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Institute
- Physik (3387) (remove)
We derive the equations of second order dissipative fluid dynamics from the relativistic Boltzmann equation following the method of W. Israel and J. M. Stewart [1]. We present a frame independent calculation of all first- and second-order terms and their coefficients using a linearised collision integral. Therefore, we restore all terms that were previously neglected in the original papers of W. Israel and J. M. Stewart.
We present results on Hanbury Brown-Twiss (HBT) radii extracted from the Ultra-relativistic Molecular Dynamics (UrQMD) approach to relativistic heavy ion collisions. The present investigation provides a comparison of results from pure hadronic transport calculations to a Boltzmann + Hydrodynamic hybrid approach with an intermediate hydrodynamic phase. For the hydrodynamic phase different Equations of State (EoS) have been employed, i.e. bag model, hadron resonance gas and a chiral EoS. The influence of various freeze-out scenarios has been investigated and shown to be negligible if hadronic rescatterings after the hydrodynamic evolution are included. Furthermore, first results of the source tilt from azimuthal sensitive HBT and the direct extraction from the transport model are presented and exhibit a very good agreement with E895 data at AGS.
A mechanism for locally density-dependent dynamic parton rearrangement and fusion has been implemented into the Ultrarelativistic Quantum Molecular Dynamics (UrQMD) approach. The same mechanism has been previously built in the Quark Gluon String Model (QGSM). This rearrangement and fusion approach based on parton coalescence ideas enables the description of multi-particle interactions, namely 3 -> 3 and 3 -> 2, between (pre)hadronic states in addition to standard binary interactions. The UrQMD model (v2.3) extended by these additional processes allows to investigate implications of multi-particle interactions on the reaction dynamics of ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions. The mechanism, its implementation and first results of this investigation are presented and discussed.
We present the current status of hybrid approaches to describe heavy ion collisions and their future challenges and perspectives. First we present a hybrid model combining a Boltzmann transport model of hadronic degrees of freedom in the initial and final state with an optional hydrodynamic evolution during the dense and hot phase. Second, we present a recent extension of the hydrodynamical model to include fluctuations near the phase transition by coupling a chiral field to the hydrodynamic evolution.
Fast thermalization and a strong build up of elliptic flow of QCD matter were investigated within the pQCD based 3+1 dimensional parton transport model BAMPS including bremsstrahlung 2 <-> 3 processes. Within the same framework quenching of gluonic jets in Au+Au collisions at RHIC can be understood. The development of conical structure by gluonic jets is investigated in a static box for the regimes of small and large dissipation. Furthermore we demonstrate two different approaches to extract the shear viscosity coefficient n from a microscopical picture.
We study the kinetic and chemical equilibration in 'infinite' parton-hadron matter within the Parton-Hadron-String Dynamics transport approach, which is based on a dynamical quasiparticle model for partons matched to reproduce lattice-QCD results – including the partonic equation of state – in thermodynamic equilibrium. The 'infinite' matter is simulated within a cubic box with periodic boundary conditions initialized at different baryon density (or chemical potential) and energy density. The transition from initially pure partonic matter to hadronic degrees of freedom (or vice versa) occurs dynamically by interactions. Different thermody-namical distributions of the strongly-interacting quark-gluon plasma (sQGP) are addressed and discussed.
Heavy quark and charmonium production as well as their space-time evolution are studied in transport simulations of heavy-ion collisions at RHIC and LHC. In the partonic transport model Boltzmann Approach of MultiParton Scatterings (BAMPS) heavy quarks can be produced in initial hard parton scatterings or during the evolution of the quark-gluon plasma. Subsequently, they interact with the medium via binary scatterings with a running coupling and a more precise Debye screening which is derived from hard thermal loop calculations, participate in the flow and lose energy. We present results of the elliptic flow and nuclear modification factor of heavy quarks and compare them to available data. Furthermore, preliminary results on J/psi suppression at forward and mid-rapidity are reported for central and non-central collisions at RHIC. For this, we study cold nuclear matter effects and the dissociation as well as regeneration of J/psi in the quark-gluon plasma. XLIX International Winter Meeting on Nuclear Physics 24-28 January 2011 BORMIO, Italy
The multiplicity fluctuations in A+A collisions at SPS and RHIC energies are studied within the HSD transport approach. We find a dominant role of the fluctuations in the nucleon participant number for the final fluctuations. In order to extract physical fluctuations one should decrease the fluctuations in the participants number. This can be done considering very central collisions. The system size dependence of the multiplicity fluctuations in central A+A collisions at the SPS energy range – obtained in the HSD and UrQMD transport models – is presented. The results can be used as a ‘background’ for experimental measurements of fluctuations as a signal of the critical point. Event-by-event fluctuations of the K/p , K/p and p/p ratios in A+A collisions are also studied. Event-by-event fluctuations of the kaon to pion number ratio in nucleus-nucleus collisions are studied for SPS and RHIC energies. We find that the HSD model can qualitatively reproduce the measured excitation function for the K/p ratio fluctuations in central Au+Au (or Pb+Pb) collisions from low SPS up to top RHIC energies. The forward-backward correlation coefficient measured by the STAR Collaboration in Au+Au collisions at RHIC is also studied. We discuss the effects of initial collision geometry and centrality bin definition on correlations in nucleus-nucleus collisions. We argue that a study of the dependence of correlations on the centrality bin definition as well as the bin size may distinguish between these ‘trivial’ correlations and correlations arising from ‘new physics’. 5th International Workshop on Critical Point and Onset of Deconfinement - CPOD 2009, June 08 - 12 2009 Brookhaven National Laboratory, Long Island, New York, USA
Ziel der durchgeführten Experimente dieser Arbeit war es, den Versuch zu unternehmen, Cooper-Paare als Träger des supraleitenden Stroms direkt mit Hilfe des Photoelektrischen Effektes nachzuweisen. Die Methode der koinzidenten Photoelektronenspektroskopie zielt dabei auf den Nachweis von zwei kohärent emittierten Elektronen durch die Wechselwirkung mit einem Photon ab. Da elektrostatische Analysatoren typischerweise nur einen sehr kleinen Raumwinkel erfassen, was mit sehr geringen Koinzidenzraten einhergeht, ist im Zusammenhang mit dieser Arbeit ein Flugzeitprojektionssystem entwickelt worden, welches nahezu den gesamten Raumwinkel auf einem ortsauflösenden Detektor abbildet. Die zur Messung erforderliche gepulste Lichtquelle in Form von spezieller Synchrotronstrahlung ist so schwach eingestellt worden, daß nur vereinzelt Photonen auf die Probe gelangen konnten. Spektroskopiert wurde neben Testmessungen an Silberschichten sowohl ein Blei-Einkristall als Vertreter der klassischen BCS-Supraleiter als auch einkristallines Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 aus der Gattung der Hochtemperatursupraleiter. Mit Anregungsenergien bis 40 eV konnte gezeigt werden, daß hinreichend glatte und saubere Oberflächen in der supraleitenden Phase innerhalb des Auflösevermögens von ungefähr 0.5 eV keine erkennbaren, signifikanten Unterschiede im Vergleich zur normalleitenden Phase aufweisen. Neben diesen Untersuchungen ist weiterhin ausführlich die einfache Photoemission an den verschiedenen Proben und insbesondere im Falle des Bleikristalls behandelt, da hier keine vergleichbaren Resultate bekannt sind. Dabei wird der gesamte Impulsraum besprochen und die Fermi-Fläche als dreidimensionales Modell erstellt, mit dessen Hilfe die Meßergebnisse diskutiert werden. In den theoretischen Beschreibungen sind verschiedene Modelle zur Cooper-Paar-Emission vorgestellt, wobei beispielsweise dem Impulsaustausch mit dem Kristall eine besondere Rolle beigemessen wird, da dieser bei direkten Anregungen nur über diskrete Gittervektoren erfolgen kann.
This work deals with the use of dielectrics with high permeability, so-called high-k dielectrics in organic thin-film field-effect transistors (FETs). The central part was the preparation of the high-k dielectric and its implementation in transistors, in which organic semiconductors were used as active layer. A field-effect transistor can be used to measure the charge carrier mobility. Employing high-k dielectrics the carrier concentration in the active layer can be greatly increased. In this way, high charge carrier concentrations in organic layers can be achieved without chemical doping. As high-k dielectric strontium titanate (STO) was selected. It is also available as a niobium-doped and therefore conducting substrate material. Thus, one has an ideal substrate for the growth of the dielectric layer in conjunction with a substrate which acts as gate electrode. As the organic semiconductor the small molecules pentacene and copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) were sublimated, as electrical contacts gold was used. As a key part of this work an ultra high vacuum chamber system was constructed for in situ preparation of field effect transistors. For the deposition of the organic thin films a molecular beam deposition chamber was built, including a manipulator and effusion cells as evaporation sources. For the preparation of the dielectric a sputtering chamber was set-up. Another chamber was used in conjunction with an effusion cell for the deposition of the gold contacts. For the structured deposition of the different layers in the devices a shadow mask system was implemented. Movable masks could be positioned by means of a wobble stick onto the sample carriers. The system thus allowed for the use of masks in all chambers. The different thin films required in the transistor structure were first individually prepared and characterized. For the characterization primarily X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy were used. The growth of pentacene was analyzed on aplha-AlO substrates. With X-ray diffraction the (00l) reflections of the thin film phase were observed. In growth studies of CuPc aplha-AlO and STO substrates were used. With X-ray diffraction the aplha-phase was detected. With increasing substrate temperature an increase in crystallinity, but also an increase in surface roughness was observed. The sputtering of STO as a high-k dielectric was studied and optimized. Simultaneously, a high deposition rate, a smooth film surface and good crystallinity of the layer were required. As the most important parameters the substrate temperature, pressure and sputtering power were identified. Argon and oxygen were employed as sputtering gases, as substrate MgO was used. The films showed in comparison to crystalline STO a distortion to larger lattice constants. The degree of distortion decreased with increasing chamber pressure, on the other hand, deposition rate decreased with increasing chamber pressure as well. By combining the individual deposition processes FETs in bottom-gate geometry were prepared. The first step was always sputtering of the STO dielectric on niobium-doped STO substrates. Subsequently, the electrodes and the organic layer were deposited. For comparison transistors on silicon substrates with silicon dioxide (SiO2) as the dielectric were prepared. To study the transistor properties a measurement setup was build. A dielectric constant of about 190 for the STO in the transistors was achieved. The transistors with CuPc as active layer showed p-type conduction behavior. The transistors with STO as dielectric had a much stronger response than those with SiO2. They reached mobilities of 2E-4 cm2/Vs at very low applied voltages of 3V. It could thus be demonstrated that STO is suitable as a dielectric for organic FETs, and that through the use of high-k dielectrics high charge carrier densities can be achieved.
Die transversale Betatronbewegung eines Ionenstrahls, genannt Tune, stellt neben der Strahlposition die wichtigste zu messende Strahleigenschaft für den stabilen Betrieb eines Kreisbeschleunigers dar. Die Einstellung des Tunes auf einen Arbeitspunkt unterliegt engen Grenzen, da eine Vielzahl resonanter Störungen existiert, die die Teilchenbewegung beeinflussen und somit Emittanzvergrößerung und Strahlverlust hervorrufen. Den gemessenen Tune mit hoher Auflösung in Zeit und Frequenz während der gesamten Beschleunigungsphase auszugeben ermöglicht eine Justierung der ionenoptischen Elemente der Strahlführung. Dadurch läßt sich die Teilchenzahl bis zur theoretischen Raumladungsgrenze erhöhen und darüber hinaus Teilchenverluste minimieren. Die Messungen wurden an Positionssonden (BPM) des Schwerionensynchrotrons SIS18 der "GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH" mit zwei verschiedenen Meßsystemen durchgeführt, was einen Vergleich der Systemauflösungen ermöglicht. Das Direkt Digitalisierende Meßsystem (DDM) wandelt das BPM-Elektrodensignal direkt nach der Verstärkerkette mit einer Rate von 125 MSa/s in digitale Daten um. Der Strahlschwerpunkt eines jeden Einzelbunches wird daraus mittels digitaler Prozessierung berechnet und durch Fouriertransformation dessen Frequenzspektrum bestimmt. Man erhält den fraktionalen Tune dadurch direkt im Basisband. Das am CERN entwickelte und für Parameter des SIS18 adaptierte Direct Diode Detection - System (DDD) zeigt ebenfalls den Tune im Basisband. Um den zu bearbeitenden Frequenzbereich erheblich zu reduzieren, werden bei diesem Verfahren die Bunchpeakwerte, die die Strahlschwingung enthalten, über ein RC-Element analog verzögert ausgegeben. Der erhaltene Tune kann daraus mit hoher Auflösung digitalisiert werden. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Meßaufbauten, die digitale Prozessierung der BPM-Daten mittels neuer Algorithmen sowie die Auswertung und Berechnung des Tunes gezeigt. Es werden typische Tuneverläufe diskutiert und ein Arbeitsbereich definiert, bei dem stabile Tunemessungen mit S/N von 30-50 dB ohne meßbare Vergrößerung der Strahlemittanz möglich sind. Die Auflösung der Tunemessung beträgt δqy = 3.50 · 10−4 und δqx = 7.97 · 10−4 für Anregungskickwinkel im Arbeitsbereich. Darüber hinaus werden physikalische Anwendungen des Systems diskutiert, indem verschiedene Einflüsse von ionenoptischen- und Strahlparametern auf den Tuneverlauf gezeigt und ausgewertet werden.
In this work we study compact stars, i.e. neutron stars, as cosmic laboratories for the nuclear matter. With a mass of around 1 - 3 solar masses and a radius of around 10km, compact stars are very dense and, besides nucleons, can contain exotic matter such as hyperons or quark matter. The KaoS collaboration studied nuclear matter for densities up to 2-3 times saturation density by analysing kaon multiplicities from Au+Au and C+C collisions. The results show that nuclear matter in the corresponding density region is very compressible, with a compressibility of <200MeV. For such soft nuclear equations of state the maximum masses of neutron stars are ca. 1.8 - 1.9 solar masses, whereas the central densities are higher than 5 times nuclear saturation density and therefore point towards a possible phase transition to quark matter. If quark matter would be present in the interior of neutron stars, so-called hybrid stars, it could be produced already during their birth in supernova explosions. To study this we implement a quark matter phase transition in a hadronic equation of state which is used in supernova simulations. Supernova simulations of low and intermediate mass progenitors and two different bag constants show a collapse of the proto neutron star due to the softening of the equations of state in the quark-hadron mixed phase. The stiffening of the equation of state for pure quark matter halts the collapse and leads to the production of a second shock wave. The second shock wave is energetic enough to lead to an explosion of the star and produces a neutrino burst when passing the neutrinospheres. Furthermore, first studies of the longtime cooling of hybrid stars show, that colour superconductivity can significantly influence the cooling behaviour of hybrid stars, if all quarks form Cooper Pairs. For the so-called CSL phase (colour-spin locking) with pairing energies of several MeV, the cooling of the quark phase is suppressed and the hybrid star appears as a pure hadronic star.
Vibronic (vibrational-electronic) transition is one of the fundamental processes in molecular physics. Indeed, vibronic transition is essential both in radiative and nonradiative photophysical or photochemical properties of molecules such as absorption, emission, Raman scattering, circular dichroism, electron transfer, internal conversion, etc. A detailed understanding of these transitions in varying systems, especially for (large) biomolecules, is thus of particular interest. Describing vibronic transitions in polyatomic systems with hundreds of atoms is, however, a difficult task due to the large number of coupled degrees of freedom. Even within the relatively crude harmonic approximation, such as for Born-Oppenheimer harmonic potential energy surfaces, the brute-force evaluation of Franck-Condon intensity profiles in a time-independent sum-over-states approach is prohibitive for complex systems owing to the vast number of multi-dimensional Franck-Condon integrals. The main goal of this thesis is to describe a variety of molecular vibronic transitions, with special focus on the development of approaches that are applicable to extended molecular systems. We use various representations of Fermi’s golden rule in frequency, time and phase spaces via coherent states to reduce the computational complexity. Although each representation has benefits and shortcomings in its evaluation, they complement each other. Peak assignment of a spectrum can be made directly after calculation in the frequency domain but this sum-over-states route is usually slow. In contrast, computation is considerably faster in the time domain with Fourier transformation but the peak assignment is not directly available. The representation in phase space does not immediately provide physically-meaningful quantities but it can link frequency and time domains. This has been applied to, herein, for example (non-Condon) absorption spectra of benzene and electron transfer of bacteriochlorophyll in the photosynthetic reaction center at finite temperature. This work is a significant step in the treatment of vibronic structure, allowing for the accurate and efficient treatment of complex systems, and provides a new analysis tool for molecular science.
This thesis investigates the development of early cognition in infancy using neural network models. Fundamental events in visual perception such as caused motion, occlusion, object permanence, tracking of moving objects behind occluders, object unity perception and sequence learning are modeled in a unifying computational framework while staying close to experimental data in developmental psychology of infancy. In the first project, the development of causality and occlusion perception in infancy is modeled using a simple, three-layered, recurrent network trained with error backpropagation to predict future inputs (Elman network). The model unifies two infant studies on causality and occlusion perception. Subsequently, in the second project, the established framework is extended to a larger prediction network that models the development of object unity, object permanence and occlusion perception in infancy. It is shown that these different phenomena can be unified into a single theoretical framework thereby explaining experimental data from 14 infant studies. The framework shows that these developmental phenomena can be explained by accurately representing and predicting statistical regularities in the visual environment. The models assume (1) different neuronal populations processing different motion directions of visual stimuli in the visual cortex of the newborn infant which are supported by neuroscientific evidence and (2) available learning algorithms that are guided by the goal of predicting future events. Specifically, the models demonstrate that no innate force notions, motion analysis modules, common motion detectors, specific perceptual rules or abilities to "reason" about entities which have been widely postulated in the developmental literature are necessary for the explanation of the discussed phenomena. Since the prediction of future events turned out to be fruitful for theoretical explanation of various developmental phenomena and a guideline for learning in infancy, the third model addresses the development of visual expectations themselves. A self-organising, fully recurrent neural network model that forms internal representations of input sequences and maps them onto eye movements is proposed. The reinforcement learning architecture (RLA) of the model learns to perform anticipatory eye movements as observed in a range of infant studies. The model suggests that the goal of maximizing the looking time at interesting stimuli guides infants' looking behavior thereby explaining the occurrence and development of anticipatory eye movements and reaction times. In contrast to classical neural network modelling approaches in the developmental literature, the model uses local learning rules and contains several biologically plausible elements like excitatory and inhibitory spiking neurons, spike-timing dependent plasticity (STDP), intrinsic plasticity (IP) and synaptic scaling. It is also novel from the technical point of view as it uses a dynamic recurrent reservoir shaped by various plasticity mechanisms and combines it with reinforcement learning. The model accounts for twelve experimental studies and predicts among others anticipatory behavior for arbitrary sequences and facilitated reacquisition of already learned sequences. All models emphasize the development of the perception of the discussed phenomena thereby addressing the questions of how and why this developmental change takes place - questions that are difficult to be assessed experimentally. Despite the diversity of the discussed phenomena all three projects rely on the same principle: the prediction of future events. This principle suggests that cognitive development in infancy may largely be guided by building internal models and representations of the visual environment and using those models to predict its future development.
Die P-Typ-ATPasen finden sich in allen Domänen des Lebens und stellen die größte Gruppe aktiver Ionentransporter in Zellen dar. Es handelt sich bei den P-Typ-ATPasen um integrale Membranproteine, die eine große Anzahl verschiedenster Ionen aktiv über eine biologische Membran transportieren. Die für diesen Ionentransport notwendige Energie wird durch Bindung und Hydrolyse von Adenosintriphosphat (ATP) und durch Phosphorylierung des Enzyms gewonnen. Diese, im cytoplasmatischen Teil gewonnene Energie, muss für den Ionentransport von der Phosphorylierungsstelle zur räumlich entfernten transmembranen Ionenbindungsstelle übertragen werden, bei dem das Protein einem Reaktionszyklus mit zwei Hauptkonformationszuständen E1 und E2 unterliegt. Zwischen diesen beiden Zuständen finden große strukturelle Änderungen statt, durch die die Ionenaffintät und die Zugänglichkeit der Ionenbindungsstelle reguliert wird. Da dieser Mechanismus der Energiegewinnung für alle Ionenpumpen dieser Art ähnlich ist, wurde die Ca2+-ATPase und die Na+/K+-ATPase als Modellproteine für die Untersuchung molekularer Mechanismen in P-Typ-ATPasen ausgewählt. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit soll die Energietransduktion in P-Typ-ATPasen im Allgemeinen und der Protonengegentransport bzw. ein potentieller Protonentransportweg in der Ca2+-ATPase im Speziellen untersucht werden. Die beiden oben genannten Mechanismen sollen mittels computergestützter Methoden analysiert werden. Vor allem die Ca2+-ATPase ist prädestiniert für computergestützte Untersuchungen, da für diese sehr viele hochaufgelöste Röntgenstrukturdaten vorliegen, wenn auch bisher aufgrund der Größe und Komplexität des Systems nur sehr wenige theoretische Arbeiten durchgeführt wurden. Um den Energietransduktionsmechanismus in P-Typ-ATPasen zu untersuchen, wurde mittels Elektrostatik-Rechnungen der Einfluss eines elektrischen Feldes auf die verschiedenen Transmembranhelices untersucht. Dazu wurde ein Simulationssystem entwickelt, welches aus einem molekularen Kondensator besteht, der im Modell das Anlegen eines homogenen elektrischen Feldes über den Transmembranbereich simuliert. Da es sich bei dem Energietransduktionsmechanismus um einen dynamischen Prozess handelt, wurden die Elektrostatik-Rechnungen um Molekulardynamik-Simulationen erweitert. Mit diesen kann die konformelle Dynamik der P-Typ-ATPasen während der Energietransduktion in die Elektrostatik-Rechnungen einbezogen werden. Aus Spannungsklemmen-Fluorometrie-Experimenten, bei denen eine Spannung über eine Membran angelegt wird, kann geschlossen werden, dass die Helix M5 für die Energietransduktion verantwortlich ist. Mit den in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Elektrostatik-Rechnungen konnte für verschiedene Enzymzustände der Ca2+-ATPase und für die Na+/K+-ATPase gezeigt werden, dass die Helix M5 die größten Konformeränderungen aufgrund des elektrischen Feldes aufweist. Durch die Erweiterung der Elektrostatik-Rechnungen um die Methode der Molekulardynamik-Simulation konnte zusätzlich die elektrische Feldstärke reduziert werden. Auch dabei zeigte sich, dass auf der Helix M5 die meisten Rotameränderungen durch das elektrische Feld induziert werden. Die aus Experimenten vermutete Rolle der Helix M5 als wichtiges Energietransduktionselement ließ sich mit diesen Simulationsrechnungen bestätigen. Um einen möglichen Protonenweg durch den Transmembranbereich der Ca2+-ATPase aufzuklären, wurden explizite Wassermoleküle in sechs verschiedene Enzymzustände der Ca2+-ATPase eingefügt. Aus Experimenten ist bekannt, dass in der Ca2+-ATPase ein Protonengegentransport stattfindet. Deshalb wurden für verschiedene Enzymzustände der Ca2+-ATPase mittels Elektrostatik-Rechnungen die Protonierungen der eingefügten Wassermoleküle sowie der titrierbaren Aminosäuren bestimmt. Aus den Ergebnissen dieser Rechnungen kann geschlossen werden, dass es sich bei dem Protonentransfer nicht um einen linearen Transport der Protonen handelt. Die Untersuchungen zeigen einen mehrstufigen Prozess, an dem Protonen in verschiedenen Transmembranbereichen der Ca2+-ATPase beteiligt sind. Anhand der berechneten Protonierungszustände der eingefügten Wassermoleküle und der pK-Werte der Aminosäuren im Transmembranbereich konnte weiterhin ein möglicher Protonenweg identifiziert werden.
In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird die Frage der Vereinheitlichung der Quantentheorie mit der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie behandelt, wobei entsprechend dem Titel der Arbeit der Beziehung der Grundbegriffe der beiden Theorien die entscheidende Bedeutung zukommt. Da das Nachdenken über Grundbegriffe in der Physik sehr eng mit philosophischen Fragen verbunden ist, werden zur Behandlung dieser Thematik zunächst in einem Kapitel, das die vier jeweils drei Kapitel umfassenden Teile vorbereitet, die Entwicklung der Theoretischen Physik betreffende wissenschaftstheoretische Betrachtungen sowie einige wesentliche Gedanken aus der Klassischen Philosophie vorgestellt, welche für die weitere Argumentation wichtig sind. Bei letzteren geht es neben einer kurzen Schilderung der Platonischen Ideenlehre in Bezug auf ihre Relevanz für die Physik insbesondere um die Kantische Auffassung von Raum und Zeit als a priori gegebenen Grundformen der Anschauung, deren Bezug zur Evolutionären Erkenntnistheorie ebenfalls thematisiert wird. In den beiden ersten Teilen werden die wesentlichen Inhalte der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie und der Quantentheorie vorgestellt, wobei der Deutung der beiden Theorien jeweils ein Kapitel gewidmet wird. In Bezug auf die Allgemeine Relativitätstheorie wird diesbezüglich die Bedeutung der Diffeomorphismeninvarianz herausgestellt und in Bezug auf die Quantentheorie wird zunächst die Grundposition der Kopenhagener Deutung verdeutlicht, die im Mindesten als eine notwendige Bedingung zum Verständnis der Quantentheorie angesehen wird, um anschließend eine Analyse und Interpretation des Messproblems und vor allem entscheidende Argumente für die grundlegende Nichtlokalität der Quantentheorie zu geben. Im dritten Teil der Arbeit wird die seitens Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker in der zweiten Hälfte des letzten Jahrhunderts entwickelte Quantentheorie der Ur-Alternativen beschrieben, in welcher die universelle Gültigkeit der allgemeinen Quantentheorie begründet und aus ihr die Existenz der in der Natur vorkommenden Entitäten hergeleitet werden soll, auf deren Beschreibung die konkrete Theoretische Physik basiert. Es werden sehr starke Argumente dafür geliefert, dass diese Theorie von den bislang entwickelten Ansätzen zu einer einheitlichen Theorie der Natur, welche die heute bekannte Physik in sich enthält, die vielleicht aussichtsreichste Theorie darstellt und damit die Aussicht bietet, auch für das Problem der Suche nach einer Quantentheorie der Gravitation den richtigen begrifflichen Rahmen zu bilden. Ihre große Glaubwürdigkeit erhält sie durch eine die Klassische Philosophie miteinbeziehende philosophische Analyse der Quantentheorie. Dieses Urteil behält seine Gültigkeit auch dann, wenn die Quantentheorie der Ur-Alternativen aufgrund der ungeheuren Abstraktheit der Begriffsbildung innerhalb der Theorie und der sich hieraus ergebenden mathematischen Schwierigkeiten bisher noch nicht zu einer vollen physikalischen Theorie entwickelt werden konnte. Die alles entscheidende Kernaussage dieser Dissertation besteht darin, dass aus einer begrifflichen Analyse der Quantentheorie und der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie mit nahezu zwingender Notwendigkeit zu folgen scheint, dass die physikalische Realität auf fundamentaler Ebene nicht-räumlich ist. Dies bedeutet, dass die These vertreten wird, dass es sich bei dem physikalische Raum, wie er gewöhnlich schlicht vorausgesetzt wird, wenn auch in unterschiedlicher Struktur, in Wahrheit nur um eine Darstellung dahinterstehender dynamischer Verhältnisse nicht-räumlicher Objekte handelt. Diese These stützt sich auf die Diffeomorphismeninvarianz in der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie und in noch höherem Maße auf die Nichtlokalität in der Quantentheorie, welche sich wiederum nicht nur in konkreten für die Quantentheorie konstitutiven Phänomenen, sondern dazu parallel ebenso im mathematischen Formalismus der Quantentheorie manifestiert. In Kombination mit der Kantischen Behandlung von Raum und Zeit ergibt sich damit ein kohärentes Bild in Bezug auf die eigentliche Natur des Raumes. Die Quantentheorie der Ur-Alternativen ist diesbezüglich als einzige derzeit existierende Theorie konsequent, indem sie auf der basalen Ebene den Raumbegriff nicht voraussetzt und rein quantentheoretische Objekte als fundamental annimmt, aus deren Zustandsräumen sie die Struktur der Raum-Zeit allerdings zu begründen in der Lage ist. Damit befinden sich diese fundamentalen durch Ur-Alternativen beschriebenen Objekte nicht in einem vorgegebenen Raum, sondern sie konstituieren umgekehrt den Raum. Dies ist eine Tatsache von sehr großer Bedeutung. Im vierten Teil wird schließlich die vorläufige Konsequenz aus diesen Einsichten gezogen. Nach einer kurzen Behandlung der wichtigsten bisherigen Ansätze zu einer quantentheoretischen Beschreibung der Gravitation, wird die Bedeutung der Tatsache, dass die Allgemeine Relativitätstheorie und die Quantentheorie eine relationalistische Raumanschauung nahelegen, nun konkret in Bezug auf die Frage der Vereinheitlichung der beiden Theorien betrachtet. Das bedeutet, dass das Ziel also letztlich darin besteht, einen Ansatz zu einer quantentheoretischen Beschreibung der Gravitation zu finden, bei der so wenig räumliche Struktur wie möglich vorausgesetzt wird. In Kapitel 12 wird diesbezüglich ein von mir entwickelter Ansatz vorgestellt, um zumindest eine Theorie zu formulieren, bei der die metrische Struktur der Raum-Zeit nicht vorausgesetzt sondern in Anlehnung an die Eigenschaften eines fundamentalen Spinorfeldes konstruiert wird, das im Sinne der Heisenbergschen einheitlichen Quantenfeldtheorie die Elementarteilchen einheitlich beschreiben soll. Dieser Ansatz geht bezüglich der Sparsamkeit der Verwendung von a priori vorhandener räumlicher Struktur über die bisherigen Ansätze zu einer Quantentheorie der Gravitation hinaus. Er ist aber dennoch nur als ein erster Schritt zu verstehen. Die konsequente Weiterführung dieses Ansatzes würde in dem Versuch bestehen, eine Verbindung zur von Weizsäckerschen Quantentheorie der Ur-Alternativen herzustellen, die überhaupt keine räumliche Struktur mehr voraussetzt. Hierzu konnten bisher nur aussichtsreiche Grundgedanken formuliert werden. Es wird allerdings basierend auf den in dieser Dissertation dargelegten Argumentationen die Vermutung aufgestellt, dass es im Rahmen der von Weizsäckerschen Quantentheorie der Ur-Alternativen möglich ist, eine konsistente quantentheoretische Beschreibung der Gravitation aufzustellen. In jedem Falle scheint die Quantentheorie der Ur-Alternativen die einzige Theorie zu sein, die aufgrund ihrer rein quantentheoretischen Natur in ihrer Begriffsbildung grundsätzlich genug ist, um eine Aussicht zu bieten, diejenige Realitätsebene zu erfassen, in welcher die Dualität zwischen der Quantentheorie und der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie zu einer Einheit gelangt.
Magnetic characteristics of metal organic low-dimensional quantum spin systems at low temperatures
(2010)
In dieser Arbeit wurden neue Klassen von niedrigdimensionalen metallisch-organischen Materialien untersucht, die es ermöglichen interessante quantenkritische Phänomene (quantum critical phenomena, QCP) wie die Bose-Einstein-Kondensation (Bose-Einstein condensation, BEC) der magnetischen Anregung in gekoppelten Spin-Dimer-Systemen, den Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless Übergang (Berezinskii-Kosterlitz-Thouless transition, BKT) und die Divergenz des magnetokalorischen Effekts (magnetocaloric effect, MCE) in Quanten-Spinsystemen beim Anlegen eines magnetischen Feldes zu beobachten. Die Niedrigdimensionalität der untersuchten Systeme war sowohl für die theoretische Beschreibung, als auch für die experimentelle Beobachtung der Phänomene von großer Bedeutung. Aus theoretischer Sicht eröffnet die Beschäftigung mit diesen Systemen die Möglichkeit, einfache Modelle zu entwickeln, die exakt lösbar sind und erlaubt somit ein qualitatives Verständnis der magnetischen Phänomene. Von experimenteller Seite ist es von größtem Interesse, dass durch das Zusammenspiel von Niedrigdimensionalität, konkurrierenden Wechselwirkungen und starker Quantenfluktuation exotische und aufregende magnetische Phänomene (quantenkritische Phänomene) entstehen, die mit verschiedenen experimentellen Methoden untersucht werden können. Um die intrinsischen Eigenschaften der quantenkritischen Phänomene zu verstehen ist es wichtig, die Phänomene an einfachen und gut kontrollierbaren niedrigdimensionalen Modellsystemen wie ein- oder zweidimensionalen Systemen zu untersuchen. ...
This dissertation is devoted to the study of thermodynamics for quantum gauge theories.The poor convergence of quantum field theory at finite temperature has been the main obstacle in the practical applications of thermal QCD for decades. In this dissertation I apply hard-thermal-loop perturbation theory, which is a gauge-invariant reorganization of the conventional perturbative expansion for quantum gauge theories to the thermodynamics of QED and Yang-Mills theory to three-loop order. For the Abelian case, I present a calculation of the free energy of a hot gas of electrons and photons by expanding in a power series in mD/T, mf /T and e2, where mD and mf are the photon and electron thermal masses, respectively, and e is the coupling constant.I demonstrate that the hard-thermal-loop perturbation reorganization improves the convergence of the successive approximations to the QED free energy at large coupling, e ~ 2. For the non-Abelian case, I present a calculation of the free energy of a hot gas of gluons by expanding in a power series in mD/T and g2, where mD is the gluon thermal mass and g is the coupling constant. I show that at three-loop order hard-thermal-loop perturbation theory is compatible with lattice results for the pressure, energy density, and entropy down to temperatures T ~ 2 - 3 Tc. The results suggest that HTLpt provides a systematic framework that can be used to calculate static and dynamic quantities for temperatures relevant at LHC.
Direct photon emission from heavy-ion collisions has been calculated and compared to available experimental data. Three different models have been combined to extract direct photons from different environments in a heavy-ion collision: Thermal photons from partonic and hadronic matter have been extracted from relativistic, non-viscous 3+1-dimensional hydrodynamic calculations. Thermal and non-thermal photons from hadronic interactions have been calculated from relativistic transport theory. The impact of different physics assumptions about the thermalized matter has been studied. In pure transport calculations, a viscous hadron gas is present. This is juxtaposed with ideal gases of hadrons with vacuum properties, hadrons which undergo a chiral and deconfinement phase transition and with a system that has a strong first-order phase transition to a deconfined ideal gas of quarks and gluons in the hybrid model calculations with the various Equations of State. The models used for the determination of photons from both hydrodynamic and transport calculations have been elucidated and their numerical properties tested. The origin of direct photons, itemised by emission stage, emission time, channel and baryon number density, has been investigated for various systems, as have the transverse momentum spectra and elliptic flow patterns of direct photons. The differences of photon emission rates from a thermalized transport box and the hadronic photon emission rates that are used in hydrodynamic calculations are found to be very similar, as are the spectra from calculations of heavy-ion collisions with transport model and hybrid model with hadronic Equation of State. Taking into account the full (vacuum) spectral function of the rho-meson decreases the direct photon emission by approximately 10% at low photon transverse momentum. The numerical investigations show that the parameter with the largest impact on the direct photon spectra is the time at which the hydrodynamic description is started. Its variation shows deviations of one to two orders of magnitude. In the regime that can be considered physical, however, the variation is less than a factor of 3. Other parameters change the direct photon yield by up to approximately 20%. In all systems that have been considered -- heavy-ion collisions at E_lab = 35 AGeV and 158 AGeV, (s_NN)**1/2 = 62.4 GeV, 130 GeV and 200 GeV -- thermal emission from a system with partonic degrees of freedom is greatly enhanced over that from hadronic systems, while the difference between the direct photon yields from a viscous and a non-viscous hadronic system (transport vs. hydrodynamics) is found to be very small. Predictions for direct photon emission in central U+U-collisions at 35 AGeV have been made. Since non-soft photon sources are very much suppressed at this energy, experimental results should very easily be able to distinguish between a medium that is entirely hadronic and a system that undergoes a phase transition from partonic to hadronic matter. In the case of lead-lead collisions at 158 AGeV, the situation is not so clear. In central collisions, the complete direct photon spectra including prompt photons seem to favour hadronic emission sources, while the partonic calculations only slightly overpredict the data. In peripheral collisions at the same energy, the hadronic contribution is more than one order of magnitude smaller than the prompt photon contribution, which fits the available experimental data. A similar picture presents itself at higher energies. At RHIC energies, however, the difference between transport calculations and hadronic hybrid model calculations is largest. Hybrid model calculations with partonic degrees of freedom can describe the experimental results in gold-gold collisions at 200 GeV. The elliptic flow component of direct photon emission is found to be consistently positive at small transverse momenta. This means that the initial photon emission from a non-flowing medium does not completely overshine the emission patterns from later stages. High-pt photons dominantly come from the beginning of a heavy-ion collision and therefore do not carry the directed information of an evolving medium.
A basic introduction to RFQs has been given in the first part of this thesis. The principle and the main ideas of the RFQ have been described and a small summary of different resonator concepts has been given. Two different strategies of designing RFQs have been introduced. The analytic description of the electric fields inside the quadrupole channel has been derived and the limitation of these approaches were shown. The main work of this thesis was the implementation and analysis of a Multigrid Poisson solver to describe the potential and electric field of RFQs which are needed to simulate the particle dynamics accurately. The main two ingredients of a Multigrid Poisson solver are the ability of a Gauß-Seidel iteration method to smooth the error of an approximation within a few iteration steps and the coarse grid principle. The smoothing corresponds to a damping of the high frequency components of the error. After the smoothing, the error term can well be approximated on a coarser grid in which the low frequency components of the error on the fine grid are converted to high frequency errors on the coarse grid which can be damped further with the same Gauß-Seidel method. After implementation, the multigrid Poisson solver was analyzed using two different type of test problems: with and without a charge density. After illustrating the results of the multigrid Poisson solver, a comparison to the field of the old multipole expansion method was made. The multipole expansion method is an accurate representation of the field within the minimum aperture, as limited by cylindrical symmetry. Within these limitations the multigrid Poisson solver and the multipole expansion method agree well. Beyond the limitation the two method give different fields. It was shown that particles leave the region in which the multipole expansion method gives correct fields and that the transmission is affected therefrom as well as the single particle dynamic. The multigridPoisson solver also gives a more realistic description of the field in the beginning of the RFQ, because it takes the tank wall into account, and this effect is shown as well. Closing the analysis of the external field, the transmission and fraction of accelerated particles of the set of 12 RFQs for the two different methods were shown. For RFQs with small apertures and big modulations the two different method give different values for the transmission due to the limitation of the multipole expansion method. The internal space charge fields without images was analyzed at the level of single particle dynamic and compared to the well known SCHEFF routine from LANL, showing major differences for the analyzed particle. For comparing influences on the transmissions of the set of 12 RFQs a third space charge routine (PICNIC) was considered as well. The basic shape of the transmission curve was the same independent of space charge routines, but the absolute values differ a little from routine to routine, with SCHEFF about 2% lower than the other routines. The multigrid Poisson solver and PICNIC agree quite well (less than 1%), but PICNIC has an extremely long running time. The major advantage of the multigrid Poisson solver in calculating space charge effects compared to the other two routines used here is that the Poisson solver can take the effect of image charges on the electrodes into account by just changing the boundaries to have the shape of the vanes whereas all other settings remain unchanged. It was demonstrated that the effect of image charges on the vanes on the space charge field is very big in the region close to the electrodes. Particles in that region will see a stronger transversely defocusing force than without images. The result is that the transmission decreases by as much as 10% which is considerably more than determined by other (inexact) routines before. This is an important result, because knowing about the big effect of image charges on the electrodes it allows it to taken into account while designing the RFQ to increase the performance of the machine. It is also an important factor in resolving the traditional difference observed between the transmission of actual RFQs and the transmission predicted by earlier simulations. In the last chapter of this thesis some experimental work on the MAFF (Munich Accelerator for Fission Fragments) IH-RFQ is described. The machine was assembled in Frankfurt and a beam test stand was built. The shunt impedance of the structure was measured using different techniques, the output energy of the structure were measured and finally its transmission was determined and compared to the beam dynamics simulations of the RFQ. Unfortunately, the transmission measurements were done without exact knowledge of the beam’s emittance. So the comparison to the simulation is somewhat rough, but with a reasonable guess of the emittance a good comparison between the measurement and simulation was obtained.
In order to fully understand the new state of matter formed in heavy ion collisions, it is vital to isolate the always present final state hadronic contributions within the primary Quark-Gluon Plasma (QGP) experimental signatures. Previously, the hadronic contributions were determined using the properties of the known mesons and baryons. However, according to Hagedorn, hadrons should follow an exponential mass spectrum, which the known hadrons follow only up to masses of M = 2 GeV. Beyond this point the mass spectrum is flat, which indicates that there are "missing" hadrons, that could potentially contribute significantly to experimental observables. In this thesis I investigate the influence of these "missing" Hagedorn states on various experimental signatures of QGP. Strangeness enhancement is considered a signal for QGP because hadronic interactions (even including multi-mesonic reactions) underpredict the hadronic yields (especially for strange particles) at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, RHIC. One can conclude that the time scales to produce the required amount of hadronic yields are too long to allow for the hadrons to reach chemical equilibrium within the lifetime of a cooling hadronic fireball. Because gluon fusion can quickly produce strange quarks, it has been suggested that the hadrons are born into chemical equilibrium following the Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) phase transition. However, we show here that the missing Hagedorn states provide extra degrees of freedom that can contribute to fast chemical equilibration times for a hadron gas. We develop a dynamical scheme in which possible Hagedorn states contribute to fast chemical equilibration times of X X pairs (where X = p, K, Lambda, or Omega) inside a hadron gas and just below the critical temperature. Within this scheme, we use master equations and derive various analytical estimates for the chemical equilibration times. Applying a Bjorken picture to the expanding fireball, the hadrons can, indeed, quickly chemically equilibrate for both an initial overpopulation or underpopulation of Hagedorn resonances. We compare the thermodynamic properties of our model to recent lattice results and find that for both critical temperatures, Tc = 176 MeV and Tc = 196 MeV, the hadrons can reach chemical equilibrium on very short time scales. Furthermore the ratios p/pi, K/pi , Lambda/pi, and Omega/pi match experimental values well in our dynamical scenario. The effects of the "missing" Hagedorn states are not limited to the chemical equilibration time. Many believe that the new state of matter formed at RHIC is the closet to a perfect fluid found in nature, which implies that it has a small shear viscosity to entropy density ratio close to the bound derived using the uncertainty principle. Our hadron resonance gas model, including the additional Hagedorn states, is used to obtain an upper bound on the shear viscosity to entropy density ratio, eta/s, of hadronic matter near Tc that is close to 1/(4pi). Furthermore, the large trace anomaly and the small speed of sound near Tc computed within this model agree well with recent lattice calculations. We also comment on the behavior of the bulk viscosity to entropy density ratio of hadronic matter close to the phase transition, which qualitatively has a different behavior close to Tc than a hadron gas model with only the known resonances. We show how the measured particle ratios can be used to provide non-trivial information about Tc of the QCD phase transition. This is obtained by including the effects of highly massive Hagedorn resonances on statistical models, which are generally used to describe hadronic yields. The inclusion of the "missing" Hagedorn states creates a dependence of the thermal fits on the Hagedorn temperature, TH , and leads to a slight overall improvement of thermal fits. We find that for Au+Au collisions at RHIC at sqrt{sN N} = 200 GeV the best square fit measure, chi^2 , occurs at TH = Tc = 176 MeV and produces a chemical freeze-out temperature of 172.6 MeV and a baryon chemical potential of 39.7 MeV.
Fullerene, Nanoröhren und auch anderen hohlen Strukturen können Atome oder Moleküle in ihrem Inneren einschliessen. In solchen Systemen beeinflussen sich die einschliessenden und eingeschlossenen Strukturen gegenseitig, und es existiert eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Effekte: Änderungen der Energieeigenwerte, Änderungen der Elektronenstruktur sowie Ladungsaustausch zwischen den beiden Teilen des Systems. All diese Effekte beeinflussen die Absorbtionsspektren beider Systembestandteile. In dieser Arbeit liegt der Schwerpunkt auf einem dieser Effekte: Dem dynamischen Abschirmungseffekt. Den dynamischen Abschrimungseffekt findet man insbesondere bei solchen Systemen, bei denen die einschliessende Struktur viele delokalisierte Elektronen besitzt. Zu solchen Systemen gehören zum Beispiel endohedrale Komplexe sowie "Nano Peapods" (Nanoröhren mit eingeschlossenen Atomen oder Molekülen). Ursächlich für den dynamischen Abschirmungseffekt ist die Tatsache, dass die Elek- tronen des umschliessenden Käfigs die eingeschlossene Struktur gegen elektromagentische Wellen abschirmen. Mit anderen Worten: Dass das elektrische Feld sowohl innerhalb als auch ausserhalb der einschliessenden Struktur wird vom polarisierenden Feld der einschliessenden Struktur beein°usst. Klassisch betrachtet ist die Photoabsorbtionsrate eines Objektes proportional zu der Intensität eines elektrischen Feldes. Somit unterscheidet sich die Photoabsorbtionsrate (und auch der Wirkungsquerschnitt) der gleichen elektromagnetischen Welle einer Struktur innerhalb eines Einschlusses von der Photoabsorbtionsrate eines freien Atoms oder Moleküls. Der dynamische Abschirmungsfaktor dient als Beschreibung des Verhältnisses dieser beiden Wirkungsfaktoren. Darüber hinnaus können, da die Käfigstruktur viele delokalisierte Elektronen besitzt, Elektronen gemeinsam angeregt werden und somit Plasmons hervorrufen. Wenn sich die Frequenz der anregenden elektromagentischen Strahlung der Resonanzfrequenz dieser Plasmonen annähert, wird das polarisierende Feld besonders gross. Im Endeffekt beobachtet man nahe der Plasmon-Frequenz einen starken Anstieg des Wirkungsquerschnittes der eingeschlossenen Struktur. Der Schwerpunkt in dieser Arbeit liegt auf einer spezifischen Art von System: Endo- hedrale Komplexe. Diese Strukturen wurden mit einem klassichen Ansatz untersucht. Die Fullerene wurden, da sie viele delokalisierte Elektronen besitzen als dielektrische Schalen modelliert, mit der dielektrischen Funktion eines freien Elektronengases. Dabei ist der dynamische Abschrimfaktor durch Auswertung des gesamten elektrischen Feldes am Ort des Atoms im Vergleich zur Stärke des externen elektrischen Feldes definiert. Der dynamische Abschrimungsfaktor wurde für eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Situationen untersucht. Im einfachsten Fall, bei dem die Polarisierbarkeit des eingeschlossenen Atoms vernachlässigbar klein ist, ist der dynamische Abschirmfaktor unabhängig von der Position des Atoms innerhalb des Fullerens. Die Veranderung des elektrischen Feldes wird vollständig von der dynamischen Reaktion des Fullerens auf das externe Feld bestimmt. Da das Fulleren von endlicher Dicke ist (definiert duch die räumliche Ausdehnung der Elektronenwolke), besitzt es zwei Oberflächen. Die Wirkung der elektromagnetischen Welle induziert oszillierende Oberflächen-Ladungs-Dichten. Die Oberflächen-Ladungs-Dichten wechselwirken und erzeugen somit zwei Plasmon Eigenmoden: eine symmetrische Mode bei der beide Ladungsdichten in Phase oszillieren und eine antisymmetrische bei denen sie gegen-phasig oszillieren. Der dynamische Abschirmfaktor eines solchen eingeschlossenen Atoms zeigt zwei ausgeprägte Peaks, welche eine Manifestation dieser beiden Oberflächen-Plasmone sind. Die Wechselwirkung zwischen diesen Plasmon-Moden wurde untersucht. Darüber hinnaus wurde der Einfluss der Grösse des Käfigs untersucht; mit Fallbeispielen für C20, C60, C240 und C960 [2, 3]. Im Grenzfall eines unendlich dünnen Fulleren-Käfigs ist nur ein einelnes Oberflächen-Plasmon zu beachten. Als nächstes wurde der Einfluss des eingeschlossenen Atoms untersucht [3{5]. Wenn dessen Polarisierbarkeit gross ist, wird ein reziproker Einfluss des Dipol-Moments des Atoms auf das Fulleren messbar. Dies wurde zunächst unter der Annahme eines zentral angeodneten Atoms für die folgenden drei Fälle untersucht: Ar@C60, Xe@C60 and Mg@C60. Der dynamische Abschirmfaktor verÄanderte sich dabei nur wenig. Der stärkste Einfluss auf das Verhalten des Abschirmfaktors ensteht durch Unstetigkeiten in der Polarisierbarkeit des Atoms nahe dessen Ionisierungs-Schwelle. Die Wahl dieser drei Fallstudien ist durch die quantenmechanischen Berechnungen von [7-9] motiviert. Der Vergleich mit diesen Berechnungen zeigt hohe Übereintismmungen für Ar@C60 und Xe@C60. Allerdings fanden sich auch grosse Unterschiede für Mg@C60, vor allem bei niedriger Photonen-Energie. Das Fulleren besitzt zwei Arten von Valenzelektronen: Die ¼-Elektronen und die stärker gebundenen ¾-Elektronen. Dies führt zum Auftreten zweier Oberflächen-Plasmons in Fullerenen. Dabei ist allgemein bekannt, dass das Buckminster-Fulleren ein Plasmon nahe 8 eV, sowie ein deutlich größeres nahe 20 eV besitzt. Diese sind mit den ¼-Elektronen, respektive den ¾-Elektronen verknüpft (auch wenn ¼-Elektronen zusÄatzlich zu dem ¾-Plasmon beitragen). Aufgrund dieser Tatsache wäre es angemessener, die Valenzelektronen nicht als Ein-, sondern als Zwei-Komponenten-Elektronen-Gas zu behandeln. Um dies miteinzubeziehen, passten wir unser Modell dahingehend an, dass wir das Fulleren als zwei unabhängige kozentrische dielektrische Schalen simulieren. Die Valenzelektronen wurden so auf die zwei Schalen aufgeteilt, dass eine Schlale alle Elektronen enthielt, die Teil des ¼{Plasmons sind, und die andere alle Beteiligten am ¾{Plasmon [4, 5]. Der Vergleich dieses modifizierten Modelles mit den quanten{mechanischen Berechnungen zeigte eine deutlich verbesserte Übereintismmung der Ergebnisse. Alle Merkmale der Berechnungen, vor allem das deutliche Maximum nahe 10 eV bei Mg@C60, konnten reproduziert und damit erklärt werden. Bedingt durch die endliche Dicke der Fulleren-Schale spalten jeder der beiden Plasmonen in jeweils zwei Plasmon Eigenmoden auf. Daher zeigt der dynamische Abschirm-Faktor nun vier Haupt{Eigenschaften welche die vier Plasmon-Moden abbilden. Nichtsdestotrotz zeigen sich immer noch quantitative Unterschiede im Falle von Mg@C60. Fürr Ar@C60 und Xe@C60, bei welchen das ursprÄungliche Modell bereits gute Fits zeigte, werden diese Fits durch die Anpassungen im Modell sogar noch verbessert. Interessanterweise zeigen sich die größten Veränderungen des dynamischen Abschirm-Faktors bei niedrigen Photonen{Energien, also im Bereich des ¼-Plasmons. Betrachtet man den Querschnitt dieses Fulleren Modells, so zeigt der Querschnitt Eigenschaften die den vier Ober°Äachen{Plasmon{Moden des Fullerens zugeordnet werden. Vergleicht man dies mit anderen theoretischen Arbeiten [12] und einer Sammlung verschiedener experimenteller Messungen [10], so zeigt sich, dass alle SchlÄussel{Eigenschaften des Querschnittes in unserem Modell vorhanden sind. Abschlie¼end wurde die Abhängigkeit des dynamische Abschirm-Faktors von der Position des endohedralen Atoms innerhalb des Fullerens anhand zweier Fallstudien, Ar@C60 und Ar@C240 [3, 4], untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der dynamische Abschirmfaktor relativ unempfindlich gegenüber Veränderung des Positions-Winkels des Atoms ist. Die radiale Position hingegen stellte sich als sehr wichtig heraus. Je mehr sich das Atom der Fulleren-Hülle nähert, desto grösser wird der dynamische Abschirmfaktor. Diese Studien zeigen, dass es notwendig ist, eine Art räumlichen Mittelwertes für den dynamische Abschirmfaktor zu bestimmen, um sichtbare Resultate zu erhalten. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde daher eine Methode für solch einen Mittelwert entwickelt [3, 4]. Neben der Untersuchung des dynamische Abschirm-Faktors wurde auch ein Vergleich mit experimentellen Messungen erarbeitet. Im Falle von Ce@C82 war die Photon{Energiespanne sehr hoch, weit über der Plasmon-Energie des Fullerens. Das Fulleren sollte daher für eine solche Bestrahlung durchlässig sein, und daher würde man keinen dynamischen Abschirmungs-Effekt finden können. Der Vergleich für Sc3N@C80 ist komplizierter. Da es sich dabei um ein rein klassisches Modell handelt, muss man achtgeben, es nicht mit dem vollständig freien Komplex zu vergleichen, sondern zusätzlich quanten{mechanische Effekte aus Confinements, wie zum Beispiel Elektronen{Transfers, miteinzubeziehen. Zudem ist das aktuelle Modell zu dynamischer Abschirmung nicht für Moleküle, sondern nur für einzelen Atomeentwickelt worden. Ein erster naiver Vergleich, in welchem der Endohedrale Komplex als Pseudo{Atom modelliert wurde, konnte die breite Struktur der experimentellen Ergebnisse nicht wiedergeben. Berechnungen des dynamischen Abschirmfaktors und des daraus resultierenden Querschnittes für ein einzelnes Scandium{Ion zeigte, dass auch räumliches Mitteln nicht ausreicht um die experi-mentellen Beobachtungen erklären zu können. Die Anwesenheit des Fullerens führt zur Öffnung eines neuen Kanals innerhalbdes Auger Prozesses [6, 11] und damit zur Verbreiterung der atomaren Spektrallinienweite. Berücksichtigt man diesen Effekt, so kann die ÄAhnlichkeit zu den experimentellen Ergebnissen deutlich erhöht werden. Allerdings ist es wichtig dabei auch die räumlichen Abhängigkeiten des Effekts, wie auch die der dynamischen Abschirmung, zu beachten. Erste vorläufige Ergebnisse deuten an, dass die beiden genannten Effekte, zumindest teilweise, dabei helfen können, die experimentell gefunden Ergebnisse zu erklären. Unser Modell zur Berechnung des dynamischen Abschirmfaktors liefert eine detaillierte Beschreibung und mögliche Erklärungen der diskutierten Phänomene, welche über die bisherige Arbeiten in der theoretischen Literatur hinausgehen. Die wichtigen Eigenschaften der experimentellen Arbeiten konnten mit dem Modell reproduziert werden, und mit der Verbreiterung der atomaren Spektrallinienweite und der dynamischen Abschirmung konnten wir zwei Effekte als mögliche bisher nicht berücksichtigete Erklärungen für einige dieser Eigenschaften herausarbeiten.
Within this thesis, an experimental study of the photo double ionization (PDI) and the simultaneous ionization-excitation is performed for lithium in different initial states Li (1s22l) (l = s, p). The excess energy of the linearly polarized VUV-light is between 4 and 12 eV above the PDI-threshold. Three forefront technologies are combined: a magneto-optical trap (MOT) for lithium generating an ultra-cold and, by means of optical pumping, a state-prepared target; a reaction microscope (ReMi), enabling the momentum resolved detection of all reaction fragments with high-resolution and the free-electron laser in Hamburg (FLASH), providing an unprecedented brilliant photon beam at favourable time structure to access small cross sections. Close to threshold the total as well as differential PDI cross sections are observed to critically depend on the excitation level and the symmetry of the initial state. For the excited state Li (1s22p) the PDI dynamics strongly depends on the alignment of the 2p-orbital with respect to the VUV-light polarization and, thus, from the population of the magnetic substates (mp = 0, ±1). This alignment sensitivity decreases for increasing excess energy and is completely absent for ionization-excitation. Time-dependent close-coupling calculations are able to reproduce the experimental total cross sections with deviations of at most 30%. All the experimental observations can be consistently understood in terms of the long range electron correlation among the continuum electrons which gives rise to their preferential back-to-back emission. This alignment effect, which is observed here for the first time, allows controlling the PDI dynamics through a purely geometrical modification of the target initial state without changing its internal energy.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war der Einbau, die Inbetriebnahme, die Abstimmung und der Test eines Strahlmatchingsystems in eine Zweistrahl-RFQ-Beschleunigerstruktur. Dieses Strahlmatchingsystem wurde entwickelt, um die Beschleunigereinheit des Frankfurter Funneling-Experimentes besser an die nachfolgende HF-Deflektoreinheit anzupassen und um zu zeigen, dass ein Strahlmatching innerhalb der RFQ-Beschleunigerstruktur möglich ist. Des Weiteren wurden die zum Versuch gehörigen Ionenquellen modifiziert, um eine bessere Anpassung der Strahlherstellung an die Beschleunigerstruktur zu erreichen. Die Spannungsverteilung in der Beschleunigerstruktur selbst wurde durch weitergehende Tuningmaßnahmen verbessert, um die Teilchenverluste weiter zu minimieren Mit dem Funnelingexperiment soll experimentell geprüft werden, ob eine Strahlstromerhöhung durch das Zusammenführen mehrerer Ionenstrahlen verschiedener Ionenquellen möglich ist. Solch ein System ist für einige Zukunftsprojekte (HIDIF, SNS-Ausbau, ESS, u.ä.), die große Strahlströme benötigen, die nicht aus nur einer Ionenquelle extrahiert werden können, erforderlich. Das in dieser Arbeit behandelte Strahlmatching ist für das Experiment notwendig, da zu große Teilchenverluste in der Funnelsektion entstanden und somit eine bessere Anpassung des Strahls an den HF-Deflektor erforderlich wurde. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die hier verwendete Art der Strahlfokussierung auch in eine komplizierte RFQ-Beschleunigerstruktur integrierbar ist, in der zwei Strahlkanäle auf der gleichen Stützen-Bodenplatten-Konstruktion aufgebaut sind. Die Verlängerung der Endelektroden und die Integration einer Strahlanpassung haben einen positiven Einfluss auf die Transsmission innerhalb des Beschleunigers und verbessern die Transmission durch den Deflektor. Es konnten Energiemessungen und zeitaufgelöste Faradaytassenmessungen der Teilchenbunche sowie zeitaufgelöst Makropulse mit der Faradaytasse gemessen werden. Floureszensschirmmessungen zeigten, dass die beiden Teilchenstrahlen auf eine neue gemeinsame Strahlachse gebogen wurden. Die Energiemessung zeigte, dass die Simulationen mit RFQSIM sehr genau die Endenergie der Teilchen berechnen konnte. Im Strahlkreuzungspunkt hinter dem Zweistrahl-RFQ-Beschleuniger konnten nahezu identische Teilchenbunche erzeugt werden. Diese Teilchenbunche wiesen zudem die in vorherigen Simulationen errechneten Charakteristika auf, in denen eine transversale und eine longitudinale Fokussierung gegenüber dem ungematchten Strahl simuliert wurden. Es konnte auch eine weitere Strahlradiusreduzierung gemessen werden, die auf eine exaktere Justierung der Elektroden zurückzuführen ist. Die Phasenfokussierung konnte verbessert werden, indem die Elektrodenspannung besser an die Strahlmatchingsektion angepasst wurde. Hierzu mussten auch die Einschussparameter der Strahlen in die Beschleuniger angepasst werden, damit die Transmission der Beschleuniger sich nicht verschlechterte. Insgesamt konnte mit den durchgeführten Experimenten erstmals demonstriert werden, dass zwei Strahlen in einem RFQ-Beschleuniger auf einen Punkt hinter dem Beschleuniger angepasst werden können und die Spannungsverteilung in solch einer Struktur durch Tuningmaßnahmen abstimmbar ist. Es konnte erstmals demonstriert werden das über 90% der Teilchen beider Strahlen, bei guten Strahleigenschaften, auf eine neue gemeinsame Strahlachse abgelenkt (gefunnelt) wurden.
Lattice Yang-Mills theories at finite temperature can be mapped onto effective 3d spin systems, thus facilitating their numerical investigation. Using strong-coupling expansions we derive effective actions for Polyakov loops in the SU(2) and SU(3) cases and investigate the effect of higher order corrections. Once a formulation is obtained which allows for Monte Carlo analysis, the nature of the phase transition in both classes of models is investigated numerically, and the results are then used to predict – with an accuracy within a few percent – the deconfinement point in the original 4d Yang-Mills pure gauge theories, for a series of values of Nt at once.
Relying on the existing estimates for the production cross sections of mini black holes in models with large extra dimensions, we review strategies for identifying those objects at collider experiments. We further consider a possible stable final state of such black holes and discuss their characteristic signatures. Keywords: Black holes
We discuss the present collective flow signals for the phase transition to the quark-gluon plasma (QGP) and the collective flow as a barometer for the equation of state (EoS). We emphasize the importance of the flow excitation function from 1 to 50A GeV: here the hydrodynamicmodel has predicted the collapse of the v1-flow at ~ 10A GeV and of the v2-flow at ~ 40A GeV. In the latter case, this has recently been observed by the NA49 collaboration. Since hadronic rescattering models predict much larger flow than observed at this energy, we interpret this observation as potential evidence for a first order phase transition at high baryon density pB.
We study various fluctuation and correlation signals of the deconfined state using a dynamical recombination approach (quark Molecular Dynamics, qMD). We analyse charge ratio fluctuations, charge transfer fluctuations and baryon-strangeness correlations as a function of the center of mass energy with a set of central Pb+Pb/Au+Au events from AGS energies on (Elab = 4 AGeV) up to the highest RHIC energy available (V sNN = 200 GeV) and as a function of time with a set of central Au+Au qMD events at V sNN = 200 GeV with and without applying our hadronization procedure. For all studied quantities, the results start from values compatible with a weakly coupled QGP in the early stage and end with values compatible with the hadronic result in the final state. We show that the loss of the signal occurs at the same time as hadronization and trace it back to the dynamical recombination process implemented in our model.
To investigate the formation and the propagation of relativistic shock waves in viscous gluon matter we solve the relativistic Riemann problem using a microscopic parton cascade. We demonstrate the transition from ideal to viscous shock waves by varying the shear viscosity to entropy density ratio n/s. Furthermore we compare our results with those obtained by solving the relativistic causal dissipative fluid equations of Israel and Stewart (IS), in order to show the validity of the IS hydrodynamics. Employing the parton cascade we also investigate the formation of Mach shocks induced by a high-energy gluon traversing viscous gluon matter. For n/s = 0.08 a Mach cone structure is observed, whereas the signal smears out for n/s >=0.32.
Starting from a classical picture of shear viscosity we construct a steady velocity gradient in the partonic cascade BAMPS. Using the Navier-Stokes-equation we calculate the shear viscosity coefficient. For elastic isotropic scatterings we find a very good agreement with the analytic values. For both elastic and inelastic scatterings with pQCD cross sections we find good agreement with previously published calculations.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ist es gelungen, eine weltweit einmalige Messapparatur zu entwickeln, mit der Wasserstoffmolekülionen mittels kurzer Laserpulse ionisiert und die Reaktionsprodukte kinematisch vollständig vermessen werden können. Es wird dazu eine an die Coltrims-Technik angelehnte Detektionsmethode genutzt, bei der sowohl Protonen als auch Elektronen über den vollen Raumwinkel nachgewiesen werden können. Die H2+ -Ionen stammen aus einer Hochfrequenz-Ionenquelle und werden auf 400keV beschleunigt. Die Besetzungshäufigkeit der Vibrationsniveaus entspricht daher der Franck-Condon-Verteilung für den Übergang aus dem Grundzustand des neutralen Wasserstoffmoleküls in den elektronischen Grundzustand des Molekülions: H2 (xPg, ν = 0) → H2+ (1sσg, ν′) Dieser Ionenstrahl wird mit einem 780 nm Laserpuls der Pulslänge 40 fs überlappt. Nach der Reaktion fragmentiert das Molekülion entweder über den Dissoziationskanal H2+ + nhν ⇒ H + H+ oder über eine Ionisation gefolgt von einer Coulomb-Explosion: H2+ + nhν ⇒ H+ + H+ + e−. Die Projektile werden nach einer Driftstrecke von etwa 3 m auf einem Ionendetektor nachgewiesen. Für den Nachweis der Elektronen wurde ein spezielles Spektrometer konzipiert, das eine Unterdrückung ungewollter Elektronen erlaubt und so die Messung der Elektronen ermöglicht. Um Elektronen auszublenden, die vom Laser aus dem Restgas ionisiert werden, ist der Elektronendetektor in Flugrichtung der Ionen versetzt angebracht. Durch die unkonventionelle Ausrichtung des Lasers in einem Winkel von 20◦ relativ zur Flugrichtung der Ionen können vom Laser erzeugte Elektronen nur dann den Elektronendetektor erreichen, wenn sie aus dem bewegten Bezugsystem der Projektile stammen. Diese Unterdrückung macht die Messung der Elektronen erst möglich, hat aber auch eine nachteilige Geometrie der Verteilungen gegenüber den Detektorebenen zur Folge. Durch die Ausnutzung der Projektilgeschwindigkeit ist überdies die Benutzung eines B-Feldes zur Verbesserung der Flugzeitauflösung der Elektronen nicht möglich. Um eine Überlappung des Ionenstrahls mit dem Laserfokus zu erreichen, wurde im Bereich der Reaktionszone ein System zur Visualisierung der Strahlpositionen integriert. Dieses kann überdies für eine Intensitätseichung bei linear polarisiertem Licht verwendet werden. Bei der Reaktion kommt es durch die vergleichsweise lange Pulsdauer schon bei relativ niedrigen Intensitäten zu Dissoziationsprozessen. Das dissoziierende Molekül erreicht noch während der ansteigenden Flanke des Laserpulses auf diese Weise Abstände, bei denen der Prozess der Charge-Resonance-Enhanced-Ionization (CREI) stattfinden kann. Auch die in einem sehr engen Winkelbereich um die Polarisationsrichtung des Lasers liegende Winkelverteilung der gemessenen Protonen deutet darauf hin, dass CREI der dominante Ionisationsprozess ist. Durch die vorausgehende Dissoziation nimmt das Molekül schon vor der Ionisation eine kinetische Energie auf, so dass die gemessene KER-Verteilung einer Summe aus KERDissoziation und KERIonisation darstellt. Ein Vergleich mit den KER-Spektren des Dissoziationsprozesses zeigt, dass die aufgenommene Energie durch Dissoziation zu einem überwiegenden Anteil in einem Bereich von 0, 6 ± 0, 35 eV besitzt, während die Gesamt-KER-Verteilung deutlich höhere Werte bis zu 6 eV aufweist. Dies ermöglicht, aus der gemessenen KER-Verteilung den internuklearen Abstand zum Ionisationszeitpunkt näherungsweise zu bestimmen. Die gemessenen Elektronen weisen, ebenso wie die Protonen, eine scharfe Ausrichtung entlang der Laserpolarisation auf, was durch den Einfluss des Lasers auf dieser Achse nicht verwunderlich ist. Bei zirkularer Polarisation dagegen findet eine Netto-Beschleunigung der Elektronen senkrecht zur Richtung des elektrischen Feldes zum Ionisationszeitpunkt statt, sodass die Messung der Elektronenimpulse eine geeignete Messgröße zur Untersuchung des Ionisationsprozesses darstellt. Auf diese Art konnten Winkelverteilungen der Elektronen bezüglich der internuklearen Achse innerhalb der Polarisationsebene gemessen werden. Abhängig von KER und Elektronenergie konnte dabei eine Verdrehung der Verteilung gegenüber den klassisch erwarteten 90◦ relativ zur internuklearen Achse festgestellt werden. Die Winkelverteilung rotiert dabei mit steigendem KER entgegen des Drehsinns. Dies widerspricht der gängigen Vorstellung einer Tunnelionisation, bei der nur die Beschleunigung des Elektrons im Laserfeld eine Rolle spielt und der Einfluss des Coulomb-Potentials vernachlässigt wird. Für höhere Elektronenergien zeigt sich eine zweite konkurrierende Struktur, die für die höchsten Energien die sonst vorherrschende erste Struktur sogar dominiert. Da sich in den Protonenspektren für linear polarisiertes Licht kein Einfluss einer Ionisationsenkrecht zur Polarisationsrichtung findet, erscheint dies als Grund für die zweite Struktur in den Elektron-Winkelverteilungen als unwahrscheinlich. Eine stichhaltige und gestützte Erklärung gibt es bisher weder für die Rotation der ersten Struktur noch für die Herkunft der zweiten. Dies zeigt deutlich, dass es auch für dieses einfachste Molekülsystem noch einen erheblich Handlungsbedarf sowohl auf theoretischer als auch von experimenteller Seite gibt. Da dieses Experiment den ersten experimentellen Zugang für die direkte Untersuchung der Elektronimpulse bei der Ionisation von H2+ -Ionen in kurzen Laserpulsen darstellt, bietet sich hier die bisher einzige Möglichkeit, dieses Verhalten experimentell zu untersuchen.
The goal of this project is to develop a framework for a cell that takes in consideration its internal structure, using an agent-based approach. In this framework, a cell was simulated as many sub-particles interacting to each other. This sub-particles can, in principle, represent any internal structure from the cell (organelles, etc). In the model discussed here, two types of sub-particles were used: membrane sub-particles and cytosolic elements. A kinetic and dynamic Delaunay triangulation was used in order to define the neighborhood relations between the sub-particles. However, it was soon noted that the relations defined by the Delaunay triangulation were not suitable to define the interactions between membrane sub-particles. The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer, and does not present any long range interactions between their sub-particles. This means that the membrane particles should not be able to interact in a long range. Instead, their interactions should be confined to the two-dimensional surface supposedly formed by the membrane. A method to select, from the original three-dimensional triangulations, connections restricted to the two-dimensional surface formed by the cell membrane was then developed. The algorithm uses as starting point the three-dimensional Delaunay triangulation involving both internal and membrane sub-particles. From this triangulation, only the subset of connections between membrane sub-particles was considered. Since the cell is full of internal particles, the collection of the membrane particles' connections will resemble the surface to be obtained, even though it will still have many connections that do not belong to the restricted triangulation on the surface. This "thick surface" was called a quasi-surface. The following step was to refine the quasi-surface, cutting out some of the connections so that the ones left made a proper surface triangulation with the membrane points. For that, the quasi-surface was separated in clusters. Clusters are defined as areas on the quasi-surface that are not yet properly triangulated on a two-dimensional surface. Each of the clusters was then re-triangulated independently, using re-triangulation methods also developed during this work. The interactions between cytosolic elements was given by a Lennard-Jones potential, as well as the interactions between cytosolic elements and membrane particles. Between only membrane particles, the interactions were given by an elastic interaction. For each particle, the equation of motion was written. The algorithm chosen to solve the equations of motion was the Verlet algorithm. Since the cytosol can be approximated as a gel, it is reasonable to suppose that the sub-cellular particles are moving in an overdamped environment. Therefore, an overdamped approximation was used for all interactions. Additionally, an adaptive algorithm was used in order to define the size of the time step used in each interaction. After the method to re-triangulate the membrane points was implemented, the time needed to re-triangulate a single cluster was studied, followed by an analysis on how the time needed to re-triangulate each point in a cluster varied with the cluster size. The frequency of appearance for each cluster size was also compared, as this information is necessary to guarantee that the total time needed by to re-triangulate a cell is convergent. At last, the total time spent re-triangulating a surface was plotted, as well as a scaling for the total re-triangulation time with the variation. Even though there is still a lot to be done, the work presented here is an important step on the way to the main goal of this project: to create an agent-based framework that not only allows the simulation of any sub-cellular structure of interest but also provides meaningful interaction relations to particles belonging to the cell membrane.
Understanding the dynamics of recurrent neural networks is crucial for explaining how the brain processes information. In the neocortex, a range of different plasticity mechanisms are shaping recurrent networks into effective information processing circuits that learn appropriate representations for time-varying sensory stimuli. However, it has been difficult to mimic these abilities in artificial neural network models. Here we introduce SORN, a self-organizing recurrent network. It combines three distinct forms of local plasticity to learn spatio-temporal patterns in its input while maintaining its dynamics in a healthy regime suitable for learning. The SORN learns to encode information in the form of trajectories through its high-dimensional state space reminiscent of recent biological findings on cortical coding. All three forms of plasticity are shown to be essential for the network's success. Keywords: synaptic plasticity, intrinsic plasticity, recurrent neural networks, reservoir computing, time series prediction
In this paper we discuss experimental evidence related to the structure and origin of the bosonic spectral function alpha 2F (omega) in high-temperature superconducting (HTSC) cuprates at and near optimal doping. Global properties of alpha 2F (omega), such as number and positions of peaks, are extracted by combining optics, neutron scattering, ARPES and tunnelling measurements. These methods give evidence for strong electron-phonon interaction (EPI) with 1<lambda ep <~ 3.5 in cuprates near optimal doping. We clarify how these results are in favor of the modified Migdal-Eliashberg (ME) theory for HTSC cuprates near optimal doping. In Section 2 we discuss theoretical ingredients—such as strong EPI, strong correlations—which are necessary to explain the mechanism of d-wave pairing in optimally doped cuprates. These comprise the ME theory for EPI in strongly correlated systems which give rise to the forward scattering peak. The latter is supported by the long-range part of EPI due to the weakly screened Madelung interaction in the ionic-metallic structure of layered HTSC cuprates. In this approach EPI is responsible for the strength of pairing while the residual Coulomb interaction and spin fluctuations trigger the d-wave pairing.
In this proceeding the emergence of a composite, adjoint-scalar field as an average over (trivial holonomy) calorons and anti-calorons is reviewed. This composite field acts as a background field to the dynamics of perturbative gluons, to which it is coupled via an effective, gauge invariant Lagrangian valid for temperatures above the deconfinement phase transition. Moreover a Higgs mechanism is induced by the composite field: two gluons acquire a quasi-particle thermal mass. On the phenomenological side the composite field acts as a bag pressure which shows a linear dependence on the temperature. As a result the linear rise with temperature of the trace anomaly is obtained and is compared to recent lattice studies.
In the present work, the problem of protein folding is addressed from the point of view of equilibrium thermodynamics. The conformation of a globular protein in solution at common temperatures is quite complicated without any geometrical symmetry, but it is an ordered state in the sense of its biological activity. This complicated conformation of a single protein molecule is destroyed upon increasing the temperature or by the addition of appropriate chemical agents, as is revealed by the loss of its activity and change of the physical properties, and so on. Once the complicated native structures having biological activity are lost, it would be natural to suppose that the native structure could hardly be restored. Nevertheless, pioneers, such as Anson and Mirsky, recognized as early as in 1925 that this was not always the case. If one defines the folded and unfolded states of a protein as two distinct phases of a system, then under the variation of temperature the system is transformed from one phase state into another and vice versa. The process of protein folding is accompanied by the release or absorption of a certain amount of energy, corresponding to the first-oder-type phase transitions in the bulk. Knowing the partition function of the system one can evaluate its energy and heat capacity under different temperatures. This task was performed in this work. The results of the developed statistical mechanics model were compared with the results of molecular dynamic simulations of alanine poylpeptides. In particular, the dependencies on temperature of the total energy of the system and heat capacity were compared for alanine polypeptides consisting of 21, 30, 40, 50 and 100 amino acids. The good correspondence of the results of the theoretical model with the results of molecular dynamics simulations allowed to validate the assumptions made about the system and to establish the accuracy range of the theory. In order to perform the comparison of the results of theoretical model and the molecular dynamics simulations it is necessary to perform the efficient analysis of the results of molecular dynamics simulations. This task was also addressed in the present work. In particular, different ways to obtain dependence of the heat capacity on temperature from molecular dynamics simulations are discussed and the most efficient one is proposed. The present thesis reports the result of molecular dynamic simulations for not only alanine polypeptides by also for valine and leucine polypeptides. In valine and leucine polypeptides, it is also possible to observe the helix↔random coil transitions with the increase of temperature. The current thesis presents a work that starts with the investigation of the fundamental degrees of freedom in polypeptides that are responsible for the conformational transitions. Then this knowledge is applied for the statistical mechanics description of helix↔coil transitions in polypeptides. Finally, the theoretical formalism is generalized for the case of proteins in water environment and the comparison of the results of the statistical mechanics model with the experimental measurements of the heat capacity on temperature dependencies for two globular proteins is performed. The presented formalism is based on fundamental physical properties of the system and provides the possibility to describe the folding↔unfolding transitions quantitatively. The combination of these two facts is the major novelty of the presented approach in comparison to the existing ones. The “transparent” physical nature of the formalism provides a possibility to further apply it to a large variety of systems and processes. For instance, it can be used for investigation of the influence of the mutations in the proteins on their stability. This task is of primary importance for design of novel proteins and drug delivering molecules in medicine. It can provide further insights into the problem of protein aggregation and formation of amyloids. The problem of protein aggregation is closely associated with various illnesses such as Alzheimer and mad cow disease. With certain modifications, the presented theoretical method can be applied to the description of the protein crystallization process, which is important for the determination of the structure of proteins with X-Rays. There many other possible applications of the ideas described in the thesis. For instance, the similar formalism can be developed for the description of melting and unzipping of DNA, growth of nanotubes, formation of fullerenes, etc.