable, highlighting the need for novel treatment options. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important signaling molecules that are involved in a variety of cellular pathways. As high ROS levels lead to oxidative stress and irreversible oxidation of cellular macromolecules, the production and elimination of ROS is tightly controlled. Therefore, cells express several antioxidant molecules and enzymes, including glutathione, catalase and the thioredoxin (Trx) system, to balance ROS levels. As cancer cells were found to have increased ROS levels that could contribute to tumor progression and metastasis, they rely strongly on these antioxidant systems to prevent oxidative damage, making cancer cells especially vulnerable to ROS-inducing treatments. ROS and oxidative stress have been shown to induce programmed cell death via different pathways, however the exact mechanisms that couples oxidative signaling and cell death is not completely understood.
As a disturbance of the cellular redox homeostasis was reported during leukemia development and progression, we wanted to determine the potential of Trx inhibitors for ALL therapy. Additionally, we aimed to further understand the role of ROS and subsequent protein oxidation in the induction and execution of programmed cell death.
First, we demonstrated that the Trx1 inhibitor PX-12 induced cell death in three ALL cell lines. Further analysis of the events leading to PX-12-induced cell death in FADD-deficient (FD) Jurkat cells revealed an increase in ROS levels and oxidation-mediated dimer formation of peroxiredoxin 3 (PRDX3). Interestingly cell death was inhibited by the thiol-containing antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC), but not by non-thiol-containing ROS scavengers. PX-12 treatment further induced cleavage of caspase-9 and -3 and activation of the pro-apoptotic BCL-2 protein BAK, leading us to the conclusion that mitochondria-dependent apoptosis was induced. Interestingly, we could demonstrate an important role for the BH3-only protein NOXA in the mediation of PX-12-induced apoptosis as knock-down of NOXA prevented cell death induction and BAK activation. Our findings give novel insights into the mechanism of PX-12-induced cell death in ALL cell lines and underscores the potential of PX-12 for the treatment of ALL.
To further understand the processes leading to cell death upon inhibition of the Trx system, we analyzed global protein oxidation in Jurkat FD cells upon treatment with the Trx reductase inhibitor Auranofin. In line with previous results, Auranofin induced intrinsic apoptosis that was dependent on BAK and accompanied by increased ROS levels. Using a BIAM Switch Assay followed by mass spectrometry, we demonstrated that Auranofin treatment induced oxidation of over 200 proteins. We identified several proteins whose oxidation upon Auranofin treatment was expected, like Trx1, Trx2 and several peroxiredoxins. Additionally, we verified oxidation of APAF1-interacting protein (APIP) and protein arginine N-methyltransferase (PRMT1) that are both implicated in the regulation of apoptosis. With this analysis we were able to demonstrate that Auranofin treatment leads to changes in global protein oxidation. Whether oxidation of the determined proteins changes their functionality and contributes to apoptosis induction remains to be elucidated.
As we identified BAK as an important player in PX-12- and Auranofin-induced cell death in the previous parts of this study, we wanted to further understand its involvement in ROS-mediated cell death. First analyses in wild-type (WT) and BAK-/- murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) revealed that BAK was essential for Auranofin-induced cell death and that this cell death was caspase-independent in MEFs. Interestingly, BAK oxidation was induced upon treatment with Auranofin, but not upon stimulation with the apoptosis-inducing compound Etoposide. Expression of mutated BAK, with either one or both oxidation-sensitive cysteines mutated to oxidation-insensitive serines, revealed that mutating already one cysteine protected cells from Auranofin , but not Etoposide-induced cell death. Of note, mutation of the BAK BH3 domain rescued MEFs from both, Auranofin- and Etoposide-mediated cell death. The presence of cysteine residues also altered BAK interactions as observed by a mass spectrometric analysis of Auranofin-treated MEFs expressing either WT or cysteine-less BAK. We identified interactions of WT BAK with proteins involved in mitochondrial fission and vesicle transport upon Auranofin treatment. Of note, interaction with proteins involved in apoptosis, like BAX or BCL-XL, was not changed between WT and cysteine-less BAK. Our results demonstrate a critical role for BAK oxidation in Auranofin-induced cell death. Furthermore, we identified novel oxidation-dependent BAK interaction partners.
To conclude, this study highlights the potential of ROS-inducing treatments for ALL therapy and provides novel insights into the redox regulation of programmed cell death.
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor belongs to the broad family of enzymatic receptors called receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Generally, the binding of a ligand to these receptors leads to activation of their intracellular kinase activity that sets in motion a cascade of signaling events. In order to ensure appropriate responses to physiological stimuli, the cell is endowed with the ability to regulate signal transduction via numerous mechanisms such as dephosphorylation of the RTK and its substrates as well as downregulation of the RTK. Activation of EGFR is a potent mitogenic (proliferative) and motogenic (cell motility) signal that plays crucial roles during embryonic development and maintenance of adult tissue. EGFR signaling is primarily regulated by ligand-induced receptor internalization with subsequent degradation in lysosomes. While the complex of proteins that are recruited to EGFR after its activation is well understood, proteins that interact with the receptor in the absence of ligand binding are still not systematically studied. With the goal of identifying novel binding partners of non-activated EGFR, a membrane based yeast-two hybrid screen (MYTH) was conducted. MYTH is based on the principle of in vivo reconstitution of the N-terminus (Nub) and C-terminus (Cub) halves of ubiquitin once brought into close proximity. A chimeric protein consisting of EGFR fused to Cub and a transcription factor was used as a bait to screen Nub-tagged cDNA library. Analysis of resultant yeast transformants revealed a total of 87 proteins to interact with EGFR. Of these only 11 were previously shown to bind to EGFR. A majority of the other proteins were shown to interact with the receptor by yeast retransformation. Fifteen were confirmed to bind to EGFR by coimmunoprecipitation assays in mammalian cells. One of the novel EGFR interactors identified in the screen was histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6). This deacetylase is localized in the cytoplasm and known to deacetylate alpha-tubulin, HSP90 and cortactin. The juxtamembrane region of EGFR binds to the Cterminus of HDAC6. Functionally, overexpression of wild type HDAC6 stabilized ligand-induced degradation of the receptor. On the other hand, deacetylase deficient or EGFR binding compromised mutants of HDAC6 were able to stabilize EGFR only partially. Downmodulation of HDAC6 expression by RNAi markedly accelerated degradation of the receptor. Taken together, HDAC6 is a negative regulator of EGFR downregulation that is dependent on its deacetylase activity and ability to bind to the receptor. Imaging studies revealed that HDAC6 does not affect internalization of EGFR from the plasma membrane but rather influences the post-endocytic trafficking of the receptor-ligand complex to lysosomes. Pulse-chase experiments using fluorophoretagged EGF showed that EGFR is transported faster towards the peri-nuclear region and delivered to late endosomes rapidly in HDAC6 depleted cells. HDAC6 is demonstrated to act, at least partly, by regulating the acetylation of alpha-tubulin. Upon EGFR activation, acetylation of alpha-tubulin on lysine 40 is progressively increased as shown by mass spectrometry and immunoblotting. Forced expression of a dominant negative mutant of alpha-tubulin, but not wild type alpha-tubulin, led to reduced speed and processive movement of early endosomes in GFP-Rab5 expressing cells. In a surprising twist, EGFR is able to phosphorylate HDAC6 on Tyr570. Phosphorylation of Tyr570 and Ser568 leads to inactivation of the deacetylase function of HDAC6 as shown by in vivo and in vitro assays. In summary, HDAC6 diminishes EGFR downregulation by slowing the transport of intracellular vesicles. The inhibitory effect is removed once HDAC6 is phosphorylated on key residues. In line with these findings, two recent reports have shown that hyper-acetylation of alpha-tubulin induced by inhibition of HDAC6 increases the transport of brain derived neurotrophic factor and JNK interacting protein-1 in different cell systems. Acetylated microtubules are more efficient in recruiting motor proteins like kinesin-1 and dynein. These findings indicate that HDAC6 plays an important regulatory role in intracellular trafficking pathways. However, several outstanding issues still remain unresolved. How does acetylation of microtubules influence vesicular trafficking? In this regard, the temporal and spatial dynamics of alpha-tubulin acetylation following EGFR activation should be studied. Furthermore, whether HDAC6 affects the trafficking of other endocytic cargos and additional organelles is an interesting question to address.
Since Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins are frequently dysregulated in different cancer entities and contribute to apoptosis resistance, pharmacological IAP antagonists are considered to be promising agents for the future development of cancer treatment strategies. IAP antagonists are small-molecule drugs that have been designed to mimic the interaction site of IAP proteins with their endogenous inhibitor Second mitochondrial activator of caspases (SMAC). Thus, they are frequently referred to as SMAC mimetics. Treatment with SMAC mimetics engages an apoptotic program in cancers by affecting different components of the apoptotic machinery. Besides disinhibition of caspases, SMAC mimetics trigger non-canonical nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling, which induces upregulation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α and other NF-κB target genes. In particular, TNFα production has been closely linked to the induction of SMAC mimetic-mediated cell death. The TNFα-dependent para/autocrine loop facilitates the formation of a cytosolic complex consisting of caspase-8, Fas-associated death domain (FADD) and Receptor-interacting protein (RIP) 1, which serves as caspase-8 activation platform and ultimately triggers induction of apoptosis. In the present study, we use the small-molecule bivalent SMAC mimetic BV6 to analyze SMAC-stimulated NF-κB signaling in cancer cell lines of different entities. Interestingly, we identify two novel NF-κB-regulated factors that are both required for SMAC mimetic-induced apoptosis in a context-dependent manner. First, we show that NF-κB-dependent upregulation of death receptor 5 (DR5) can serve as an alternative mechanism of BV6-mediated cell death. We demonstrate that BV6 treatment induces NF-κB-dependent but largely TNFα -independent apoptosis in A172 glioblastoma cells. By using an unbiased whole genome expression analysis approach, we identify DR5 as a critical NF-κB target gene, which substitutes TNFα and is indispensable for BV6-initated cell death in A172 cells. Second, we demonstrate that Interferon regulatory factor (IRF) 1 is required for BV6-induced TNFα production and apoptosis. Our study provides evidence that IRF1 closely cooperates with the NF-κB network in BV6-mediated cell death and additionally alters expression of selective SMAC mimetic-induced target genes. Furthermore, we show that BV6 treatment triggers secretion of a set of proinflammatory cytokines and increases attraction of monocytes to BV6-treated tumor cells in an IRF1-dependent manner. In summary, our work supports the notion that NF-κB-regulated factors are critically required for SMAC mimetic-initiated apoptosis. We show that IRF1 is indispensable for TNFα production and cell death in BV6-sensitive cell lines and that also DR5 can serve as a proapoptotic NF-κB-controlled factor in BV6-induced apoptosis besides TNFα. Furthermore, this study contributes to an improved understanding on non-apoptotic functions of SMAC mimetics, as IRF1 additionally influences expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines and attraction of immune cells. Thus, our work provides novel insights into the regulation of SMAC mimetic-induced signaling events, which is crucial for the translation of SMAC mimetics for use in clinical application.
Die Gentherapie bietet eine interessante alternative Behandlungsoption bei der Therapie der HIV-Infektion und könnte langfristig die Standardmedikation mit antiretroviralen Substanzen ergänzen oder ersetzen. Antivirale Genprodukte, die frühe Schritte im HIV-Replikationszyklus hemmen, bevor sich das Virus in das Genom der Zielzelle integriert hat, sind dabei besonders vielversprechend. Hierzu zählen insbesondere die von der C-terminalen heptad repeat Region des HIV-Hüllglykoproteins gp41 abgeleiteten C-Peptide, die hochwirksame Inhibitoren des Viruseintritts sind. Während des HIV-Eintrittsprozesses interagieren sie mit den viralen gp41 N-Helices und verhindern somit die Ausbildung des zur Fusion von viraler und zellulärer Membran erforderlichen Sechs-Helix-Bündels. Die Sekretion antiretroviraler C-Peptide durch genmodifizierte T-Lymphozyten in vivo birgt großes therapeutisches Potential: Nach Freisetzung in den extrazellulären Raum können die Peptide nicht nur genmodifizierte sondern auch unbehandelte Nachbarzellen vor HIV-Infektion schützen (Bystander-Effekt). Somit könnte selbst mit den heute zur Verfügung stehenden Methoden, mit denen lediglich ein Teil aller potentiellen HIV-Zielzellen modifiziert werden kann, die Virusreplikation effektiv unterdrückt werden. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden daher C-Peptid-basierte in vivo sezernierte antivirale Eintrittsinhibitoren (iSAVE) für die HIV-Gentherapie entwickelt. Kurze Peptide, wie die antiviralen C-Peptide, werden von eukaryotischen Zellen aufgrund von Größenbeschränkungen beim Eintritt in den Sekretionsweg jedoch nur schlecht sezerniert. Um die effiziente Sekretion von iSAVE-Peptiden durch genmodifizierte humane Zellen zu erreichen, wurde das C-Peptid daher verlängert. Hierbei wurde das therapeutische Peptid einerseits um nicht antiviral aktive Gerüstelemente ergänzt. Andererseits wurden Concatemer-Konstrukte generiert, in denen zwei C-Peptide jeweils über einen flexiblen oder proteolytisch spaltbaren Linker verbunden sind. Die unterschiedlichen iSAVE-Peptid-Varianten wurden in vitro in transfizierten und transduzierten Zelllinien und in primären humanen T-Lymphozyten charakterisiert. Hierbei wurden Sekretionseffizienz und Prozessierung sowie antivirale Aktivität und Bystander-Inhibition der sezernierten Peptide untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Effizienz der C-Peptidsekretion stark mit der Peptidlänge korreliert, so dass durch Sequenzverlängerungen die Sekretion deutlich gesteigert werden konnte. Darüber hinaus waren N-Glykane für die effiziente Sekretion der C-Peptide unerlässlich. Die antiretrovirale Aktivität hingegen reduzierte sich mit zunehmender Peptidlänge dramatisch und wurde auch durch N-Glykane leicht beeinträchtigt, so dass weder die durch Gerüstelemente verlängerten C-Peptide, noch die ungespaltenen C-Peptid-Concatemere antiretrovirale Wirkung zeigten. Durch die Generierung proteolytisch spaltbarer C-Peptid-Concatemere konnten die strukturellen Erfordernisse für effiziente Sekretion mit hoher inhibitorischer Aktivität vereinbart werden. Die Prozessierung der Concatemere durch die Proprotein-Convertase Furin war allerdings nicht einfach zu erreichen. Nur das Einfügen eines flexiblen Linkers mit optimierter Furinerkennungssequenz zwischen den beiden C-Peptiden erlaubte die effiziente Spaltung in monomere Peptide mit hoher antiretroviraler Aktivität. Therapeutisch wirksame Peptidkonzentrationen dieser optimierten iSAVE-Peptide wurden sowohl von transfizierten und transduzierten Zelllinien als auch von primären humanen T-Zellen sezerniert. Nach Freisetzung in den extrazellulären Raum konnten die Peptide nicht nur genmodifizierte sondern auch unbehandelte Nachbarzellen in vitro vor HIV-1 Eintritt und Infektion schützen. Die generierten iSAVE-Peptide bilden damit eine hervorragende Grundlage für die weitere präklinische und klinische Entwicklung eines neuen Gentherapieansatzes zur Behandlung der HIV-Infektion.
Resistance in glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis is associated with poor prognosis for long term survival in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). As Smac mimetics have been shown to reactivate apoptosis by antagonizing Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins, we investigate the potential of the Smac mimetic BV6 to overcome glucocorticoid-resistance in ALL. This study shows that BV6 synergistically cooperates with glucocorticoids to trigger apoptosis and to suppress clonogenic growth of pediatric ALL cells. Of note, the BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment also induces cell death in cells having defects in the apoptotic signaling cascade by inducing a switch from apoptotic to necroptotic cell death. The clinical relevance of our novel combination treatment is underscored by parallel experiments in primary pediatric ALL samples, in which glucocorticoids and BV6 act together to induce cell death in a synergistic manner. Importantly, the addition of BV6 enhances the anti-leukemic effects of glucocorticoids in an in vivo mouse model of pediatric ALL without causing substantial side effects, highlighting the potency of a BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment. In contrast, BV6 does not increase cytotoxicity of glucocorticoids against several non-malignant cell types of the lympho-hematopoietic system. Furthermore, we have identified the novel underlying mechanism of BV6/glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by showing that BV6 and glucocorticoids synergistically act together to promote assembly of the ripoptosome, a RIP1/FADD/caspase-8-containing cell death complex. Ripoptosome assembly is critically required for BV6/Dexamethasone-induced cell death, since genetic silencing of its members, i.e. RIP1, reduces ROS production, caspase activation and most importantly cell death induction. BV6/glucocorticoid combination treatment promotes ripoptosome assembly by inhibition of both of its negative regulators, IAP proteins and cFLIP. Thus, we identify that BV6 and glucocorticoids cooperate together to reduce cIAP1, cIAP2 and XIAP protein levels and cFLIP expression. Ripoptosome formation occurs independently of autocrine/paracrine loops of death receptor ligands, since blocking antibodies for TNFα, TRAIL or CD95L or genetic silencing of their corresponding receptors fail to rescue BV6/glucocorticoid-induced cell death. In summary, this study shows that the Smac mimetic BV6 sensitizes for glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by promoting ripoptosome assembly with important implications for the treatment of childhood ALL.
Small molecule inhibitors sensitize neuroblastoma cells for chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis
(2015)
Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common solid extracranial pediatric tumors, deriving from undifferentiated cells of the peripheral nervous system. It accounts for approximately 10% of all childhood cancers. High stage tumors usually show poor prognosis despite aggressive treatment such as radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to find novel treatment strategies in order to improve existing chemotherapy protocols. Combination treatment offers advantages, as chemotherapeutic drugs can be applied in low and subtoxic doses, reducing possible side-effects. Here, we report in a two-part study that small molecule inhibitors (SMI), namely BI 2536, a PLK1 inhibitor and BV6, a SMAC mimetic (SM), sensitize neuroblastoma cells for chemotherapeutic drug-induced cell death. By using i) BI 2536 in combination with vinca alkaloids and ii) BV6 in combination with either doxorubicin or vinca alkaloids, we show that cell death is synergistically enhanced compared to monotherapy. Furthermore, combination treatment significantly reduces survival of NB cells in long-term assays, compared to single treatment. We identify that vinca alkaloid/SMI combinations induce mitotic arrest, as shown by phosphorylation of histone H3, which results in the induction of intrinsic apoptosis and inhibition of CDK1 by RO-3306 could abolish these findings. Mechanistically, upon vinca alkaloid/SMI-induced mitotic arrest, anti-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins such as MCL-1, BCL-2 or BCL-XL are degraded or inactivated by phosphorylation, which induces the activation of the proapoptotic BCL-2 family proteins BAX and BAK. The importance of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in vinca alkaloid/SMI-induced cell death was further highlighted by the fact that ectopic expression of BCL-2 inhibits vinca alkaloid/SMI-induced DNA fragmentation and BAK- and caspase-activation. In contrast to the vinca alkaloid/SMI cotreatment, DOX/SMI (DOX/BV6)-induced apoptosis only partially involves the mitochondrial pathway. Instead, we clarify that RIP1 is required for DOX/BV6-induced apoptosis, as pharmacological and genetic inhibition of RIP1 rescues from apoptosis induction. Although it has been shown in previous studies that SM-treatment (e.g. BV6) can induce the NF-κB pathway and auto-/paracrine TNFα production through cIAP1/2 depletion, DOX/BV6-induced apoptosis is completely independent of NF-κB activation in our setting, despite fast cIAP1 depletion. This conclusion is based on the fact that inhibition of the NF-κB pathway by exogenously expressed dominant-negative IκBα as well as application of a TNFα blocking antibody does not reduce DOX/BV6-induced cell death. In summary, we unravel two new promising treatment strategies for neuroblastoma patients by using a combination treatment of two different small molecule inhibitors, combined with well-characterized chemotherapeutic agents. Furthermore we give detailed insights into cell death pathways induced by these combination treatments, in which mitochondria and RIP1 have a differential role in chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis.
Die 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) stellt den Startpunkt des Leukotrienstoffwechsels dar, da sie Arachidonsäure (AA) über die 5(S)-Hydroperoxy-6-trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraensäure (5-HpETE) in Leukotrien A4 (LTA4) umwandelt. 5-HpETE kann zum korrespondierenden Alkohol 5(S)-Hydroxy-6-trans-8,11,14-cis-eicosatetraensäure (5-HETE) reduziert werden. LTA4 dient als Zwischenprodukt für die Synthese von LTB4 und den Cysteinyl-gebundenden LTs LTC4, LTD4 und LTE4. LTs nehmen eine wichtige Funktion in der Immunabwehr ein, sind jedoch auch an einer Vielzahl von Krankheitsgeschehen wie z. B. Asthma bronchiale, Atherosklerose und einiger Tumorarten beteiligt. Die 5-LOX teilt sich in zwei Domänen auf: der reglatorischen, N-terminalen Domäne und der katalytischen, C-terminalen Domäne. Ihre Aktivität unterliegt einer komplexen allosterischen Regulation und kinetischen Besonderheiten wie einer Substratinhibition. In vielen Fällen ist die regulatorische PLAT-(Polycystin-1, Lipoxygenase, alpha-Toxin)-Domäne involviert. Sie ist essentiell an der Bindung von Calcium, Membranen und weiterer Faktoren wie dem Coactosin-like protein (CLP) und Dicer beteiligt. Auch eine zweite Bindungsstelle für das Substrat oder einen seiner Metaboliten wird dort vermutet. Letztlich bleibt jedoch die Regulation der 5-LOX-Aktivität durch die PLAT-Domäne unzureichend geklärt. Diese Tatsache und die fortwährende Suche nach neuen Ansatzpunkten für die 5-LOX-Inhibition bilden den Hintergrund, vor dem diese Arbeit angefertigt wurde.
Das Ziel lag in der Entwicklung einer stabilen, isolierten PLAT-Domäne und deren Charakterisierung. Es stellte sich jedoch heraus, dass sich die isolierte Domäne durch eine hohe thermische Instabilität und starke Aggregationsneigung auszeichnet. Mittels Mutationsstudien auf Basis der 5-LOX AS 1-115, verbunden mit Gelfiltrationsläufen zur Analyse der Proteinaggregation, wurde schließlich ein Konstrukt entwickelt, das in Konzentrationen < 0,5 mg/ml als Monomer vorlag: die sogenannte PLAT1-115 W75G. Ein Austausch des W75 in Glycin erhöhte ebenfalls die thermische Stabilität, so dass Versuche bei 20°C durchgeführt werden konnten. Zunächst wurden jedoch die grundlegenden Eigenschaften der Mutante untersucht. Dies umfasste die Beantwortung der Frage, ob auch die PLAT1-115 W75G Calcium bindet, sowie die Aufnahme eines Circulardichroismus-(CD)-Spektrums. Der erste Aspekt konnte mit mehreren Methoden bestätigt werden. Eine Calciumzugabe zum Laufpuffer 20 mM MOPS, 50 mM KCl pH 7,4 erhöhte konzentrationsabhängig das Elutionsvolumen der PLAT1-115 W75G auf der analytischen Gelfiltrationssäule – vermutlich durch den bekannten Einfluss von Calcium auf die Hydrophobizität der PLAT-Domäne. Zusätzlich wurde die Interaktion durch differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) und Oberflächen-Plasmonen-Resonanz-Spektroskopie (SPR) nachgewiesen. Allerdings gelang aus verschiedenen Gründen keine Quantifizierung der Bindungsaffinität. Das CD-Spektrum bestätigte die Struktur der PLAT-Domäne als sogenanntes all-beta_protein und ermöglichte die Einordnung der PLAT1-115 W75G in die Gruppe der betaII-Proteine.
Ein weiterer Fokus dieser Arbeit lag auf der vermuteten allosterischen Fettsäurebindungsstelle in der PLAT-Domäne. Es wurde versucht, die Interaktion mittels SPR nachzuweisen. Zur Vorbereitung wurde im 5-LOX-Aktivitätstest und im DSF an der isolierten Domäne ein Detergens bestimmt, das einen möglichst geringen Einfluss auf das Protein ausübt. Dabei zeigte Octyl-beta-D-glucopyranosid (beta-OG) das vorteilhafteste Profil. Auf dieser Basis wurde die kritische Mizellbildungs-Konzentration (CMC) der AA und einiger HETEs in beta-OG-haltigen Puffern bestimmt. Die SPR-Studien ergaben jedoch keine reproduzierbaren Ergebnisse. In einem weiteren Schritt wurden die Substrathemmung des Gesamtproteins 5-LOX und der Einfluss von Calcium charakterisiert. Sowohl in Gegenwart von ~ 1 mM freiem Calcium als auch von 1 mM EDTA lag mit 20 µM AA die höchste Produktbildung nach 10-minütiger Reaktion vor. Das Detergens Tween20 (T20) hob in einer Konzentration unter seiner CMC (0,001 % m/V) in Anwesenheit von Calcium die Inhibition auf. Ohne Calcium zeigte sich auch in Gegenwart von T20 die bekannte Substratinhibition der 5-LOX einschließlich ihrer Maximalaktivität bei 20 µM AA. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass Calcium eine Bindung der 5-LOX an eventuell vorhandene, negativ geladene Vesikel aus AA und Detergens vermitteln und dadurch die Substratinhibition aufheben kann. In Fällen, in denen die Substratinhibition vor dem Erreichen der AA-CMC auftritt, hat Calcium folglich keinen Einfluss.
Zuletzt wurde die Interaktion der PLAT1–115 W75G mit CLP und einem C-terminalen Fragment von Dicer untersucht. Im Crosslinking ließ sich nicht auf eine Interaktion der isolierten PLAT-Domäne mit CLP schließen. Dagegen ergaben Diamid-Crosslinking-Studien, dass die isolierte PLAT-Domäne in der Lage ist, das Dicer-Fragment zu binden. Dieses Ergebnis wurde im SPR bestätigt.
Membrane proteins (MPs) constitute about 30% of the genome and are essential in many cellular processes. In particular structural characterisation of MPs is challenged by their hydrophobic nature resulting in expression difficulties and structural instability upon extraction from the membrane. Despite these challenges, progress in sample preparation and the techniques to solve MP structures has led to 281 unique MP structures as of January 2011. Through the combination of a cell-free expression system and selective labelling strategies, this thesis aimed to advance the structure determination of α-helical MPs by NMR spectroscopy and resulted in the structure determination of a seven-ransmembrane-helix protein. Results were obtained for the 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP) and proteorhodopsin (PR). The detergent-based cell-free expression mode proved most efficient for production of both targets, but optimisation of FLAP and PR followed different routes. The presence of a retinal cofactor in PR greatly facilitated the search for an appropriate hydrophobic environment. For structural studies, NMR spectra of FLAP indicated favourable properties of the lysolipid LPPG. In contrast, PR was stable and homogenous in the short-chain lipid diC7PC. As NMR spectra of α-helical MPs are generally characterised by broad lines and signal overlap, selective labelling strategies were essential in the assignment process of both targets. For the backbone assignment of FLAP the transmembrane segment-enhanced (TMS) labelling was developed, employing the six amino acids AFGILV. These residues cluster predominantly in transmembrane helices and form long stretches allowing a large extent of backbone assignment. Besides that, the combinatorial labelling enables identification of unique pairs in the sequence based on a mixture of 15N and 1-13C-labelled amino acids. To find the optimal labelling pattern for a given primary structure, the UPLABEL algorithm has been made available and successfully applied in the backbone assignment of PR. Both selective labelling approaches greatly benefitted from the use of a cell-free expression system to reduce isotope scrambling. Additionally, the de novo structure of PR was determined with an average backbone rmsd of 1.2 Å based on TALOS-derived backbone torsion angles, intrahelical hydrogen bond restraints and distance restraints from the NOE and paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE). A major bottleneck in the NMR structure determination of MPs concerns the number of long-range distances which are often limited. In PR, side chain assignment was enabled by stereo-array isotope labelling as well as selective labelling which provided 33 long-range NOEs. These NOEs stabilised the symmetry of the seven helix bundle. With a total number of 1031, the majority of long-range distances were derived from PREs. The structure of PR reveals differences to its homologues such as the absence of an anti-parallel β-sheet between helices B and C and allows conclusions towards the mechanism of colour tuning.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) bacterial resistance to antibiotic drug therapy is emerging as a major public health problem around the world. Infectious diseases seriously threaten the health and economy of all countries. Hence, the preservation of the effectiveness of antibiotics is a world wide priority. The key to preserving the power of antibiotics lies in maintaining their diversity. Many microorganisms are capable of producing these bioactive products, the so called antibiotics. Specifically in microorganisms, polyketide synthases (PKS) and non-ribosomal peptide synthases (NRPS) produce these natural bioactive compounds. Besides being used as antibiotics these non-ribosomal peptides and polyketides display an even broader spectrum of biological activities, e.g. as antivirals, immunosuppressants or in antitumor therapy. The wide functional spectrum of the peptides and ketides is due to their structural diversity. Mostly they are cyclic or branched cyclic compounds, containing non-proteinogenic amino acids, small heterocyclic rings and other unusual modifications such as epimerization, methylation, N‐formylation or heterocyclization. It is has been shown that these modifications are important for biological activity, but little is known about their biosynthetic origin.
PKS and NRPS are multidomain protein assembly lines which function by sequentially elongating a growing polyketide or peptide chain by incorporating acyl units or amino acids, respectively. The growing product is attached via a thioester linkage to the 4’-phosphopantetheine (4’-Ppant) arm of a holo acyl carrier protein (ACP) in PKSs or holo peptidyl carrier protein (PCP) in NRPSs and is passed from one module to another along the chain of reaction centers. The modular arrangement makes PKS and NRPS systems an interesting target for protein engineering. More than 200 novel polyketide compounds have already been created by module swapping, gene deletion or other specific manipulations. Unfortunately, however, engineered PKS often fail to produce significant amounts of the desired products. Structural studies may faciliate yield improvement from engineered systems by providing a more complete understanding of the interface between the different domains. While some information about domain-domain interactions, involving the most common enzymatic modules, ketosynthase and acyltransferase, is starting to emerge, little is known about the interaction of ACP domains with other modifying enzymes such as methyltransferases, epimerases or halogenases.
To further improve the understanding of domain-domain interactions this work focuses on the curacin A assembly line. Curacin A, which exhibits anti-mitotic activity, is from the marine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula. This outstanding natural product contains a cyclopropane ring, a thiazoline ring, an internal cis double bond and a terminal alkene. The biosynthesis of curacin A is performed by a 2.2 Mega Dalton (MDa) hybrid PKS-NRPS cluster. A 10-enzyme assembly catalyzes the formation of the cyclopropane moiety as the first building block of the final product. Interestingly, for these enzymes the substrate is presented by an unusual cluster of three consecutive ACPs (ACPI,II,III). Little is known about the function of multiple ACPs which are supposed to increase the overall flux for enhanced production of secondary metabolites.
The first task in this work was to elucidate the structural effect of the triplet ACP repetition by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The initial data show that the excised ACPI, ACPII or ACPIII proteins resulted in [15N, 1H]-TROSY spectra with strong chemical shift perturbations (CSPs), suggesting an effect on the structure. The triplet ACP domains display a high sequence identity (93- 100%) making structural investigation using usual NMR techniques due to high peak overlap impossible. To enable the investigation of the triplet ACP in its native composition we developed a powerful method, the three fragment ligation. Segmental labeling allows incorporating isotopes into one single domain in its multidomain context. As a result we could prepare the triplet ACP with only one domain isotopically labeled and therefore assign the full length protein. In this way our method paved the way to study the structural effects of the triplet ACP repetition. We could show unexpectedly, that, despite the fact that the triplet repeat of CurA ACPI,II,III has a synergistic effect in the biosynthesis of CurA, the domains are structurally independent.
In the second part of this work, we studied the structure of the isolated ACPI domain. Our results show that the CurA ACPI undergoes no major conformational changes upon activation via phosphopantetheinylation and therefore contradicts the conformational switching model which has been proposed for PCPs. Further we report the NMR solution structures of holo-ACPI and 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-ACPI. Data obtained from filtered nuclear overhauser effect (NOE) experiments indicate that the substrate HMG is not sequestered but presented on the ACP surface.
In the third part of this work we focussed on the protein-protein interactions of the isolated ACPI with its cognate interaction partners. We were especially interested in the interaction with the halogenase (Cur Hal), the first enzyme within the curacin A sub-cluster, acting on the initial hydroxyl-methyl-glutaryl (HMG) attached to ACPI. Primarily we studied the interaction using NMR titration and fluorescence anisotropy measurements. Surprisingly no complex between ACPI and Cur Hal could be detected. The combination of an activity assay using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectroscopy and mutational analysis revealed several amino acids of ACPI that strongly decrease the activity of CurA Hal. Mapping these mutations according to their effect on the Cur Hal activity onto the structure of HMG-ACPI displays that these amino acids surround the substrate and form a consecutive surface. These results suggest that this surface is important for Cur Hal recognition and selectivity. Our research presented herein is an excellent example for protein-protein interactions in PKS systems underlying a specific recognition process.
Membrane proteins are a diverse group of proteins that serve a multitude of purposes with one of the most important ones being transport. All kinds of substrates are shuffled over biological membranes with the help of dedicated proteins enabling the transport along and against a concentration gradient. Within the group of actively transporting proteins a diverse set of proteins that rely on an electrochemical gradient to facilitate transport of a substrate against its concentration gradient can be found. Those so-called secondary active
transporters are a group on integral membrane proteins ubiquitous to all cells. They allow the transport of all kinds of substrates like nutrients, ions, other metabolites and drugs over the hydrophobic barrier created by the cellular and organellar membrane. The gradients that provide the main driving force for most of the transporters are either sodium ions or protons, although transporters utilizing other ions or organic compounds are found as well. In case of exchangers two very similar substrates are transported in opposing direction over the membrane, one against its electrochemical gradient driven by the other.
Along with a structural diversity of the transporters concerning overall shape, oligomerization and number of transmembrane elements comes a mechanistic variety though still following the principle of alternating access. In humans the malfunction of secondary active transporters can lead to a physiological disorders such as epilepsy, depression or obesity.
The focus of this thesis was the structural and functional characterization of the secondary active transporter SeCitS from Salmonella enterica, a symporter of the 2-hydroxycarboxylate family. The transport of citrate as a bivalent ion is facilitated by the flux of sodium ions that have an inward-facing gradient over the inner membrane of Salmonella enterica. Transport experiments showed that the transport ratio is two sodium ions per citrate molecule, netting in an electroneutral transport. Compared to other members of the family the specificity of the transporter towards its main substrate is very high.
Structural information on the protein was initially obtained through 2D electron crystallography, which allowed the identification of the oval shaped dimer and a first hint towards a significant conformational change that the protein undergoes during its transport cycle. Using 3D crystallography, the X-ray structure of the transporter was solved. The protein crystalizes as a stable, but conformationally asymmetric dimer. As bound citrate can be readily identified in both protomers they can be assigned into an outward- and an inward-facing conformation, with the main citrate binding site in the outward-facing conformation.
One interesting feature of the crystal structure was the large surface available for multimerization, providing a platform for tight dimerization of the two protomers. On the other hand, SeCitS did not show a true cooperativity of transport. With those two aspects taken into account the question arose if any potential crosstalk between the monomers within the dimer takes place and influences transport (negative cooperativity) or the conformational distribution within the dimer (stabilization of the protein within the membrane).
The functional approach in answering this question was the use of mutated variants of the protein for cross-linking within one monomer. Two residues were chosen respectively to lock one of either conformation to be able to test for transport activity in the remaining protomer. The suitability of the residues was derived from the crystal structure (D112 – R205 to lock the inward-facing conformation and L337 – S412 for the outward-facing conformation). After initial promising results the final variants were not stable enough to be analyzed in transport assays.
To analyze the distribution of relative conformations within the dimer the protein was reconstituted into native-like lipid environment such as nanodiscs or saposin nanoparticles to be analyzed by cryo-electron microscopy. The first images were recorded and did yield promising 2D classes where the general features of the transporter were identified. Yet, an improved preparation is required to obtain a high resolution structure.
The key functional aspects of a transporter are its ability to bind and transport its substrates. In a set of experiments those features were investigated by a radioligand transport assay and by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The transport properties of the protein were assessed in a filter assay using a radioactively labeled citrate as a read-out. The protein was reconstituted into proteoliposomes and subjected to different substrate conditions. Different ions were tested in its ability to drive or inhibit transport, but only sodium ions were able to drive transport and also not hindered by the presence of other ions...
Nichtribosomale Peptid Synthetasen sind Quelle für eine Vielzahl an Sekundärmetaboliten mit antibiotischer Wirkung. Jede Synthetase besteht aus einer Abfolge von Modulen, wobei jedes Modul die nötigen Domänen für den Einbau eines Bausteins in das gebildeten Peptids enthält. Ein Ansatz zur Gewinnung neuer Peptidantibiotika, die angesichts der steigenden Zahl multiresistenter Keime dringend benötigt werden, ist der Austausch von Domänen oder Modulen. Aufgrund bisher noch nicht verstandener Selektivitäten, entweder zwischen den Domänen oder zwischen einzelnen Domänen und Zwischenstufen des gebildeten Peptids, führt dieser Ansatz jedoch in der Praxis oft zu keiner oder nur geringer Ausbeute.
Ziel der vorgelegten Arbeit war es, einige dieser Selektivitäten zu untersuchen, wobei der Fokus auf Peptidyl Carrier Proteinen Domänen (PCPs) lag. An diese Domänen sind alle Intermediate während der Reifung des Peptids kovalent über einen Phosphopantethein-Kofaktor (Ppan-Arm) gebunden.
Im ersten Teil der Arbeit sollte die Struktur einer mit einem Heptapeptid beladenen PCP mittels Lösungs-Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie (NMR) bestimmt werden. Hierbei konnte die natürliche Verknüpfung zwischen Ppan-Arm und Peptid über einen Thioester nicht verwendet werden, da diese Bindung zu Hydrolyse-anfällig war. Es konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass die Substitution des Thioesters durch eine nicht hydrolysierbare Amidbindung keinen Einfluss auf die Struktur hat, wodurch die Strukturbestimmung möglich war. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Peptid-beladene PCP in der sogenannten A/H state Konformation vorliegt, wobei das an sie gebundene Peptid frei beweglich ist. Somit scheint es wahrscheinlich, dass die PCP keine Selektivität für das an sie gebundene Peptid aufweist. Dies ist ein Unterschied zu den strukturell ähnlichen Acyl Carrier Proteinen (ACPs) aus der bakteriellen Fettsäurebiosynthese, da diese eine Bindungstasche für die an sie gebundenen Fettsäuren ausbilden.
Untersuchungen der Selektivität der Kondensationsdomäne (C Domäne) für das PCP gebundene Peptid mittels NMR-Titrationen und biochemischer Analysen konnten nicht durchgeführt werden, da sich im Laufe des Projekts zeigte, dass die aus der Synthetase herausgetrennte C Domäne katalytisch nicht aktiv war. Stattdessen sollte die Kristallstruktur einer Peptid-beladenen PCP-C Bidomäne, für welche eine katalytische Aktivität bereits gezeigt worden war, gelöst werden. Da aber bereits ein signifikanter Anteil der Bidomäne während der Expression mit dem Ppan-Arm beladen wurde, war die nötige quantitative Beladung mit dem Peptid gekoppelten Ppan-Arm in vitro nicht möglich. Eine quantitative Modifizierung mit dem Ppan-Arm in vitro war hingegen erfolgreich, und die Struktur der Ppan-beladenen Bidomäne konnte gelöst werden. Aufgrund des großen Abstands zwischen den aktiven Zentren der beiden Domänen kann es sich bei der beobachteten Orientierung nicht um jene handeln, die die beiden Domänen zueinander annehmen, wenn die C Domäne das PCP-gebundene Peptid bindet.
Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die Modifizierung einer PCP durch eine Gruppe II Phosphopantetheintransferase (PPT) untersucht. PPTs katalysieren die Übertragung des Ppan Arms auf die Seitenkette eines in PCPs konservierten Serins. In dieser Magnesium-abhängigen Reaktion dient Coenzym A (CoA) als Quelle für den Ppan-Arm. Durch Mutation des konservierten Serins in der PCP zu Alanin konnte ein stabiler Komplex aus PCP und PPT in Anwesenheit von CoA und Magnesium kristallisiert und seine Struktur bestimmt werden.
In einem Strukturmodell für den PCP/PPT Komplex war eine andere Konformation für die PCP postuliert worden, als sie in der Kristallstruktur des Komplexes zu beobachten ist. Durch Strukturbestimmung der PCP mittels Lösungs-NMR und anschließender Titrationsexperimente konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass sowohl die freie als auch die komplexierte PCP in Lösung ebenfalls die in der Kristallstruktur beobachtete Konformation einnehmen.
Aufgrund der gelösten Kristallstruktur konnten zwei Bereiche identifiziert werden, in denen die beiden Proteine im Komplex in direktem Kontakt zueinander stehen. Der eine Bereich ist durch eine intermolekulare Wasserstoffbrücke, der andere durch hydrophobe Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Proteinen gekennzeichnet. Durch ortsspezifische Mutagenese konnten beide Wechselwirkungen gestört werden, was sich in einer Abnahme der Komplexstabilität und einer veränderten Geschwindigkeit der Übertragung des Ppan-Arms äußerte.
Die große strukturelle Ähnlichkeit zwischen dem in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Komplex aus zwei in Bacillus vorkommenden Proteinen und einem humanen ACP/PPT Komplex legt die Vermutung nahe, dass die beobachteten Wechselwirkungen in vielen Organismen konserviert sind.
Proteostasis stressors that destabilize the cellular proteome, like heat shock, trigger transcription and translational reactions leading to the accumulation of heat shock proteins, also called molecular chaperones. During stress, induction of stress response genes is prioritized so that molecular chaperones and other stress response proteins are synthesized to cope with proteome misfolding and aggregation. In order to promote the selective translation of stress-specific genes, translation of others genes that are nonessential for cell survival has to stop. Nonessential protein-coding mRNAs accumulate in the cytosol with the associated proteins to form granular structures called stress granules (SG). These membrane-less organelles are thought to be involved in cell survival, mRNA stabilization and mRNA triage. They were proposed to form via the liquid-liquid phase separation which can be triggered by the high local concentration of RNA-binding proteins. mRNAs were long thought to simply play a scaffolding role by bringing RNA-binding proteins together and allowing their concentration and local aggregation. Recently, the active role of mRNAs in the SG assembly became apparent, too. For example, the spontaneous assembly of total yeast RNA into granules was observed, and these RNA granules showed a large overlap with SG transcriptome. Furthermore, cytosolic mRNAs can be released from polyribosomes under stress and be exposed to the cytosolic contents as free mRNAs. It has been suggested that this massive increase of free mRNA in the cytosol might overload the capacities of RNA-stabilizing proteins. The remaining free mRNA molecules would then become exposed to misfolded and aggregation-prone proteins and trigger granulation.
We investigated the role of free mRNAs in different stress conditions during the early and chronic phases of stress response and explored their involvement in SGs assembly and amlyoidogenesis. We identified and studied the interactome of a free mRNA probe incubated with heat shocked cell lysate by means of quantitative mass spectrometry. Proteomics analysis allowed us to identify 79 interactors of free mRNA. Among these interactors, we focused on the translation initiation factor eIF2α and on the RNA methyltransferase TRMT6/61A. Both interactions were verified biochemically, which confirmed that the association is enhanced in heat shocked lysate. In vitro reconstitution showed that free mRNA and TRMT6 interact directly. Ex vivo pulldowns revealed that eIF2α and TRMT6/61A interact under stress conditions and that this interaction is RNA-dependent.
TRMT6/61A is a tRNA methytransferase responsible for the methylation of the adenosine 58 at the position 1 producing m1A. However, also mRNAs have been recently found to be methylated by TRMT6/61A. Our bioinformatics analyses revealed that significantly more mRNAs enriched in SG contain the motif for methylation than SG-depleted mRNAs. We hypothesized that m1A methylation of mRNAs could constitute a tag for the mRNAs targeting to SGs. TRMT61A knock-down (KD) cell lines were generated using the CRISPR-Cas9 technique. In TRMT61A KD cells, m1A was significantly reduced on mRNAs, which correlated with an increased sensitivity of the cells to proteostasis stress. KD cells also showed defects in SG assembly. In heat shocked cells, an m1A motif-containing mRNA recovered better after returning to normal temperature than a control mRNA with mutated motif. In addition, we could isolate SGs and analyze their m1A and m6A content by mass spectrometry. While m6A content in SG mRNAs was very similar to cytosolic mRNAs, m1A was almost 8 times enriched in SGs. Thus, we could confirm experimentally the results of the bioinformatics analysis and directly support the hypothesis that m1A is a tag to direct mRNAs for sequestration. Finally, we compared amyloidogenesis in wild-type and TRMT61A KD cell lines. Cells with reduced levels of TRMT61A demonstrated an increased accumulation of transfected Aβ and an impaired aggregate clearance. Various assays led us to conclude that the lack of m1A deposition on mRNAs enhanced RNA co-aggregation with amyloids.
Based on our results, we propose a model explaining the fate of free mRNA during proteostasis stress. Upon polysome disassembly, free mRNA is released and becomes free to interact with other proteins, including the methyltransferase TRMT6/61A. TRMT6/61A methylates the freed mRNAs containing the cognate motif. The m1A tag then targets mRNAs to SGs promoting sequestration. Upon stress release, SGs disassemble, thus releasing rescued mRNAs which could now reenter translation and support cell recovery. On the other hand, non-sequestered mRNAs increasingly co-aggregate with aggregating proteins. Thus, deficiency of the N1-adenine methylation of mRNAs due to the lack of TRMT6/61A increases the amount of unpacked mRNAs. The deposition of m1A on mRNAs could then be a way to protect them during exposure to stress, to limit their co-aggregation with misfolded proteins and to allow a faster recovery upon stress release.
Employing NMR spectroscopy, it is not only possible to calculate the three dimensional structures of single proteins, but also to study dynamics and conformational changes of protein-complexes. In fact that is an important aspect, since the protein function depends on dynamics and interactions with other molecules. Therefore the study of protein-protein interactions is of highest importance for a better understanding of biological processes. Based on NMR methods, in this thesis we were able to determine protein-protein interactions within the enterobacterial Rcs signalling complex which is regulated via a phosphorelay. Originally identified as regulator of capsule synthesis, the Rcs phosphorelay is now considered to be implicated in stress response caused by disturbances in the peptidoglycan layer. Beyond that the Rcs system is involved in multiplex transcriptional networks including cell division, motility, biofilm formation and virulence. Because of such global nature and its extraordinary structural organisation involving membrane integrated sensor proteins (RcsC, RcsD), coactivators (RcsF, RcsA) and a transcription factor (RcsB), the Rcs system is one of the most remarkable phosphorelays in the family of enterobacteriacaea. During the complex phosphotransfer the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain of the intermediary RcsD protein mediates the phosphotransfer between RcsC and RcsB, and probably modulates the phosphorylation state of the response regulator RcsB. Therefore the present work has been focused on the interface between RcsD and RcsB in more detail. In the first part of the thesis a new domain within the RcsD protein has been identified and structurally analysed by liquid NMR spectroscopy. RcsD is an inner membrane bound hybrid sensor like-kinase composed of a periplasmic sensor domain and a cytoplasmic portion. The cytoplasmic part contains the histidine like-kinase (HK) domain and the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain. By analysis of the secondary structure in more detail, it was shown here that the two domains are intermitted by an additional 13.3 kDa domain. Corresponding to the position of the ABL (α−β−loop) domain of RcsC, located C-terminal to the RcsC-HK domain, the new identified domain was named RcsD-ABL. The central structural element of RcsD-ABL is a β-sheet composed of six strands with a β1−β2−β3−β4−β6−β5 topology and surrounded by two α-helices α1 and α2. In the second part of the thesis, RcsD-ABL is identified as a binding domain for the response regulator RcsB by NMR titration experiments. Such a binding domain for a response regulator has so far only been described for the histidine kinase CheA. In reportergene assays with β-galactosidase and ONPG as substrate it was shown that overexpression of RcsD-ABL in high amounts inhibited binding of RcsB to its target promoter. The β-galactosidase activity was reduced by 80 % with respect to cells carrying no plasmid encoding RcsD-ABL. The mapping of the binding interface was successfully achieved by chemical shift perturbations, a fast mapping protocol and selective labelling. It was shown that the interaction between RcsD-ABL and RcsB takes place via a binding interface comprising mainly the two α-helices of RcsD-ABL and the α-helices α7, α8 and α10 in the effector domain of RcsB. In the third part of the thesis, the interaction of RcsB with RcsD-ABL was related to that with RcsD-HPt. Using NMR titration experiments and ITC measurements, a comparison of the binding constants (Kd) of RcsB interacting either with the isolated RcsD-ABL (2 PM) or the isolated RcsDHPt domain (40 PM) revealed a higher affinity of RcsD-ABL to RcsB. A conjugate of RcsD-ABL-HPt interacting with RcsB decreased the Kd in the one-site fitting mode to 10 PM. However, the two-site fitting mode applied for RcsD-ABL-HPt/RcsB interaction resulted in a Kd (RcsD-ABL) of 2 PM and a Kd (RcsD-HPt) of 8 PM, indicating that RcsD-ABL enhances the binding of RcsD-HPt to RcsB. In the last part of the thesis, it was partly possible together with the data obtained from NMR titration experiments, PRE measurements and a HADDOCK protocol to develop a geometrical model for the interaction of RcsD with RcsB. In this model the receiver domain of RcsB interacts with the RcsD-HPt domain and the RcsB effector domain interacts with the RcsD-ABL domain. These results lead to surprising insights on the regulation of phosphorelays, since normally the effector domain binds to DNA. Here the effector domain is recognized by the newly identified RcsD-ABL domain. Prospectively, further investigations of phosphorylation affects and mutational studies will be of great interest.
The focus of this thesis is the integral membrane protein Escherichia coli diacylglycerol kinase (DGK). It is located within the inner membrane, where it catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatic acid (PA). DGK is a unique enzyme, which does not share any sequence homology with typical kinases. In spite of its small size, it exhibits a notable complexity in structure and function. The aim of this thesis is the investigation of DGK’s structure and function at an atomic level directly within the native-like lipid bilayer using MAS NMR. This way, a deeper understanding of DGK’s catalytic mechanism should be obtained.
First, the preparation of DGK was optimized, leading to a sample, which provides well-resolved MAS NMR spectra. The high quality MAS NMR spectra formed the foundation for the second step, the resonance assignment of DGK’s backbone and side chains. The assignment was performed at high magnetic field (1H frequency 850 MHz). The sequential assignment of immobile domains was carried out using dipolar coupling based 3D experiments, NCACX, NCOCX and CONCA. The measurement time could be reduced by paramagnetic doping with Gd3+-DOTA in combination with an E-free probehead. The sequential assignment was mainly performed using a uniformly labelled sample (U-13C,15N-DGK). Residual ambiguities could be resolved by reverse labelling (U-13C,15N-DGK-I,L,V). Resonances could be assigned for 82% of the residues, from which 74% were completely assigned. For validation, ssFLYA was applied, which is a generally applicable algorithm for the automatic assignment of protein solid state NMR spectra. Its principal applicability for demanding systems as membrane proteins could be proven for the first time. Overall, ~90% of the manually obtained assignments could be confirmed by ssFLYA. For the completion of DGK’s assignment, J-coupling based 2D experiments, 1H-13C/15N HETCOR and 13C-13C TOBSY, were carried out to detect highly mobile residues. This way, residues of the two termini and the cytosolic loop, which were not detectable by dipolar coupling based experiments, could be assigned tentatively. Whereupon, peaks for arginine and lysine were assigned unambiguously to Arg9 and Lys12. Overall, ~84% of the residues could be assigned by the applied NMR strategy. Furthermore, a secondary structure analysis was carried out. It showed substantial similarities between wild-type DGK, its thermostable mutant determined both by MAS NMR and the crystal structure of wtDGK. However, there are few differences around the flexible regions most likely caused by the high mobility of these regions. During the assignment procedure, no systematic peak doublets or triplets were detected, indicating that the DGK trimer adopts a symmetric conformation. This is in contrast to the X-ray structure, which shows asymmetries between the three subunits. Especially, crystal packing may be a potential source for these structural asymmetries.
On the basis of the nearly complete assignment of DGK, the apo state was compared with the substrate bound states. Perturbations in peak position and intensity of the substrate bound states were analysed for all assigned residues in 3D and 2D spectra. The nucleotide-bound state was emulated by adenylylmethylenediphosphonate (AMP-PCP), a non-hydrolysable ATP analogue, whereas the DAG-bound state was mimicked by 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DOG, chain length n = 8). Upon nucleotide binding, extensive chemical shift perturbations could be observed. These data provide evidence for a symmetric DGK trimer with all of its three active sites concurrently occupied. Additionally, it could be demonstrated that the nucleotide substrate induces a substantial conformational change. This most likely supports the enzyme in binding of the lipid substrate, indicating positive heteroallostery. In contrast, the overall alterations caused by DOG are very minor. They involve mainly changes in peak intensities. For DGK bound with either AMP-PCP+DOG or only AMP-PCP, a similar spectral fingerprint was observed. This implies that binding of the nucleotide seems to set the enzyme into a catalytic active state, triggering the actual phosphoryl transfer reaction.
The investigation of DGK’s remarkable stability and the cross-talk between its subunits forms the last part of this thesis. This demands for the identification of key intra- and interprotomer contacts, which are of structural or functional importance. For this purpose, 13C-13C DARR and 2D NCOCX spectra with long mixing times were recorded using high field MAS NMR. Additionally, DNP-enhanced 13C−15N TEDOR experiments were conducted on mixed labelled DGK trimers to enable the visualization of interprotomer contacts. With the applied NMR strategy, intra- (Arg32 - Trp25/ Glu28/ Ala29 and Trp112 - Ser61) and interprotomer (ArgNn,e - AspCg/ GluCd/ AsnCg) long-range interactions could be identified.
Ubiquitin is a highly conserved protein involved in several cellular processes like protein degradation, endocytosis, signal transduction and DNA repair. The discovery of ubiquitin-like proteins (UBL) and ubiquitin-like domains (ULD) increases the number of regulation pathways where the property of the ubiquitin-fold is profitable.
Autophagy is the catabolic pathway used in cells to deliver cytosolic components and dysfunctional organelles to the lysosome for degradation. MAP1LC3 proteins are ubiquitin-like proteins involved in one hand for the expansion of the autophagosome, which sequesters cytosolic substrates. In the other hand, these proteins (LC3- and GABARAP- subfamilies) bind to autophagic receptors linked to polyubiquitinated proteins aggregates. For this project, the 3D structure of the GABARAPL-1/NBR1-LIR complex was determined and confirmed that GABARAPL-1 belongs to the MAP1LC3 proteins family, structurally characterized by an ubiquitin-fold, consisting of a central beta-sheet formed by four beta-strands and two alpha-helices on one side of the beta-sheet, preceded N terminally by two alpha-helices, resulting in the formation of two hydrophobic pockets, hp1 and hp2. The autophagic receptor NBR1 interacts with GABARAPL-1 through the hp1 and hp2 with its LIR motif taking an extended beta conformation upon binding, forming an intermolecular beta-sheet with the second beta-strand of GABARAPL 1. This LC3- interacting region (LIR) consists of an Theta XX Gamma sequence preceded by acidic amino acids, with Theta and Gamma represented by any aromatic and hydrophobic residues, respectively. Interaction studies of the LIR domains of p62, Nix and NBR1 with different members of the MAP1LC3 proteins family indicate that the presence of a tryptophan in the LIR motif increases the binding affinity. Substitution to other aromatic amino acids or increasing the number of negatively charged residues at the N-terminus of the LIR motif, however, has little effect on the binding affinity due to enthalpy-entropy compensation, suggesting that effector proteins can interact with a wide variety of different sequences with similar and moderate binding affinities.
Additionally to be present in proteins dealing with protein folding and degradation, ubiquitin-like domain were found protein involved in the regulation of signal transduction like TBK1, a serine/threonine kinase responsible for induction of immune response. In this second project, based on the NMR chemical shifts of the TBK1 domain contained between amino acids 302 and 383, secondary structure prediction programs (TALOS and CSI) confirmed the presence of an Ubiquitin-like domain in TBK1 by identifying one alpha-helix and four beta-strands sequentially aligned like following beta-beta-alpha-beta-beta. This alignment corresponds perfectly with the secondary structure elements of Ubiquitin and proved that TBK1_ULD belongs to the UBL protein superfamily. The similarity to ubiquitin was even bigger by the presence in addition of a small beta-strand and a short helix, which are observed as the beta 5-strand and a 310-helix in Ubiquitin, respectively. The first attempts on the 3D structure determination confirmed the Ub-fold but due to the lack of assignment in TBK1_ULD, only a structure based on ubiquitin as a model was determined. Interaction studies of TBK1_ULD with the IAD-SRR domain of IRF3 showed that both side of the molecule seems involved and that the TBK1/IRF3 interaction is more complex than a one to one binding process. Unfortunately, the instability of TBK1_ULD associated to the difficulty in the purification of IAD-SRR did not allow to further study this interaction more precisely.
Finally, to overcome the difficulty encountered in NMR experiments because of low expression and/or poor solubility, an expression vector using the intrinsic property of ubiquitin was designed. Fused to proteins or peptides targets, this construct produced proteins and peptides in a larger amount than with traditional expression vectors and also with a less cost than chemical synthesis for pure labeled peptides for NMR structural studies. The presence of a hexa histidine tag was useful for the isolation and the purification of the constructs. The existence of a TEV cleavage site was created to keep the possibility of releasing the ubiquitin moiety from the expressed protein or peptide. Moreover, the ubiquitin-tag could also still be attached to the protein/peptide of interest when biophysical methods like NMR, ITC or CD spectroscopy are applied, providing the same results than for the protein/peptide moiety alone.
Electron microscopy (EM) demarcates itself from other structural biology techniques by its applicability to a large range of biological objects that spans from whole cells to individual macromolecules. In single-particle cryo-EM, frozen-hydrated samples, prepared by vitrification with liquid ethane, retain macromolecules in a medium that approximates their natural aqueous environment and that, in this way, preserves high-resolution structural information. Nonetheless, the sensitivity of biological specimens to the high-energy electron beam introduces restrictions on the total dose that can be used during imaging while avoiding significant radiation damage. Consequently, the signal-to-noise ratio attained in each individual image is very low, and structures with high-resolution detail must be recovered by averaging thousands of projections in random orientations. This is achieved through the use of image processing algorithms capable of aligning and classifying particle images through the evaluation of cross-correlation functions between each particle and a reference.
In recent years, several innovations took place in the field of single-particle cryo-EM, among which the development of direct electron detectors must be highlighted. Direct electron detectors have a better detective quantum efficiency (DQE) than both photographic film and CCD cameras, and offer a fast readout, compatible with the acquisition of movie stacks. Additionally, new image processing software has become available, with more sophisticated algorithms and designed to take advantage of the specific characteristics of the movies produced with direct electron detectors. These technological advances in both hardware and software catalyzed a revolution in single-particle cryo-EM, which is now routinely used for the determination of near-atomic structures. As a result, the range of macromolecules accessible to cryo-EM has increased drastically, as targets that were unsuitable before for imaging due to their small dimensions can now be adequately visualized and refined to high-resolution.
During my doctoral work, I have used single-particle cryo-EM to structurally characterize challenging membrane proteins, with a strong emphasis on protein complexes from aerobic respiratory chains. In chapter I of this thesis, I present my results on the bovine respirasome, a mitochondrial supercomplex composed of complexes I, III and IV. Chapter II is dedicated to the analysis of the structure of alternative complex III (ACIII) from Rhodothermus marinus, a bacterial quinol:cytochrome c/HiPIP oxidoreductase unrelated to the canonical cytochrome bc1 complex (complex III). In addition, in chapter III I describe the structure of KimA, a high-affinity potassium transporter that drives the transport of its substrate by using the energy stored in the form of a proton gradient. These three membrane proteins, with molecular weights ranging from 140 kDa to 1.7 MDa, illustrate the possibilities and limitations faced in single-particle cryo-EM.
The aerobic respiratory chain is responsible for the generation of a transmembrane difference of electrochemical potential that is then used by ATP synthase for the production of ATP or for driving solute transport over the membrane. They catalyze the transfer of electrons from a substrate, such as NADH or succinate, to molecular oxygen and use the chemical energy released in these redox reactions to drive the translocation of protons, or in some cases sodium ions, to the intermembrane space in mitochondria or the periplasm in bacteria.
In mitochondria, the respiratory chain is composed of four complexes: complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase), complex II (succinate dehydrogenase), complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex) and complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase). While it was for a long time believed that these complexes existed as single entities in the membrane, the use of milder procedures for protein purification and analysis revealed that respiratory complexes associate into well-ordered structures, known as supercomplexes. These have been proposed to offer different structural and functional advantages that are still controversial, including substrate channeling, stabilization of individual complexes and reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The most thoroughly studied respiratory supercomplex has been the respirasome, conserved in higher eukaryotes and composed of one copy of complex I, a complex III dimer and one complex IV. By single-particle cryo-EM analysis, I retrieved a 9 Å map of the respirasome from Bos taurus, which allowed the accurate docking of atomic models of the three component complexes. The structure shows that complex III associates to the concave side of the membrane arm of complex I, while complex IV is located between the end of the complex I hydrophobic arm and complex III. Several defined protein-protein contacts are observed between the component complexes, which are mediated predominantly by supernumerary subunits and close to the membrane surfaces. The interactions established between complex I and complex III are extensive and may support the argument that the association of complex I into supercomplexes is required for the stabilization or even the biogenesis of this complex.
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Structural characterization of stressosome complexes by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy
(2015)
The stressosome is a Mega Dalton macromolecular complex involved in stress adaptation in bacteria. Stressosomes are considered as stress signaling hubs. They are able to perceive a variety of different stress stimuli and transduce them into one single cellular answer, which is the initialization of a transcriptional up-regulation of hundreds of different genes encoding for universal but also very specific stress response proteins.
The stressosome of Bacillus subtilis became a prime example for this intriguing stress-triggered transcriptional regulation when its architecture was determined by Single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) in 2008. In Gram-positive Bacillus species, the stressosome complex senses changes in salt concentration, ethanol content, blue-light, heat or acid stress contributing to the general stress response by activation of the alternative σB factor. σB is a transcriptional promoter that initiates the transcription of over 150 general stress genes, e.g., genes that encode osmolyte transporters to counteract osmotic and chill stress. The B. subtilis stressosome (stressosome_Bc) is composed of multiple copies of the 3 proteins: RsbR, RsbS and RsbT. These three Rsb proteins (Regulator of Sigma B) are found clustered in one operon forming the conserved RST module. RsbS and RsbR are scaffold proteins comprising a STAS domain, respectively. Because these domains are dominantly associated to sulfate transporters and anti-sigma antagonist they were named STAS domains, however, they were also identified in other sensor proteins. In the stressosome they form the internal ball-shaped core, while the N-terminal globin-fold sensor domain of RsbR, protruding to the outside, facilitates stress sensing. It is assumed that the stress signal is transduced to the stressosome core via the STAS domain resulting in conformational changes of the core. These changes affect the binding of the third protein, RsbT, a serin-threonine kinase. As a direct consequence of stress sensing the RsbT kinase is released from the complex to start an activation cascade involving the stepwise activation of RsbU, V, W, and X, which are all part of the same operon, and finally of σB. In Bacillus species, several RsbR orthologs were identified varying mainly in the sequence of the N-terminal sensor domains. It is assumed that the stressosome_Bc assembles with a still unknown combination of RsbR orthologs allowing for the broad spectrum of stress stimuli that can be processed in vivo. The pathogenic bacteria Listeria monocytogenes is a close relative of Bacillus. Its potent stress response allows Listeria to survive the harsh environmental conditions during host infection and therefore the stress regulation machinery is contributing heavily to the virulence of this pathogen. In Listeria the Rsb operon is conserved and highly homologous to the Bacillus one. In the frame of this thesis, the in vitro assembly of Listeria innocua stressosomes was shown for the first time by Single-particle (SP) negative stain EM. Moreover, binding of Listeria RsbT to the assembled RsbR-RsbS complex was demonstrated biochemically.
Despite the conservation of the RST-module the entire Rsb operon is not conserved in the bacterial kingdom suggesting that signal transduction and regulation of gene expression might occur by very different mechanisms in stressosomes of different species. We have focused here on a stressosome type from the Gram-negative pathogen Vibrio vulnificus that is quite distinct from the Bacillus ones with respect to (1) the missing conservation of the Rsb operon, (2) the role of RsbT, (3) the activation of a different transcriptional promoter, and (4) the absence of additional RsbR orthologs. Interestingly, there is only one RsbR protein encoded in the genome. This one contains a Haem-group in its N-terminal domain being oxygen sensitive. It is assumed that the Vibrio stressosome perceive only oxidative stress and that regulation occurs via a diguanylate cyclase with a GAF domain that synthesizes the second messenger c-di-GMP from GTP.
We have started a structure determination of the Vibrio vulnificus stressosome by SP cryo-EM to elucidate the differences in the molecular mechanism of stress sensing in divers stressosome types. A 3D map of the oxidized (activated) Vibrio vulnificus stressosome was determined to 7.6 Å resolution revealing an increased flexibility of both the core and the N-terminal sensor domains in comparison to the Bacillus stressosome suggesting that our structure has trapped for the first time an active state of a stressosome complex. A 3D map of the stressosome core to 7 Å resolution allowed fitting of a homology model of the Vibrio stressosome based on the Bacillus stressosome as template. The conformational changes could be attributed to the entire core, which was confirmed by MD simulations.
The endoplasmic-reticulum-associated protein degradation pathway ensures quality control of newly synthesized soluble and membrane proteins of the secretory pathway. Proteins failing to fold into their native structure are processed in a multistep process and finally ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome in order to protect the cell from proteotoxic stress. My thesis covers structural as well as functional studies of various protein components that constitute the protein complexes that are responsible for this process.
One sub-project addressed the mechanism of glycan recognition by Yos9 as part of the ERAD substrate selection. NMR solution structures of the mannose-6-phosphate homology (MRH) domain of Yos9 both in a free and glycan bound conformation reveal a gripping movement of loop regions upon binding of correctly processed glycan structures.
The main projects focused on revealing the mechanism of efficient ubiquitin chain assembly by the ERAD ubiquitination machinery. This included the investigation of the role of the ERAD components Cue1 and Ubc7 in processive ubiquitin chain formation, how ubiquitin chain conformations change during elongation, how the conformation of a chain is impacted by interacting proteins and finally understand the activity regulation of the ERAD E2 enzyme Ubc7 by its cognate RING E3 ligases. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis and fluorescence-based ubiquitination assays show that the CUE domain of Cue1 contributes with its proximal binding preference as well as with its position dependent accelerating effect to efficient ubiquitin chain formation. This is required to efficiently drive degradation of substrates. Specific ubiquitin binding events dictate and coordinate the spatial arrangement of the E2 enzyme relative to the distal tip of a chain. This process can be further accelerated by RING E3 ligases that promote Ubc7 activity by more than ~20 fold via inducing allosteric changes around the catalytic cysteine. My results additionally suggest a model where Ubc7 dimerization results in proximity induced activation of the E2. This data ensures rapid diubiquitin formation that is followed by a CUE domain assisted chain elongation mechanism where Cue1 acts in an E4 like fashion.
How ubiquitin binding events can modulate the conformations of a ubiquitin chain were investigated by pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR) spectroscopy combined with molecular modeling. This shows that K48-linked diubiquitin samples a broad conformational space which can be modulated in distinct ways. The CUE domain of Cue1 uses conformational selection of pre-populated open conformations to support ubiquitin chain elongation. In contrast, deubiquitinating enzymes shift the conformational distribution to weakly or even non-populated conformations to allow cleavage of the isopeptide bond that connects adjacent ubiquitins. Ubiquitin chain elongation increases the sampled conformational space and suggests that this high conformational flexibility might contribute to efficient proteasomal recognition.
In Reaktion auf zellulären Stress wie etwa Schädigungen der DNA oder die vermehrte Aktivität von Onkogenen aktivieren vorgeschaltete Signalkaskaden den Transkriptionsfaktor (TF) p53. Dieser kann über die Aktivierung der Expression von Zielgenen wiederum die Zellteilung stoppen, die Reparatur von DNA Schäden initiieren oder in schweren Fällen die Eliminierung der Zelle durch Apoptose einleiten. Ist p53 durch Mutationen deaktiviert, können sich entartete somatische Zellen vermehren und in der Folge Krebs entstehen.
In Wirbeltieren finden sich neben p53 mit p63 und p73 zwei weitere TFs, welche während der Evolution aus dem gleichen gemeinsamen Vorläufer durch Genduplikationen hervorgegangen sind. Die drei TFs sind modular aufgebaut und alle Isoformen verfügen jeweils minimal über eine DNA Bindungsdomäne (DBD) und eine Tetramerisierungsdomäne (TD). Werden die p53 ähnlichen TFs aktiviert, lagern sie sich über die TD vermittelt zu Tetrameren zusammen, wodurch ihre DBDs kooperativ an DNA Sequenzmotive binden können. Die DBD ist auch über große phylogenetische Abstände hinweg hoch konserviert, wodurch bereits gezeigt werden konnte, dass auch primitive vielzellige Tiere bereits Homologe dieser TF Familie besitzen. Im Vergleich zur DBD variiert die Proteinsequenz der TD deutlich stärker, was andeutet, dass deren Struktur im Laufe der Evolution erhebliche Veränderungen durchlaufen hat. Diese Veränderungen aufzuklären ist das übergeordnete Forschungsvorhaben zu dem diese Dissertationsschrift beiträgt.
Ciona intestinalis (C.int.) ist eine Spezies aus dem Unterstamm der Manteltiere. Diese sind die engsten lebenden Verwandten der Wirbeltiere und C.int. ist ein populärer Modelorganismus für die Erforschung der Embryonalentwicklung. Sein Genom kodiert für zwei p53 ähnliche TFs, welche mit p53/p73-a und p53/p73-b bezeichnet werden. Die Struktur ihrer TDs wurde im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit mittels Kernspinresonanz (NMR) Spektroskopie untersucht.
Die TD von menschlichem p53 (hp53) ist ein Dimer aus Dimeren. Jedes Monomer formt einen beta-Strang und eine alpha-Helix. Im primären Dimer lagern diese sich so zusammen, dass ein beta-Faltblatt entsteht und die alpha-Helices mit entgegen gesetzter Orientierung der Länge nach aneinander packen. Zwei dieser Dimer lagern sich dann so zum Tetramer zusammen, dass zwischen pol-ständigen beta-Faltblättern ein Bündel aus vier Helices entsteht. Dieses Motiv ist auch in den TDs der Ciona Proteine hochkonserviert und wird im Folgenden als Kern?TD bezeichnet. In den TDs von menschlichem p63 und p73 (hp63 und hp73) verfügt jedes Monomer an seinem C-terminus noch über eine zweite Helix. Die zweiten Helices eines jeden Dimers greifen wie Klammern um das jeweils andere primäre Dimer und stabilisieren so das Tetramer. Entscheidend für die stabile Anbindung an die Kern?TD ist dabei ein charakteristisches Tyrosin-Arginin (YR) Motiv in der zweiten Helix, welches sich auch in der Sequenz der TD von C.int. p53/p73-a wiederfindet. Analysen der Sekundärstruktur auf Basis von NMR Experimenten ergaben jedoch, dass die TD von C.int. p53/p73-a bei 25°C keine zweite Helix ausbildet. Mit Hilfe von chimären TD Peptiden, in denen Teile der Ciona Sequenz gegen die entsprechenden Abschnitte von hp73 ausgetauscht wurden, konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Kern TD von C.int. p53/p73-a fähig ist eine zweite Helix zu stabilisieren und hierfür neben dem YR Motiv auch der Sequenzabschnitt zwischen erster und zweiter Helix entscheidend ist. Stabilisierende Substitutionen in diesem Bereich bewirkten ebenso wie ein Absenken der Temperatur die Ausbildung einer zweiten Helix, welche jedoch im Gegensatz zu jener in hp73 nur transient faltet und auch nicht essentiell für die Bildung des Tetramers ist, wohl aber dessen Stabilität erhöht.
Spezifisch in der Entwicklungslinie von Ciona kam es dazu, dass eine, für eine entsprechende Vorläuferversion von C.int. p53/p73-a kodierende, mRNA spontan zurück in DNA übersetzt und ins Genom eingefügt wurde. Die durch diese Retrotransposition erzeugte neue Genkopie C.int. p53/p73-b muss demnach ursprünglich einmal für die gleiche Proteinsequenz kodiert haben, innerhalb der TD finden sich konservierte Reste jedoch nur im Bereich der Kern TD.
Von der TD von C.int. p53/p73-b wurde die molekulare Struktur in freier Lösung mittels NMR ermittelt. Diese zeigte, dass interessanterweise in der TD von C.int. p53/p73-b jedes Monomer am C-terminus eine stabil gefaltete, zweite Helix besitzt. Obwohl diese zweite Helix sich aus einer Sequenz faltet, die keinerlei Sequenzhomologie zu homologen Proteinen aus Wirbeltieren aufweist, lagert sie sich in einer Position auf die Kern TD, welche der in hp73 sehr nahe kommt. Da die primären Dimere der Kern TD aber anders als in hp63 und hp73 durch Salzbrücken miteinander verbunden sind, ist die zweite Helix jedoch nicht essentiell, um das Tetramer zu stabilisieren. Vermutlich kommt der zweiten Helix von C.int. p53/p73-b vielmehr u.a. die Aufgabe zu die Bildung von Heterotetrameren aus C.int. p53/p73-a und –b zu unterbinden.
Zusammengenommen zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die Architektur der TD mit zweiter Helix bereits der Prototyp für die TDs aller p53 ähnlichen Proteine der Wirbel- und Manteltiere war und die als eine Art Klammer das Tetramer stabilisierende zweite Helix sich nicht erst während der Evolution der Wirbeltiere entwickelt hat.
Die Tumorprotein-Familie des Proteins p53 besteht aus drei Familienmitgliedern p53, p63 und p73 mit diversen Funktionen als Transkriptionsfaktoren. p53 war das erste Mitglied dieser Familie, das im Jahre 1979 entdeckt wurde und wurde zunächst als krebsverursachendes Protein eingeordnet, weil es in vielen Tumorgeweben in erhöhter Menge vorgefunden wurde. Es wurde allerdings festgestellt, dass der Großteil dieser gefundenen p53-Proteine funktionsunfähig durch Mutationen in ihrer Aminosäuresequenz waren. Unmutiertes p53 hingegen führt zu einem Stopp von Zellteilung oder sogar Zelltod, sofern die Zellen genetischem Stress durch Strahlung oder mutagene Chemikalien ausgesetzt sind. Heute wird p53 als eines der wichtigsten Tumor-Unterdrückungsproteine betrachtet. Die beiden anderen Familienmitglieder p63 und p73 existieren in einer Vielzahl von Isoformen. Neben carboxyterminaler alternativer mRNA-Prozessierung (α, β, γ, usw. Isoformen) führen zwei unabhängige Promotoren auch zu zwei unterschiedlichen Aminotermini. Hier wird zwischen ΔN- und TA-Isoformen unterschieden. Im Falle von p63 treten zwei dominante Isoformen auf, ΔNp63α und TAp63α. Während ΔNp63α eine Rolle in der Differenzierung von Haut spielt, wurde TAp63α bisher ausschließlich in Eizellen gefunden. Dort hat es die Funktion eines Sensors, der die genetische Integrität der weiblichen Keimbahn sicherstellt. Es liegt in Eizellen in hoher Konzentration vor, allerdings in einer komplett inaktiven Form. Werden Schäden im der Erbgut der Eizelle festgestellt, so wird das Protein aktiviert und kann so den Prozess des Zelltods der Eizelle einleiten. Mutationen oder das Fehlen des p63-Genes führen zu Missbildungen während der Entwicklung und zu unvollständig ausgebildeter Haut. Im Falle von p73 gibt es ebenfalls mehrere Isoformen, wobei die Funktionen und Relevanzen der einzelnen Isoformen bisher nicht komplett geklärt werden konnten. Eine p73-negative Maus hat einen diffusen Phänotyp, der sich durch niedrige Intelligenz, fast sterile Männchen und chronische bronchiale Infektion auszeichnet. Generell sind alle Mitglieder der p53-Familie tetramere Proteine und sind nur in diesem Zustand auch aktiv. Die einzige Ausnahme stellt, wie oben beschrieben, TAp63α dar, das in einem inaktiven dimeren Zustand vorliegt und nur durch Modifikation durch zwei unabhängige Kinasen aktiviert werden kann. Dabei geht es in den tetrameren Zustand über und ist daraufhin aktiv.
Alle drei Proteine haben (anhand ihrer längsten Isoform beschrieben) eine konservierte Domänenstruktur. Am Aminoterminus befindet sich zunächst die transaktivierende-Domäne (TAD), die für Interaktionen mit transkriptionellen Koaktivatioren relevant ist. Danach folgt die stark konservierte Desoxyribonukleinsäure (DNA) bindende Domäne (DBD). Sie stellt sicher, dass der Transkriptionsfaktor sequenzspezifisch an der richtigen Stelle auf die DNA bindet. Weitergehend folgt die Tetramerisierungsdomäne (TD), welche den oligomeren Zustand des Proteins herstellt. Im Falle von p53 endet das Protein an dieser Stelle, bei p63 und p73 folgen noch das Sterile-Alpha-Motiv (SAM) und die Transkription-inhibierende Domäne (TID). Die SAM Domäne wird generell als Interaktionsdomäne beschrieben, es konnte allerdings bis dato kein Interaktionspartner gefunden werden. Die TID hat einen negativen Einfluss auf die transkriptionelle Aktivität der Proteine. Im Falle von TAp63α interagiert sie zusätzlich mit der TAD um den Dimeren Zustand zu stabilisieren.
Histon Acetylasen
Die Acetylierung von Histonen ist neben deren Methylierung die wichtigste Modifikation. Sie ist essenziell für die Transkription innerhalb aller eukaryontischen Lebewesen, da sie durch die Modifikation von Histonen die DNA für die DNA-Polymerase II zugänglich macht. Es gibt insgesamt fünf verschiedene, nicht näher miteinander verwandte Familien von Histonacetylasen. Diese Studie beschäftigt sich ausschließlich mit der KAT3 Familie, bestehend aus den Proteinen p300 und CBP. Beide sind hochgradig konserviert, in gefalteten Bereichen der Proteine erreicht die Sequenzidentität fast 100%. Beide Proteine scheinen sehr ähnliche Aufgaben zu erfüllen, die jedoch nicht komplett identisch sind. Die Fehlfunktion von einem Allel von CBP führt zum Krankheitsbild des Rubinstein-Taybi-Syndrom (RTS), während ein Mangel an p300 sich in Mäusen auf das Gedächtnis auswirkt. Der komplette Verlust beider Allele eines der Proteine ist immer tödlich, genauso wie auch Verlust jeweils eines Allels bei beiden Proteinen. Insgesamt vier unabhängige Domänen in p300/CBP sind in der Lange die transaktivierende Domänen der p53-Familie zu binden. Bei zwei der Domänen handelt es sich um Zinkfinger-Proteine (Taz1 und Taz2), die anderen beiden sind kleine, ausschließlich α-helikale Domänen (Kix und IBiD).
Diese Studie beschäftigt sich mit der Lösung von Strukturen von der transaktivierenden Domäne von p63 und p73 mit der p300-Domäne Taz2. Außerdem wurden die Auswirkungen von direkten Acetylierungen von TAp63α charakterisiert und der Effekt von einem potenten p300/CBP Inhibitor auf Oozyten unter genotoxischem Stress analysiert. Zusätzlich wurde die Phosphorylierungskinetiken von Tap63α wärend der Aktivierung durch Kinasen untersucht.
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Misregulated receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), i.e. the epidermal growth factor receptor EGFR or the insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (IGF-1R), can be involved in the development of cancer. Monoclonal antibodies specifically inhibit the RTKs in cancer therapy. The scope of this thesis is to investigate the molecular basis of the inhibition through the therapeutic antibodies matuzumab (EMD72000) against EGFR and EMD1159476 against IGF-1R. The 3D crystal structure of matuzumab in complex with the EGFR domain III shows an eptiope connected with a novel inhibition mechanism: a non-competitive, sterical inhibition of receptor acitivation. The anti-IGF-1R targeted monoclonal antibody EMD1159476 shows a reduced binding capacity to the receptor in the presence of ligand indicating a competitive inhibition mechanism. The epitope of EMD1159476 is within domain II of the receptor. The results of these molecular interaction studies are important for the clinical therapies with these monoclonal antibodies. The matuzumab-EGFR complex crystal structure shows that a simultaneous binding of matuzumab and cetuximab (Erbitux) is possible. The latter antibody is already in clinical use. A combination of several therapeutic antibodies in cancer treatment might show synergistic effects and benefits for the patients.
Der 2‘-Desoxyguanosin-Riboschalter gehört zur unter Bakterien weit verbreiteten Klasse der Purin-Riboschalter. Allerdings wurden 2‘-Desoxyguanosin-bindende Riboschalter bisher ausschließlich in M. florum gefunden, damit stellt diese RNA eine Ausnahme unter den ansonsten verbreiteten Purin-Riboschaltern dar. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein NMR-Strukturmodell des IA-Aptamer-2‘-Desoxyguanosinkomplexes erstellt und anhand der mittels NMRSpektroskopie zugänglichen strukturellen Informationen sowohl Struktur und Dynamik des freien RNA-Aptamers als auch des 2‘-Desoxyguanosinkomplexes charakterisiert. Dabei wurde insbesondere der Einfluss von Mg2+ auf Struktur und Dynamik der jeweiligen Zustände sowie auf den durch 2‘-Desoxyguanosin induzierten Faltungsprozess untersucht.
Mg2+-Ionen modulieren die Faltungstrajektorien von sensorischen RNA-Domänen. Die Übertragbarkeit von Mg2+-abhängigen Charakteristika der RNA-Faltung innerhalb verschiedener Messmethoden ist durch die schlechte Vergleichbarkeit der relativen Konzentrationsverhältnisse eingeschränkt. Die NMR-spektroskopisch beobachtbaren Mg2+-Einflüsse sollten also unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der für NMR benötigten vergleichsweise sehr hohen RNAKonzentrationen mit Ergebnissen aus kalorimetrischen oder fluoreszenzspektroskopischen Messungen interpretiert werden. Die in der NMR-Spektroskopie üblichen hohen Probenkonzentrationen befinden sich in dem Regime, in dem auch der physikalische Effekt des verdrängten Volumens eine Rolle zu spielen beginnt. Demnach ist es für die RNA-Moleküle im NMR-Probenröhrchen bei Konzentrationen von 5-10 mg/ml auch ohne Zugabe von Mg2+ entropisch günstiger, kompakte Konformationen einzunehmen. Die Relevanz des Effekts des verdrängten Volumens für die RNA-Faltung unter NMR-Bedingungen und unter zellulären Bedingungen ist Gegenstand der aktuellen Forschung und wird in dieser Arbeit am Beispiel des IA-Aptamers diskutiert.
Der oft einzigartige Bindungsmodus ubiquitärer Metaboliten durch bakterielle Riboschalter (Montange and Batey, 2006) ermöglicht prinzipiell den Einsatz von RNA-Aptameren in vivo, ohne mit zellulären Proteinsystemen zu interferieren (Mulhbacher et al., 2010). Therapeutische Ziele sind beispielsweise die Anwendung von Riboschaltern gegen bakterielle Pathogene beziehungsweise gegen pathogene Bakterien selbst. Eine weitere Rolle wird RiboschalterElementen zukünftig als Bausteine in der synthetischen Biologie zukommen (Dixon et al., 2010; Knight, 2003; Topp and Gallivan, 2008). Hierfür ist es von grundlegender Bedeutung, Charakterisierung von Struktur als Basis für das Verständnis von Funktion unter zellulären Bedingungen zu etablieren. Im Rahmen einer Zusammenarbeit mit Robert Hänsel aus dem Arbeitskreis von Prof. Dr. Volker Doetsch wurde am Beispiel des IA-Aptamers und einer nichtnatürlichen Sequenzvariante gezeigt, dass eine strukturelle Charakterisierung von Riboschaltern mittels in cell NMR-Spektroskopie möglich ist. In Zusammenarbeit mit Karl von Laer aus der Arbeitsgruppe von Prof. Dr. Beatrix Suess wurden beide RNA-Aptamer hinsichtlich ihrer Funktion in einem biologischen Assay getestet. Die Ergebnisse dieser Experimente zeigten eine deutliche Korrelation von Struktur und Funktion in vivo, während Diskrepanzen zwischen Struktur in vitro und Funktion in vivo demonstriert werden.
Weiterhin wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gezeigt, dass eine gewisse strukturelle Flexibilität der Bindungstaschen regulatorischer RNA-Motive für Selektion und Adaption während Evolution nötig ist. Beispielsweise wurde für den Guanin-Riboschalter gezeigt, dass der nicht-native Ligand 2‘-Desoxyguanosin zur Komplexbildung des Aptamers führt. Demnach könnte die Bindung von 2‘-Desoxyguanosin im Guanin-Riboschalter bereits evolutionär angelegt sein und die Entstehung des IA-Aptamers nach Genomreduktion der Mesoplasmen begünstigt haben. Das IA-Aptamer dagegen bindet Guanin nicht, stattdessen besitzt M. florum auf Guanin spezialisierte Sequenzvarianten dieses Riboschalters (Kim et al., 2007). Strukturell hochauflösende Einblicke in unterschiedliche Zustände der Bindungstasche im G-Aptamer-Thioguaninkomplex, die durch die Lösung der Kristallstruktur des GLoop-Aptamers ermöglicht wurden, unterstützen die Hypothese einer anpassungsfähigen Bindungstasche im G-Aptamer. Für B. subtilis wäre es interessant, die physiologische Bedeutung der Komplexbildung des G-Aptamers mit 2‘-Desoxyguanosin zu untersuchen.
Die Biosynthese der Fettsäuren (FS) ist in Eukaryoten und Bakterien ein hochkonserviert zentraler Stoffwechselweg, der in zwei strukturell verschiedenen Systemen ausgeführt wird. Die meisten Bakterien, Parasiten, Pflanzen und Mitochondrien nutzen ein Fettsäuresesynthase Typ-II (FAS-II) System. Bei FAS II Systemen sind alle katalytischen Domänen separate lösliche Proteine. In Eukaryoten wie auch den Bakterien Corynebakteria, Mycobakteria, Nocardia (Klasse der CMN Bakterien) liegen die katalytischen Domänen fusioniert auf einer Polypeptidkette vor, die zu einem Multienzymkomplex der Fettsäuresynthase Typ I (FAS-I) assemblieren. Die Architektur der FAS-I zeigt große Unterschiede; die X förmige Säuger-FAS-I (Maier et al., 2006), sowie die fassartigen Enzyme der Pilz FAS-I (Jenni et al., 2007; Leibundgut et al., 2007; Lomakin et al., 2007; Johansson et al., 2008) und der bakteriellen FAS-I (Boehringer et al., 2013; Ciccarelli et al., 2013). Zwischen Pilz- und bakterieller FAS-I gibt es trotz des ähnlichen Aufbaus bedeutende Unterschiede. Mycobakterium tuberculosis, der Auslöser von Tuberkulose (TB), an der jährlich über eine Million Menschen weltweit sterben (WHO, 2014), synthetisiert durch eine Symbiose von FAS-I, FAS-II und der Polyketidsynthase-13 Mykolsäuren. Durch die Mykolsäuren ist M. tuberculosis resistent gegen äußere Einflüsse. FAS-I ist in die Synthese der Vorstufen der Mykolsäuren involviert. Sie stellt im Kampf gegen TB ein potentielles Inhibierungstarget dar.
Strukturell war die bakterielle FAS-I beim Beginn der vorliegenden Arbeit, nur durch negative-stain-Elektronenmikroskopie (EM) Aufnahmen aus dem Jahr 1982 charakterisiert (Morishima et al., 1982). In dieser Arbeit konnte die bakteriellen FAS I aus M. tuberculosis (MtFAS), sowie Corynebacterium ammoniagenes (CaFAS) und Corynebacterium efficiens (CeFAS) strukturell untersucht werden. Dies geschah mit den Methoden negative-stain-EM, Einzelmolekül-Cryo-EM (Cryo-EM), Cryo EM Tomographie (CET) und Röntgenkristallographie.
Anhand von CeFAS-Kristallen konnte erstmals durch Röntgenkristallographie die Struktur einer bakteriellen FAS-I bestimmt werden. Zudem wurde die hohe konformationelle Flexibilität der bakteriellen FAS-I mit mehreren Methoden gezeigt. Für die CaFAS konnte mit Cryo-EM initiale Prozesse der Proteinkristallbildung abgebildet werden.
Eine große Zahl natürlicher sekundärer Metabolite sind kleine und strukturell oft sehr verschiedene Polypeptide und Polyketide. Diese bioaktiven Substanzen haben im allgemeinen ein breit aufgestelltes therapeutisches Potential und werden von verschiedenen bakteriellen Stämmen und Pilzen biosynthetisiert. Sie sind sowohl biologisch, als auch therapeutisch wichtig als Cytostatika, Immunsuppressiva und Antibiotika mit einem sehr großen antibakteriellen und antiviralen Potential. Diese oft äußerst komplexen Polypeptide und Polyketide werden von modular aufgebauten Megaenzymen in mehrstufigen Mechanismen synthetisiert. Für die Synthese dieser Peptide sind sehr große Proteincluster verantwortlich, die meistens aus einer begrenzten Anzahl sehr großer, Multidomänen umfassenden, Superenzyme aufgebaut werden. Diese Proteincluster mit einem Molekulargewicht bis in den Bereich von MegaDalton werden als nicht-ribosomale Peptidsynthetasen (NRPS) und Polyketidsynthetasen (PKS) bezeichnet. Die NRPS Systeme zeichnen sich dadurch aus, daß für die biosynthetisierten Polypeptide keine Information in Form von Nukleinsäuren wie DNA oder RNA kodiert (Walsh, C.T., 2004; Sieber & Marahiel, 2005). Für die Synthese der Polypeptide ist eine Aktivierung der einzelnen Bausteine, der Aminosäuren, durch Amino-acyl-adenylierung notwendig. Im Anschluß an die Aktivierung, wird die aktivierte Aminosäure über einen Thioester gebunden weitertransportiert. Die Thioesterbildung erfolgt an Cysteaminthiolgruppen intrinsischer 4’-Phosphopantethein-kofaktoren. Eine Modul einer NRPS stellt eine geschlossene Einheit zum Einbau einer Aminosäure mit einer hohen Spezifität für das Substrat und die biosynthetische Reaktion dar. Diese Module sind aus Domänen aufgebaut, die definierte Funktionen haben und mittels flexibler Linker miteinander verbunden sind. Die Domänen werden nach ihrer Funktion unterschieden. Die Acyl-adenylierung oder Aktivierung eines Substrates, beispielsweise einer Aminosäure, erfolgt durch die A-Domänen. Die Peptidyl- oder Acyltransportfunktion der aktivierten Substrate wird durch Thioester-domänen (T-Domäne), auch PCP (peptidyl carrier domain) genannt, bewältigt. Die Biosynthese der Kopplungsreaktion, beispielsweise die Ausbildung der Peptidbindung in NRPS Systemen, erfolgt an den Kondensations-Domänen (C-Domäne). Für die Substratspezifität eines Synthesemoduls sind die A-Domänen verantwortlich, welche die Aktivierung eines Substrat durch ATP-Hydrolyse ermöglichen. In NRPS Systemen sind auch Zyklisierungsreaktionen, durchgeführt von Cyclase-Domänen (Cy-Domänen), L/D-Epimerase-funktionen (E-Domänen) und N-Methylierungen (M-Domänen) beschrieben. So wird in Tyrocidin A an zwei Positionen spezifisch Phenylalanin in die D-Form epimerisiert und anschließend in der Peptidbiosynthese verwendet. Die Interaktion und Erkennung zwischen den multi-modularen Superenzymen, zum korrekten Aufbau der kompletten Synthetase, wurden in letzter Zeit Kommunikations-Domänen (COM-Domänen) beschrieben. Wie die aufgebaute Synthetase die korrekte Sequenz der biosynthetischen Reaktionsschritte sicherstellt ist nicht bekannt. Die enorme Diversität biosynthetischer Reaktionen in NRPS Systemen und die hohe Substratvielfalt in den verschiedensten Synthetasen unterschiedlicher Stämme eröffnet ein weites Feld für mögliche Neukombinationen von Modulen und Modifikationen von Produkten, um neue bioaktive Polypeptide mit antibiotischen Eigenschaften durch die Gestaltung neuer biosynthetischer Reaktionswege zu erhalten. Die Biosyntheseprodukte der NRPS und PKS Systeme lassen sich Gruppen kategorisieren wie Peptidantibiotika, beispielsweise beta-Lactame und makrozyklischer Polypeptide. Weitere Gruppen sind die makrozyklischen Lactone, beispielsweise Polyene und Makrolide, aromatische Verbindungen, wie Chloramphenicol, und Chinone (Tetracyclin). Die näher diskutierten Beispiele sind die antibakteriellen Polypeptide Surfactin und Tyrocidin A. Surfactin ist ein antibakteriell wirkendes makrozyklisches Lipoheptapeptid, welches von Bacillus subtilis synthetisiert wird und ein enormes antivirales Potential besitzt. Tyrocidin A ist ein antibakteriell wirkendes makrozyklisches Decapeptid und wird von Bacillus brevis und Brevisbacillus parabrevis synthetisiert. Zusätzlich werden viele bakterielle Toxine ebenfalls durch solche Systeme multi-modularer Synthetasen erzeugt. Ein Beispiel ist das Polyketid Vibriobactin, das Toxin des humanpathogenen Bakterium Vibrio cholerae. Ein zunehmendes Problem der wachsenden Weltbevölkerung moderner Gesellschaften und in den Entwicklungsländern ist die wachsende Zahl multiresistenter Bakterienstämme. Die starke Progression in der Entwicklung von Resistenzen gegen Antibiotika ist auch Gegenstand des aktuellen WHO-Reports (2006). Alarmierend ist die beschleunigte Resistenzentwicklung gegen die sogenannten Reserveantibiotika Vancomycin und Ceftazidim. Ein umfangreicheres Verständnis der Interaktion zwischen Domänen in einem Modul und zwischen Modulen eines NRPS Systems ist Grundlage für die Neukombination unterschiedlicher Module zur erfolgreichen Gestaltung neuer Biosynthesen. Da die meisten dieser Biosynthesen oder die Synthese alternativer Substanzen nicht in der Organischen Chemie zu realisieren sind oder die Produkte zu teuer wären, um diese in großen Mengen zu erzeugen, muß das Ziel sein die NRPS und PKS Systeme in ihrem modularen Aufbau und ihre Interaktion zu verstehen, um alternative Antibiotika biosynthetisch herzustellen. Peptidyl Carrier Proteine (PCPs) sind kleine zentrale Transport-Domänen, integriert in den Modulen nicht-ribosomaler Peptidsynthetasen (NRPSs). PCPs tragen kovalent über eine Phosphoesterbindung einen aus dem Protein herausragenden 4’-phosphopantetheinyl (4’-PP) Kofaktor. Der 4’-PP Kofaktor ist an der Seitenkette eines hochkonservierten Serins gebunden, welche ein zentraler Bestandteil der Phosphopantethein-Erkennungs-Sequenz ist. Die Erkennungssequenz ist homolog in vielen Proteinen mit ähnlicher Funktion, inklusive Acyl Carrier Proteinen (ACPs) der Fettsäuresynthetasen (FAS) und der Polyketidsynthetasen (PKS). Die Thiolgruppe des 4’-PP Kofaktors dient zum aktiven Transport der Substrate und der Intermediate der NRPS Systeme. Die generelle Organisation und die Kontrolle der exakt aufeinander folgenden Reaktionsschritte in der Peptidsynthetase, ist die entscheidende Frage für die Funktion des Proteinclusters (assembly line mechanism). In Modulen der NRPS Systeme folgen die PCP-Domänen C-terminal auf die Adenylierungsdomänen (A-Domäne). Die Aufgabe der A-Domänen ist die Selektion and die Aktivierung einer spezifischen Aminosäure für die „assembly line“. Die eigentliche Bildung der Peptidbindung erfolgt an der Kondensations-Domäne (C-Domäne). Der Transfer der Peptidintermediate und der aktivierten Aminosäuren zwischen A-Domänen und C-Domänen ist Aufgabe der PCPs. Um diese Funktion erfüllen zu können, ist eine große Bewegung in PCPs, bzw. des 4’-PP Kofaktors notwendig, welche als „swinging arm model“ (Weber et al., 2001) beschrieben wurde. Die PCPs koordinieren damit die Peptidbiosynthese während sie mit diversen Domänen der Synthetasen spezifisch wechselwirken müssen. Die molekularen Mechanismen des Transportes wurden bisher allerdings nicht untersucht. Eine Dynamik der Transport-Domänen wurde bereits postuliert (Kim & Prestegard, 1989; Andrec et al., 1995), konnte bisher aber nicht gezeigt werden (Weber et al., 2001). Interessanterweise zeigt sowohl apo-PCP (ohne den kovalent gebundenen 4’-PP Kofaktor) also auch holo-PCP langsamen chemischen Austausch, der als jeweils zwei stabile Konformationen beschrieben werden konnte. Diese jeweils zwei stabilen Zustände, welche sich im Austausch befinden, wurden als A und A*, für apo-PCP, und entsprechend H und H* für holo-PCP bezeichnet. Während der A- und der H-Zustand sich sowohl voneinander als auch von den entsprechenden A* und H*-Zuständen unterscheiden und spezifisch für die apo- und die holo-Form von PCP sind, ist die kalkulierte Struktur vom A*-Zustand größten Teils identisch mit der des H*-Zustandes. Die erhaltenen NMR-Strukturen des A-Zustandes, des H-Zustandes und des gemeinsamen A/H-Zustandes beschreiben in ihrer Gesamtheit ein neues Modell für ein allosterie-kontrolliertes System dualer konformationeller Zwei-Zustands-Dynamik. Zu dem beobachteten konformationellen Austausch der PCP-Domäne, konnte die Bewegung des 4’-PP Kofaktors koordiniert werden. Die Bewegung des 4’-PP Kofaktors in Verbindung mit dem konformationellen Austausch der PCP-Domäne charakterisiert die Interaktion mit katalytischen Domänen eines NRPS Moduls. Des weiteren konnte mit Hilfe des Modells die Wechselwirkung mit externen Interaktionspartnern, wie der Thioesterase II und der 4’-PP Transferase, untersucht werden. Die externe Thioesterase II der Surfactin-Synthetase (SrfTEII) von Bacillus subtilis ist ein separat expremiertes 28 KDa Protein. Sie gehört zur Familie der alpha/beta-Hydrolasen und ist verantwortlich für die Regenerierung falsch beladener 4’- PP Kofaktoren der Peptidyl Carrier Domänen. Die SrfTEII wurde mittels Lösungs-NMR untersucht, die Resonanzen wurden zugeordnet, erste strukturelle Modelle konnte berechnet werden und das Interaktionsverhalten mit verschiedenen modifizierten Kofaktoren und PCPs wurde analysiert. Die Spezifität der Substraterkennung durch die SrfTEII kann beschrieben werden. Interessanterweise zeigt auch die SrfTEII Doppelpeaks für einzelne Aminosäuren, diese können als Indikator für eine spezifische Substraterkennung durch das Enzym verwendet werden und helfen den funktionellen Unterschied zwischen der SrfTEI-Domäne und SrfTEII zu verstehen.
The transcription factor p63 is part of the p53 protein family, which consists of three members, p53, p63 and p73. P63 shares structural similarity with all family members, but is associated to different biological functions than p53 or p73. While p53 is mainly linked to tumor suppression and p73 is connected with neuronal development, p63 has been connected to critical biological roles within ectodermal development and skin stem cell biology as well as supervision of the genetic stability of oocytes. Due to its gene structure p63 is expressed as at least six different isoforms, three of them containing a N-terminal transactivation domain. The isoforms that are of biological relevance both have a C-terminal inhibitory domain that negatively regulates the transcriptional activity. This inhibitory domain is supposed to contain two individual components of which one is internally binding and masking the transactivation domain while the other one can be sumoylated. To further investigate this domain a mutational analysis with the help of transactivation assays in SAOS2 cells was carried out to identify the critical amino acids within the inhibitory domain and the impact on transcriptional activity of TAp63alpha, the p63-isoform which is essential for the integrity of the female germline. The results of these experiments show that a stretch of approximately 13 amino acids seems to be important for the regulation of transcriptional activity in TAp63alpha, due to the increased transcriptional activity occurring in this region after mutation. Additional experiments showed that this mechanism is distinct from sumoylation, which seems to have only implications for the intracellular level of TAp63alpha. As a conclusion, the C-terminus of the Tap63alpha is essential for two different mechanisms, which control the transcriptional activity of the protein. Both regulatory elements are independent from each other and can now be restricted to certain amino acids. Activation of the wild type protein might take place in the identified region via post-translational modification. Furthermore an inhibition assay was carried out to test if the same region might have implications on the second biological relevant isoform deltaNp63alpha. The results show that the same amino acids which show an impact on transcriptional activity in Tap63alpha lead to a significant change in functional behaviour of deltaNp63alpha. There is a possibility that both proteins are regulated with opposite effects via the same mechanisms, based at the C-terminus of the p63alpha-isoforms. In both cases a modification of these residues could lead to a more opened conformation of the protein with consequences on promoter binding, which can be even important for deltaNp63alpha with respect to promoter squelching. Both alpha-isoforms seem to be regulated via the C-terminus and to elucidate if that is also the case for TAp63gamma a deletion analysis was carried out. The results show that there are also amino acids within the C-terminus of TAp63gamma, which have implications on the transcriptional activity of the protein. Therefore the C-terminus seems to play a major role for regulation of diverse p63 isoforms.
All lifeforms have to sense changes in their environment and adapt to possibly detrimental conditions. On a cellular level, the highly elaborate proteostasis network (PN) consisting of housekeeping and stress-induced proteins, confers this tolerance against stress and maintains cellular protein homoestasis. This is essential for survival, as an accumulation of stress-induced protein aggregation will eventually affect the functionality of crucial cellular components and ultimately lead to cell death. The guardians of this balance are the molecular chaperones and their activity-regulating co-haperones. They are engaged in all aspects of protein biogenesis, maintenance and degradation, especially during stress.
The heat shock proteins (HSPs) are the major chaperones in mammals and encompass constitutive and stress-induced isoforms. Among them, the HSP70 and the HSP90 family are the most abundant HSPs and their activity is involved in a great variety of homoestasis and stress-induced tasks.
As part of the protein triage the E3 ligase CHIP (C-terminal HSC70-interacting protein) is an essential activity regulating co-chaperone of HSP70 and HSP90 which provides a link between chaperone mediated protein-folding and various degradation pathways. Due to its decisive function, CHIP is involved in a wide array of cellular processes, especially in clearing misfolded HSP70 client proteins that are prone to aggregate. As a consequence, CHIP was reported to confer protection against many aggregation-induced pathologies of the neuronal system. Additionally, CHIP has been identified as a critical factor in various types of cancer and is implied to affect the development and the longevity of mammals.
Despite the significant progress in the understanding of CHIP’s structure and function, many aspects surrounding its chaperone dependency and its substrate recognition remain unclear. Moreover, due to the variety of substrates in diverse cellular pathways, there are yet many connections to elucidate between CHIP and components of the cellular proteostasis network.
The work of this thesis was focused on the role of CHIP in acute stress response and the corresponding status of chaperone association. Moreover, it was investigated if CHIP, as the connecting ligase of folding and degradation systems, might also provide a link between the PN and the reorganisation of the cellular architecture upon stress exposure.
This has become of increasing interest as recent reports highlight the importance of spatial sequestration in protein quality control.
To this end, subcellular distribution of CHIP was analysed by live-cell microscopy during heat stress. It became obvious that during the heat-induced challenge of the chaperone system, CHIP migrated to new cellular sites. Further experiments suggested that the observed migration to the plasma membrane is a chaperone-independent process and in vitro reconstitution of membrane association confirmed the competitive nature of membranes and chaperones for CHIP binding. A detailed in vivo and in vitro analysis of the newly observed membrane association of CHIP revealed a distinct lipid specificity and a novel direct association with lipids. Binding experiments with recombinantly purified deletion mutants of CHIP identified the TPR domain and a positive patch in the coiled-coil domain as main determinants for the lipid association. Through biochemical and biophysical approaches, the structural integrity and functionality of CHIP upon membrane binding was confirmed and further characterised.
Moreover, mass spectrometry analysis provided a high confidence identification of chaperone-free interactors of CHIP at the plasma membrane and other membranous compartments.
In accordance with the lipid specificity, the Golgi apparatus was one of these sites. Only chaperone-free CHIP had a significant effect on the morphology of the organelle, again confirming the competitive role of chaperones and lipids. With respect to the physiological consequences of the changed localisation of CHIP, preliminary results indicated increased cell death when the ligase localises to cellular membranes. The results lead to the conclusion that CHIP acts as an initiator of early stress adaptation and as a sensor for the severity and strength of the stress reaction.
The function of APOBEC3G in the innate immune response against the HIV infection of primary cells
(2008)
In the past few years the regulation of HIV-1 replication by cellular cofactors has been a major topic of ongoing research. These factors potentially represent new targets for antiviral therapy as resistance will be minimized. However this requires a better understanding of the interaction of HIV-1 with these cellular factors and the immune system. The virus infects the cells of the immune system, beginning with macrophages and dendritic cells as primary target cells during transmission. The cellular cofactor, APOBEC3G was found to be an antiviral factor in macrophages, dendritic cells and primary T cells. APOBEC3G is a cytidindeaminase which causes G->A hypermutations in the HIV-Genome. Another protein which has a strong inhibitory effect on the HIV infection is Interferon alpha (IFN-alpha), however the exact reason for this has not yet been elucidated. The bacterial protein, Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) also induces a strong antiviral state in macrophages. In micro-array analysis it was shown that APOBEC3G was upregulated after the stimulation with both IFN-alpha and LPS in macrophages. The goal of this work was to investigate the role of APOBEC3G in the innate immune response to APOBEC3G. For this, the expression of APOBEC3G was examined in HIV-1 target cells after stimulation with IFN-alpha or LPS and the effect of the protein on the viral infection was examined. In the first experiments it could be shown through real time quantitative PCR that APOBEC3G was overexpressed after the stimulation with IFN-alpha or LPS. This result could be shown in monocytes derived macrophages from different blood donors. It was also shown that the overexpression of APOBEC3G correlated directly with the concentration of IFN-alpha. Through mutational analysis it could be then shown that the overexpressed APOBEC3G protein was also functional in the cells. In order to show that this was the result of APOBEC3G, the protein was the regulated through lentiviral vectors. After transduction of cell lines with lentiviral vectors containing APOBEC3G, the infection was inhibited by up to 70%. The infection was restored after the addition of shRNAs against APOBEC3G. For the further experiments, CD34+ stem cells were used. The cells were transduced the day after thawing with lentiviral vectors containing an eGFP marker gene and either APOBEC3G or shRNAs against APOBEC3G. The CD34+ cells were then cultivated and differentiated to macrophages. The cells transduced with Lentiviral vectors containing APOBEC3G had a very high expression of APOBEC3G in the cells, however the cells transduced with shRNA against APOBEC3G did not show a reduction in the protein expression. The infectivity of the transduced CD34+ and CD34 derived macrophages was then examined. It was expected that the cells transduced with APOBEC3G would show a reduced HIV-1 infection, and the cells transduced with shRNA against APOBEC3G would show an increase in infection. After the transduction and differentiation the CD34+ cells from the 3 donors were stimulated and infected with wild type HIV-1 and Vif defective HIV-1 virus. Vif is a viral protein that can bind to APOBEC3G leading it to the proteasome for degradation. The cells from the first donor transduced with APOBEC3G, were very difficult to infect. In general the shRNA against APOBEC3G had little effect on the course of infection; presumably, the shRNA against APOBEC3G was not active in most of these cells. Only the cells from the first donor showed an increase in HIV infection after the transduction with the shRNAs against APOBEC3G, this was most notably the case in the cells stimulated with IFN-alpha, which usually show very little infection. This work showed that APOBEC3G plays an important role in the innate immune response to HIV-1. The effect of APOBEC3G is both cell type as well as donor dependent. Recently, an interesting study also showed that there is a correlation between the expression of APOBEC3G in HIV infected individuals and their progression to AIDS. A better understanding of the role that APOBEC3G plays in the innate immune response would help in the search of new therapeutic possibilities. This could be done by inhibiting the Vif-APOBEC3G interaction in order to increase the amount of active APOBEC3G in the cells or increasing the APOBEC3G concentration in the cells in some manner.
The role of USP22 in nucleic acid sensing pathways and interferon-induced necroptotic cell death
(2023)
Every day, living organisms are challenged by internal and external factors that threaten to bring imbalance to their tightly regulated systems and disrupt homeostasis, leading to degeneration, and ultimately death. More than ever, we face the challenge of combating diseases such as COVID-19 caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. It is therefore crucial to identify host factors that control antiviral defense mechanisms. In addition, in the fight against cancer, it is becoming increasingly important to identify markers that could be used for targeted therapy to influence cellular processes and determine cell fate.
As a deubiquitylating enzyme, ubiquitin specific peptidase 22 (USP22) mediates the removal of the small molecule ubiquitin, which is post-translationally added to target proteins, thereby regulating several important processes such as protein degradation, activation or localization. Through its deubiquitylating function, USP22 controls several biological processes such as cell cycle regulation, proliferation and cancer immunoresistance by modulating key proteins involved in these pathways. Lately, USP22 was reported to positively regulate TNFα-mediated necroptosis, an inflammatory type of programmed cell death, in various human tumor cell lines by affecting RIPK3 phosphorylation. In addition, USP22 as a part of the Spt-Ada-Gcn5 acetyltransferase (SAGA) transcription complex is known to regulate gene expression by removing ubiquitin from histones H2A and H2B. However, little is known about the role of USP22 in global gene expression.
In this study, we performed a genome-wide screen in the human colon carcinoma cell line HT-29 and identified USP22 as a key negative regulator of basal interferon (IFN) expression. We further demonstrated that the absence of USP22 results in increased STING activity and ubiquitylation, both basally and in response to stimulation with the STING agonist 2'3'-cGAMP, thereby affecting IFNλ1 expression and basal expression of antiviral ISGs. In addition, we were able to establish USP22 as a critical host factor in controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection by regulating infection, replication, and the generation of infectious virus particles, which we attribute in part to its role in regulating STING signaling.
In the second part of the study, we connected the findings of USP22-dependent regulation of IFN signaling and TNFα-induced necroptosis and investigated the role of USP22 during necroptosis induced by the synergistic action of IFN and the Smac mimetic BV6 in caspase-deficient settings. We identified USP22 as a negative regulator of IFN-induced necroptosis, which does not depend on STING expression, but relies on a yet unknown mechanism.
In summary, we identify USP22 as an important regulator of IFN signaling with important implications for the defense against viral infections and regulation of the necroptotic pathway that could be exploited for devising targeted therapeutic strategies against viral infections and related diseases like COVID-19, and advancing precision medicine in cancer treatment.
Protein quality control (PQC) machinery is in charge of ensuring protein homeostasis in the cell, i.e. proteostasis. Chaperones assist polypeptides throughout their maturation until functionality is achieved. This process might be disrupted in the presence of mutations or external damaging agents that affect the folding and stability of proteins. In this case, proteins can be efficiently recognized and targeted for degradation in a controlled manner. Ubiquitylation refers to the covalent attachment of one or more ubiquitin moieties to faulty proteins, thus triggering their degradation by the 26S proteasome.
More than 30% of proteins need cofactor molecules. Lack of cofactors renders proteins non-functional. We wanted to understand how the PQC deals with wild-type proteins in the absence of their cofactors. Several studies have indicated the importance of the riboflavin-derived cofactor FAD in the stability of individual flavoproteins, and hence we assumed that loss of flavin should mediate a targeted degradation of this group of proteins. Indeed, our mass spectrometry experiments showed that flavoproteome levels decreased under riboflavin starvation. The oxidoreductase NQO1 was used as a model enzyme to further investigate the mechanism of flavoproteome targeting by the PQC. We showed that cofactor loading determines ubiquitylation of NQO1 by the co-chaperone CHIP, both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, subtle changes in the C-terminus of NQO1 in the absence of FAD seemed to be crucial for this recognition event. ApoNQO1 interactome differed from holoNQO1. Chaperones and degradation factors were enriched on NQO1 upon cofactor withdrawal, probably to support maturation and prevent aggregation of the enzyme.
Loss of protein folding and stability, even to a small extent, can enhance the aggregating behavior of proteins. Proper loading with FAD reduced the co-aggregation of NQO1 with Aβ1-42 peptide. We assumed that the flavoproteome might represent aggregating-prone species under riboflavin deprivation. Supportingly, reversible apoNQO1 aggregates were observed in vivo in the absence of cofactor. General amyloidogenesis in vivo also increased under these conditions, apparently as a result of flavoproteome destabilization. In this context, we think that our data might have important implications considering the onset and development of conformational diseases.
This work has shed some light on the therapeutic implications of riboflavin deficiency as well. The sensitivity of melanoma cells towards the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) increased under riboflavin starvation. Subsequent analyses indicated that a complex metabolic reorganization, mostly affecting proliferation and energy metabolism, occurs in response to starvation. What we suggest to call “flavoaddiction” can be understood as the dependence of melanoma cells on the flavoproteome structural and functional intactness to survive chemotherapy. Understanding this cellular reprogramming in detail might reveal new possibilities for future therapies.
Solute carrier (SLC) are related to various diseases in human and promising pharmaceutical targets but more structural and functional information on SLCs is required to expand their use for drug design and therapy. The 7-transmembrane segment inverted (7-TMIR) fold was identified for the SLC families 4, 23 and 26 in the last decade thus detailed analysis of the structure function relationship of one of these families might also yield insights for the other two. SVCT1 and SVCT2 from the SLC23 family are sodium dependent ascorbic acid transporters in human but structural analysis of the SLC23 family is exclusively based on two homologs – UraA from E. coli and UapA from A. nidulans – yielding two inward-facing and one occluded conformation. In combination with outward-facing conformations from SLC4 transporters, and additional information from the SLC26 family, an elevator transport mechanism for all 7-TMIR proteins was identified but detailed mechanistic features of the transport remain elusive due to the lack of multiple conformations from individual transporters.
To increase the understanding of 7-TMIR protein structure and function in this study, the transport mechanism of SLC23 transporters was analyzed by two strategies including selection of alpaca derived nanobodies and synthetic nanobodies against UraA as prokaryotic model protein of the SLC23 family. The second strategy involved mutagenesis of UraA at functional relevant positions regarding the conformational change during transport. Therefore, available structures of 7-TMIR proteins and less related elevator transporters were analyzed and a common motif identified – the alpha helical inter-domain linkers. The proposed rigid body movement for transport in combination with the characteristic alpha helical secondary structure of the linkers connecting both rigid bodies led to the hypothesis of functional relevance of the linkers and a conformational hinge being located in close proximity to the linkers. These positions were identified and used to modulate the biophysical properties of the transporter. Mutagenesis at three relevant positions led to loss of transport functionality and these UraA variants could be recombinantly produced and purified to further examine the underlying mechanistic effects. The variants UraAG320P and UraAP330G from the periplasmic inter-domain linker showed increased dimerization and thermal stability as well as substrate binding in solution. The substrate affinity of UraAG320P was identified to be 5-fold higher compared to the wildtype. The solvent accessibility of the substrate binding site in UraAG320P and UraAP330G revealed reduced open probability that indicated an altered conformational space compared to UraAWT. This phenomenon was analyzed in more detail by differential hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry and the results supported the hypothesis of a reduced open probability and gave further insights into the impact of the two mutations in the periplasmic inter-domain linker in UraA.
This thesis further presents strategies for phage display selection of nanobodies with epitope bias and a post selection analysis pipeline to identify nanobodies with desired binding characteristics. Thereby, whole cell transport inhibition highlighted periplasmic epitope binders and conformational selectivity. A cytoplasmic epitope could be identified by pulldown with inside-out membrane vesicles for one cytoplasmic side binder. Thermal stabilization analysis of the target protein in differential scanning fluorometry was performed in presence of two different nanobodies to identify simultaneous binding by additional thermal stabilization respectively competition by intermediate melting temperatures. Combination of epitope information with simultaneous DSF could be used to identify the stabilization of different UraA conformations by a set of binders and presents a general nanobody selection strategy for other SLCs. Synthetic nanobodies (sybodies) were also included in the analysis pipeline and Sy45 identified as promising candidate for co-crystallization that gave rise to UraAWT crystals in several conditions in presence or absence of uracil. Similar crystals could be obtained in combination with UraAG320P that were further optimized to gain structural information on this mutant. The structure was solved by molecular replacement and the model refined at 3.1 Å resolution confirming the cytoplasmic epitope of Sy45 as predicted by the selection pipeline. The stabilized conformation was inward-facing similar to the reported UapA structure but significantly different to the previously reported inward-facing structure of UraA. The structure further confirmed the structural integrity of the UraA mutant G320P. Despite the monomeric state of UraA in the structure, the gate domain aligned reasonably well with the gate domain of the previously published dimeric UraA structure in the occluded conformation and allowed detailed analysis of the conformational transition in UraA from inward-facing to occluded by a single rigid body movement. Thereby little movement in the gate domain of UraA was observed in contrast to a previously reported transport mechanism. Core domain rotation around a rotation axis parallel to the substrate barrier was found to explain the major part of conformational transition from inward-facing to occluded and experimentally supported the hypothesized mechanism by Chang et al. (2017). Additionally, the conformational hinge around position G320 in UraA could be identified as well as the impact of the backbone rigidity introduced by the highly conserved proline residue at position 330 in UraA on the conformational transition. This position was found to serve as anchoring point the inter-domain linker and determines the coordinated movement of inter-domain linker and core domain. The functional analysis further highlighted the requirement of alpha helical secondary structure within the inter-domain linker that serves as amphipathic structural entity that can adjust to changed core-gate domain distances and angles during transport by extension/compression or bending while preserving the rigid linkage.
The applied strategies to modulate the conformational space of UraA by mutagenesis at the hinge positions in the inter-domain linkers is transferrable to other transporters and might facilitate their structural and functional characterization.
Further, this study discusses the conformational thermostabilization of UraA that is based on increased melting temperatures upon restriction of its conformational freedom. The term ‘conformational thermostabilization’ introduced by Serrano-Vega et al. (2007) could be experimentally supported and the direct correlation between the conformational freedom and thermostabilization was qualitatively analyzed for UraA. The concept of conformational thermostabilization might help in characterization of other dynamic transport systems as well.
Ubiquitination is regarded as one of the key post-translational modifications in nearly all biological processes, endowed with numerous layers of complexity. Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) dynamically counterbalance ubiquitination events by deconjugating ubiquitin signals from substrates. Dysregulation of the ubiquitin code and its negative regulators drive various pathologies, such as neurological disorders and cancer.
The DUB ubiquitin-specific peptidase 22 (USP22) is well-known for its essential role in the human Spt-Ada-Gcn5 acetyltransferase (SAGA) complex, mediating the removal of monoubiquitination events from Histone 2A and 2B (H2A and -B), thereby regulating gene transcription. In cancer, USP22 was initially described as a part of an 11-gene expression signature profile, predicting tumor metastasis, reoccurrence and death after therapy in a wide range of tumor cells. However, novel roles for USP22 have emerged recently, accrediting USP22 essential roles in regulating tumor development as well as apoptotic cell death signaling.
One of the hallmarks of cancer is the evasion of cell death, especially apoptosis, a form of programmed cell death (PCD). Necroptosis, a regulated form of necrosis, is regarded as an attractive therapeutic strategy to overcome apoptosis-resistance in tumor cells, although a profound understanding of the exact signaling cascade still remains elusive. Nevertheless, several ubiquitination and deubiquitination events are described in fine-tuning necroptotic signaling.
In this study, we describe a novel role for USP22 in regulating necroptotic cell death signaling in human tumor cell lines. USP22 depletion significantly delayed TNFa/Smac mimetic/zVAD.fmk (TBZ)-induced necroptosis, without affecting TNFa-induced nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-KB) signaling or TNFa-mediated extrinsic apoptosis. Intriguingly, re-expression of USP22 wildtype in the USP22 knockout background could re-sensitize HT-29 cells to TBZ-induced necroptosis, whereas re-constitution with the catalytic inactive mutant USP22 Cys185Ser did not rescue susceptibility to TBZ-induced necroptosis, confirming the USP22 DUB-function a pivotal role in regulating necroptotic cell death. USP22 depletion facilitated ubiquitination and unexpectedly also phosphorylation of Receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) during necroptosis induction, as shown by Tandem Ubiquitin Binding Entities (TUBE) pulldowns and in vivo (de)ubiquitination immunoprecipitations. To substantiate our findings, we performed mass-spectrometric ubiquitin remnant profiling and identified the three novel USP22-regulated RIPK3 ubiquitination sites Lysine (K) 42, K351 and K518 upon TBZ-induced necroptosis. Further assessment of these ubiquitination sites unraveled, that mutation of K518 in RIPK3 reduced necroptosis-associated RIPK3 ubiquitination and additionally affected RIPK3 phosphorylation upon necroptosis induction. At the same time, genetic knock-in of RIPK3 K518R sensitizes tumor cells to TNFa-induced necroptotic cell death and amplified necrosome formation.
In summary we identified USP22 as a new regulator of TBZ-induced necroptosis in various human tumor cell lines and further unraveled the distinctive role of DUBs and (de)ubiquitination events in controlling programmed cell death signaling.
Einige Teilergebnisse dieser Arbeit wurden bereits veröffentlicht: Mahnke K., Schönfeld K., Fondel S. et al (2007), Int. J. Cancer 120; 2723-2733 Depletion of CD4+CD25+ human regulatory T cells in vivo: Kinetics of Treg depletion and alterations in immune functions in vivo and in vitro Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurde die Treg depletierende Wirkung von ONTAK, einem Fusionsprotein aus Interleukin-2 und Diphterietoxin, untersucht. Hierzu wurde ONTAK in Zellkultur auf humanen Lymphozyten getestet und anschließend Melanomapatienten verabreicht. ONTAK konnte sowohl in vitro als auch in vivo eine Depletion von Tregs induzieren, wenngleich der in vivo Effekt nicht vollständig war. Des Weiteren wurde der immunologische Effekt, der auf die Reduktion der Tregs zurückzuführen ist, untersucht. Hierzu wurden die Patienten mit DCP behandelt, welches normalerweise zu einer schwachen Entzündungsreaktion führt. Nach Treg Depletion wurden starke Kontaktekzeme in den Patienten induziert. Aufgrund dieser verstärkten Immunantwort erfolgte eine Applikation der Tumorpeptide MART1 und gp100 in das Kontaktekzem. Anschließend konnten peptidspezifische CD8 T-Zell Populationen detektiert werden, die sowohl INF-γ sekretierten, als auch zytotoxisch aktiv waren. Solche starken Immunantworten wurden bisher nur unter zu Hilfenahme starker Adjuvanzien induziert. ONATK führt bereits nach einmaliger Applikation zu einer Depletion regulatorischer T-Zellen in vivo. Dabei wird der Gehalt von 4 % regulatorischen T-Zellen im Blut auf einen Gehalt von 1 % gesenkt. Diese Depletion der Tregs verstärkt eine Immunisierung mit Peptiden, die eine starke CD8 T-Zell vermittelte Immunantwort induziert. Allerdings kam es zu keiner vollständigen Depletion der Tregs, was durch die geringe in vivo Halbwertszeit von ONTAK, sowie durch unbekannte Mechanismen der Treg Homöostase erklärt werden könnte. Die Wirkweise von ONTAK konnte nur im Blut, aber nicht in anderen Organen wie z.B. Lymphknoten erforscht werden, daher besteht die Möglichkeit, einer unvollständigen Depletion der Zellen in peripheren Organen. In wieweit Tregs im Blut mit anderen Zellen wechselwirken ist weitgehenst unerforscht. Die meisten Untersuchungen zeigen Zell-Zell Interaktionen in den Lymphknoten und im entzündeten Gewebe. Der Ort, an dem die Tregs aber wirklich ihr suppressives Potential auf andere Zellen entfalten, ist noch unbekannt. Hiermit beschäftigt sich der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit. Zur Beantwortung dieser Frage sollten Tregs in vivo in Mäusen in die Haut oder den Lymphknoten geleitet werden. Um das Vorhaben auszuführen, wurden die Zytokinrezeptoren CCR7, CCR9 und CCR10 sowie die Adhäsionsmoleküle PSGL-1, ESL-1 und CD103 kloniert und in zwei Expressionssystemen getestet. Ein lentivirales System zeigte eine schlechte Transduktionseffizienz, so dass ein zweites System mit einer Elektroporationstechnik, der Nucleofection gewählt wurde. Dieses führte zu Expressionseffizienzen von ca. 40 %. Zuerst wurde die Funktionalität der klonierten Moleküle in vitro in der murinen T-Zellline EL-4 in Transwell- und Flowchamberversuchen demonstriert, anschließend wurden murine in vitro expandierte Tregs nucleofiziert. Eine umfassende Analyse der nucleofizierten Zellen zeigte eine Heraufregulation von CD69 und eine Herunteregulation von CD62L, was auf eine Aktivierung der Zellen deutet. Mit einhergehender Aktivierung nahm auch die Apoptoserate der Zellen zu, diese konnte auch durch Modifikationen der Nucleofections- sowie der Kulturbedingungen nicht verringert werden. Nach einer Inkubationszeit von 16 Stunden nach der Nucleofection ließen sich noch adhäsive Eigenschaften der exprimierten Moleküle in der Flowchamber nachweisen. Im Suppressionstest, in dem die Zellen über einen Zeitraum von drei Tagen inkubiert wurden, waren die Zellen jedoch nicht mehr suppressiv. Daher wären die in vivo Versuche, die den suppressiven Einfluß der Tregs auf die Ohrschwellung in Abhängigkeit ihrer Lokalisation untersuchen sollten, erfolglos geblieben. Mit der Induktion der Apoptose stießen die hier verwendeten Methoden an ihre Grenzen. Zur Realisierung des Projekts müssten andere Transduktionssysteme oder Tregs aus knock out Mäusen verwendet werden. Regulatorische T-Zellen nehmen eine Schlüsselrolle bei der Suppression von anti-Tumor Immunantworten aber auch bei dem Schutz vor Autoimmunerkrankungen ein. Eine erfolgreiche Manipulation dieser Zellen in vivo oder in vitro bildet eine solide Basis für neuartige Immuntherapien gegen entsprechende Krankheiten. ONTAK ist ein wirkungsvolles Medikament, um die Anzahl der regulatorischen Zellen in vvo zu reduzieren. Es trägt dadurch zu einer verstärkten Immunantwort bei. Eine einmalige Gabe von ONTAK ist sicherlich nicht ausreichend, um Tumore zu bekämpfen, es kann aber Immuntherapien unterstützen. Eine Manipulation von Tregs, durch die Expression von Transgenen um ihr Migrationsverhalten in vivo zu beeinflussen und damit die Suppression von Autoimmunerkrankungen zu bedingen, ist noch nicht ausgereift und bedarf noch weiterer Forschung.
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of cell fate regulating proteins determine their stability, localization and function and control the activation of cell protective signaling pathways. Particularly in aberrantly dividing cancer cells the surveillance of cell cycle progression is essential to control tumorigenicity. In a variety of carcinomas, lymphomas and leukemias, the tumor-suppressive functions of the apoptosis- and senescence-regulating promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) is controlled by numerous PTMs. PML poly-ubiquitylation and polySUMOylation at several lysine (K) residues induce PML degradation that is correlated to a progressive and invasive cancer phenotype. Besides several known E3 ubiquitin protein ligases that are involved in PML degradation, less is known about PML-specific deubiquitylases (DUBs), the respective DUB-controlled ubiquitin conjugation sites and the functional consequences of PML (de)ubiquitylation. Here, we show that the pro-tumorigenic DUB USP22 critically regulates PML protein stability by modifying PML residue K394 in advanced colon carcinoma cells in vitro and that this modification also impacts the homeostasis and function of the leukemia-associated mutant variant PML-RARα. We found that ablation of USP22 decreases PML mono-ubiquitylation and correlates with a prolonged protein half-live in colon carcinoma and acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) cell lines. Additionally, silencing of USP22 enhances interferon and interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression in APL cells in vitro, which together with prolonged PML-RARα stability increases the APL cell sensitivity towards differentiation treatment. In accordance with the novel roles of USP22 as suppressor of the interferon response in human intestinal epithelial cells (hIECs), our findings imply USP22-dependent surveillance of PML-RARα stability and interferon signaling in human leukemia cells, revealing USP22 as central regulator of leukemia pathogenesis.
Autophagy, together with the ubiquitin-proteasome system, is the main quality control pathway responsible for maintaining cell homeostasis. There are several types of autophagy distinguished by cargo selectivity and means of induction. This thesis focuses on macroautophagy, hereafter autophagy, where a double-layered membrane is formed originating from the endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) engulfing cargo selectively or unselectively. Subsequently, a vesicle forms around the cargo, an autophagosome, and eventually fuses with the lysosome leading to degradation of the vesicle content and release of the cargo “building blocks”. Basal autophagy continuously occurs, unselectively engulfing a portion of the cytoplasm. However, autophagy can also be induced by stress such as starvation, protein aggregation, damaged organelles, intracellular pathogens etc. In this case, the cargo is selectively targeted, and the fate of the autophagosome is the same as in basal autophagy. In recent years, interest in identifying mechanisms of autophagy regulation has risen due to its importance in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Given the complexity of the process, its execution is tightly regulated from initiation, autophagosome formation, expansion, closure, and finally fusion with the lysosome. Each of the steps involves different protein complexes, whose timely activity is orchestrated by post-translational modifications. One of them is ubiquitination. Ubiquitin is a small, 76-amino acid protein conjugated in a 3-step reaction to other proteins, in a reversible manner, meaning undone by deubiquitinases. Originally described as a degradation signal targeting proteins to the proteasome, today it is known it has various additional non-proteolytic functions, such as regulating a protein’s activity, localization, or interaction partners. The role of ubiquitin in autophagy has already been shown. However, given the reversibility and fine-tuning of the ubiquitin signal, many expected regulators remain unidentified. This work aimed to identify novel deubiquitinating enzymes that regulate autophagy. We identified ubiquitin-specific protease 11 (USP11) as a novel, negative regulator of autophagy. Loss of USP11 leads to an increase in autophagic flux, whereas overexpression of USP11 attenuates it. Moreover, this observation was reproducible in model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, emphasizing the importance of USP11 in autophagy regulation. To identify the mechanism of USP11-dependent autophagy regulation, we performed a USP11 interactome screen after 4 hour Torin1 treatment and identified a plethora of autophagy-related proteins. Following the most prominent hits, we have investigated versatile ways in which USP11 regulates autophagy. USP11 interacts with the PI3KC3 complex, the role of which is phosphorylating lipids of the ER, thereby initiating the formation of the autophagosomal membrane. Phosphorylated lipids serve as a recruitment signal for downstream effector proteins necessary for the membrane expansion. The core components of the complex are VPS34, the lipid kinase, ATG14, the protein responsible for targeting the complex to the ER, VPS15, a pseudokinase with a scaffolding role, Beclin1, a regulatory subunit, and NRBF2, the dimer-inducing subunit. We have found USP11 interacts with the complex and, based on its activity, USP11 influences post-translational status of all the aforementioned subunits, except for ATG14. Moreover, we have found that loss of USP11 leads to an increase in NRBF2 levels, whereas it does not change the levels of the other proteins. Given that the dimerization of the complex leads to an increase in complex activity, we investigated if the complex is more tightly formed in the absence of USP11, and if it is more active. We have found both to be the case. Although the exact mechanism of USP11-dependent PI3KC3 complex regulation remains to be identified, we found that loss of USP11 stimulates the complex formation and activity, likely contributing to the general effect of USP11 on autophagy flux. Additionally, we found that USP11 modulates levels of mTOR, the most upstream kinase in autophagy initiation steps and general multifaceted metabolism regulator. Loss of USP11 led to downregulation of mTOR levels, suggesting USP11 may rescue mTOR from proteasome-mediated degradation. Furthermore, we found mTOR to be differentially modified depending on the activity of USP11. However, it remains to be shown if USP11-dependent mTOR regulation contributes to the observed autophagy phenotype. Taken together, USP11 is a novel, versatile, negative regulator of autophagy, and an important addition to our knowledge on the regulation of autophagy by the ubiquitin system.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit sollte untersucht werden, ob eine Zellzyklusabhängigkeit der CD95- vermittelten Apoptose besteht. Dazu wurde ein ecdysoninduzierbares Genexpressionsystem für die induzierte Überexpression der CDK-Inhibitoren p21 und p27 in RKO-Zellen (Kolonkarzinomzellen) zur Herbeiführung eines Zellzyklusarrests in der G1-Phase benutzt. Nach Induktion mit dem Ecdysonhomolog Muristeron wurde durch Zugabe von rekombinanten hCD95-Liganden Apoptose ausgelöst und anschließend untersucht. Die erzielten Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der Induktor Muristeron an sich und nicht die p21- bzw. p27-Überexpression die anti-apoptotische Akt-Kinase aktiviert, die Expression des anti-apoptotischen Bcl-xL erhöht, die Caspase-8-Aktivierung (entweder am CD95-DISC oder durch "Feedback"-Aktivierung durch Caspase-3) und die darauf folgenden Ereignisse verhindert und somit die hCD95L-induzierte Apoptose blockiert. Zusätzlich beeinflusst der Induktor auch das Genexpressionsmuster der behandelten Zellen, was ebenfalls für die Hemmung der Apoptose mit verantwortlich sein könnte. Somit ist das ecdysoninduzierbare Genexpressionsystem zur Apoptoseuntersuchung in RKO-Zellen nicht verwendbar. Mit der Untersuchung des Apoptoseverhaltens proliferierender RKO-Zellen konnte gezeigt werden, dass überlebende Zellen nach hCD95L-Behandlung vermehrt in der G0/G1-Zellzyklusphase nachweisbar sind, während apoptotische (Caspase-3-positive) Zellen aus der G2/M-Phase heraus sterben. Allerdings weisen die apoptotischen Zellen kaum Cyclin B1 auf, ein für die G2-Phase wichtiges und typisches Cyclin. Somit bleibt die genaue Verknüpfung von Zellzyklusregulation und Apoptose auch nach diesen Analysen ungeklärt. In einem dritten Ansatz - Zellzyklusarrest durch Dichtearretierung - konnte eine Hemmung der CD95- vermittelten Apoptose in der arretierten Zellpopulation nachgewiesen werden. Allerdings sekretieren RKO-Zellen einen anti-apoptotischen Faktor in ihr Medium, dessen Konzentration und Wirkung mit größerer Zelldichte zunimmt und somit für die Protektion, unabhängig von Zellzyklusarrest oder Proliferation, verantwortlich ist. Konfluente und auch mit konditioniertem Medium behandelte RKO-Zellen zeigen im Vergleich zu dünn ausgesäten RKO-Zellen Veränderungen, die denen sehr ähnlich sind die beim Übergang einer epithelverankerten Zelle zu einer migrierenden Einzelzelle (EMT) auftreten. Beispielsweise verändert sich die Zusammensetzung des Zytoskeletts, die Zellen verlieren den Zell-Zell-Kontakt und lösen sich ab, bleiben aber am Leben. Zusätzlich steigt die Sekretion von Zytokinen an, die Angiogenese, Migration und Invasion positiv beeinflussen. Sowohl konfluente als auch mit konditioniertem Medium behandelte sub-konfluente Zellen sind apoptoseresistent (hCD95L, TRAIL, UV, Staurosporin), woran u.a. die Kinasen PKC und PI3K, aber auch das anti-apoptotische Bcl-xL beteiligt sind. Die Zellen sterben interessanterweise, wenn ein agonistischer anti-CD95-Antikörper statt des rekombinanten CD95-Liganden verwendet wird, was vermuten lässt, dass eine mangelhafte Vernetzung der einzelnen DISC-Komplexe zur Apoptosehemmung führt, welche durch den Antikörper dann aber erzwungen wird. Zwar handelt es sich hierbei um ein reines Zellkulturmodell, dennoch könnte es bedeuten, dass die Umgebung in einer dichten RKO-Zellkultur vergleichbar ist mit der in größeren soliden Tumoren. Die Zellen brauchen Nährstoffe, versuchen über eine Neovaskularisierung Anschluss an ein Blutsystem zu finden und sekretieren Lockstoffe, Wachstumsfaktoren sowie Proteasen, um die Metastasierung zu erleichtern. PI3K, cPKCs und Bcl-xL tragen dabei zu einer Apoptoseresistenz bei, welche die Zellen zum einen resistent gegenüber Anoikis, Nährstoffmangel, aber auch gegen angreifende zytotoxische T-Zellen macht. Eine weitere Aufklärung der hier ablaufenden Prozesse würde es erleichtern, Möglichkeiten zu finden, in diese Signalwege einzugreifen, um die Apoptosesensitivität wieder herzustellen und die Metastasierung zu verhindern. Insbesondere ist die Identifizierung des für die Apoptoseprotektion verantwortlichen Zytokins das nächste wichtige Ziel bei der Fortsetzung dieser Arbeiten.