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Trématodes parasites provenant des campagnes scientifiques du Prince Albert Ier de Monaco <1886-1912
(1938)
Die Knochenansammlung im grauen vulkanischen Tuff der Südserengeti gibt als ökologisch unmögliches
Gemisch ein gutes Abbild des Gesamtbestandes und des Lebensraumes der altquartärcn ost- und innerafrikanischen Fauna. Diese lebte formenreich in Urwald, Savanne und offener Steppe. Das Fehlen wasserlebender Tiere ist hier auf örtliche Umstände zurückzuführen: die vulkanischen Aschen gingen auf Steppenboden nieder, Die benachbarten, ungefähr gleichalten Knochenlager enthalten solche Tiere. Neu ist an der Serengetifauna der bereits beträchtliche Anteil von Kleinsäugern (Nager; Insektivoren fehlen noch). Diese wird weitere Forschung vermehren. Die klimatische Entsprechung der Fauna wird in tropischen, feuchtwarmen Bedingungen erblickt. Obwohl viele tertiäre Formen enthaltend, wird die Fauna nicht als jungtertiär angesehen, sondern wegen des Auftretens moderner· Formen als eine Tiergesellschaft, welche das Quartär eröffnet. Als Leitfossil für dessen Beginn wird der Gattung Archidiskodon, aus welcher die echten Elefanten, darunter auch der afrikanische (Loxodonta africana ) entstanden sind, vor den Equiden der Vorzug gegeben.
Ostafrika, das ja als Tierparadies schlechthin gilt, lebte bis vor kurzem noch im Quartär. Das Schrifttum über seine Tierwelt scheint zwar fast unermeßlich groß, aufs Ganze gesehen ist das Wissen weder tief noch auch nur oberflächlich vollständig. Die Hauptleistung des "weißen Mannes" bestand in der Störung und Vernichtung der Fauna. Aber die Natur ist groß; sie hält noch einen Schatz im Inneren ihrer Gebirge bereit, damit der Mensch seine Stellung zu ihr und den Sinn seines Lebens ergründe, einen von vielen: dle quartäre Lebewelt selbst. Möge die hohe Aufgabe, ihn zu heben, uns Deutschen vergönnt sein! Eine Probe hat Dr. KOHL-LARSEN gesichert.
Six clearly separable evolutionary levels in the floral evolution of the Ranunculaceae were found to coincide with the six corresponding stages of sensory development of their pollinators as follows: amorphic -> haplomorphic -> actinomorphic -> pleomorphic -> stereomorphic-zygomorphic. This is a basic trend of floral evolution, fully recapitulated in a single family. Except for the first (amorphic), all upper levels are represented in the present-day floras as clearly separable type-classes. They are therefore accessible to direct observations and experimental study. Extensive statistical data on flower visitors of the Ranunculaceae confirm the proposed theory of the mutual interrelationship between the evolutionary levels of flower types and sensory stages of pollinating insects. The new picture, obtained by this study, gives us a better understanding of the evolutionary relationship between insects and plants and explains the extreme diversity in the floral structure of the Ranunculaceae.
In the present revision of Sabia the number of species has been reduced from 55 to 19, including two that are described as new. Below the specific level, a new subspecies and a new variety are described, whereas some new infra specific combinations have been made. Most of the reduced species have been included in the synonymy of S. campanulata, which consequently represents the most complex and most variable species of the genus. Next to a general key, some regional keys are given as on the one hand some widespread species are locally far less variable than taken over their whole area, on the other hand well-delimited species from different regions may be very uniform in some points.
The seed collection of the species of the Gesneriaceae on which this study is based was obtained, for the most part, during a number of visits to the herbaria of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., and the Royal Botanical Garden of Kew, London, and Edinburgh, Scotland. The seed collection comprises well over 800 samples of about 700 species of the Gesneriaceae, representing 113 genera of the 127 in the family, and provides a good taxonomic representation of the Gesneriaceae. Following an examination of all the samples in the seed collection, over 300 species of the 113 genera were selected to represent the wide range of seed morphology characters observed among the examined species of the Gesneriaceae. A system with which to analyze and diagnose seed surface morphology, designed by the author, is based on a format of six major categories and 60 tertiary terms of seed morphology characters and a companion diagnostic table. The categories are arranged in a sequence of increasingly smaller seed characters, ranging from seed shape to the ultrastructural characters of the individual cells. To ensure that the system would also apply to seed plants in general, the seeds, achenes and nutlets of a wide variety of species from families other than the Gesneriaceae were examined. Twenty species from 13 families other than the Gesneriaceae were then selected and are included in this study and, together with the Gesneriaceae, represent eight of the ten subclasses of the flowering plants (Cronquist 1968). The seeds, achenes and nutlets of all the species included in this study are illustrated with SEM photomicrographs on the 54 plates of the Seed Atlas, and the seed morphology data of each species are recorded on the diagnostic tables that face each of the Atlas Plates. To facilitate the comparison of the taxa of the Gesneriaceae, and to assist in the identification of the seeds of the examined species of the Gesneriaceae, the seed morphology data are also recorded on a summary table at the genus, tribe, subfamily and family levels. The seed morphology of the Gesneriaceae is compared and contrasted with the current classifications of the family at the species, genus, tribe, subfamily and family levels. The seed analysis system designed for this study has proven to be a rapid, efficient, uniform, objective method to deal with the analytical, diagnostic, and taxonomic aspects of an investigation of seed morphology. In addition, the system readily lends itself to the substitution or addition of terms and categories if needed, or to programming for a computerized analysis of seed morphology. It is hoped that the system will prove useful to other investigators, as well as prove helpful to standardize future investigations of seed
morphology.
1. Die vorliegenden vergleichend-morphologischen Untersuchungen an den Borstenmustern der Larven der Lepidoptera wurden mit dem Ziel durchgeführt, die Kenntnis des Borstenmusters der Lepidopterenlarven zu vertiefen, die auf die Borstenmuster anwendbare vergleichendmorphologische Methodik zu verfeinern und damit auch clie Grundlagen für eine vergleichende Untersuchung der Borstenmuster auf höherer taxionomischer Ebene (Borstenmuster bei Insekten verschiedener Ordnungen) zu liefern. Dabei wurde angestrebt, das ermittelte Verhalten der Borstenmuster während der Phylogenie einer evolutionstheoretischen Interpretation zuzuführen.
2. Zunächst wurde ein kurzer überblick über die wesentlichsten Charakteristika der Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven gegeben. Sie bestehen aus zweierlei Musterelementen - den Borsten (setae) und den sog. Poren (punctures); der charakteristische Bau dieser Musterelemente, ihre Funktion und ihr Verhalten während der Larvalentwicklung wurden erörtert. Die Borsten bilden ein System taktiler Sinnesorgane, während die Poren sehr wahrscheinlich über die Beanspruchung der Cuticula Auskunft geben.
3. Im Interesse einer rationellen Arbeitsweise wurde eine neue Einteilung der Muster und der Musterelemente in verschiedene Kategorien eingeführt. Die Einteilung geschah nach jeweils nur einem Gesichtspunkt, und zwar werden unterschieden: a) nach der Konstanz der Lage der Musterelemente - zwischen den konstanten regulären und den nicht konstanten irregulären Muster(elemente)n; b) nach dem erstmaligen Auftreten der Musterelemente während der Larvalentwicklung - zwischen primären (treten im 1. Larvalstadium auf), subprimären (im 2. Larvalstadium) und sekundären Musterelementen (treten erstmalig in einem späteren Larvalstadium auf); c) nach dem relativen phylogenetischen Alter der Musterelemente - zwischen archaiischen und neuen Musterelementen (z. B. archiprimären, neoprimären, archisubprimären Borsten usw.); d) nach der Größenordnung der Borsten - zwischen (propriorezeptorischen) Mikro- und (taktilen) Makroborsten.
4. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden nur die regulären Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven behandelt und zwar nur die Borstenmuster der Kopfkapsel und des Rumpfes (die Sensillen der Kopfanhänge und die Borstenmuster der Thorakalbeine sind nicht berücksichtigt worden). Reguläre Borstenmuster liegen bei allen Larvalstadien der sog. "nackten" Raupen und auch im 1. Larvalstadium der sog. "behaarten" Raupen vor. Diese weisen in späteren Larvalstadien zahlreiche irreguläre Sekundärborsten auf. Im Gegensatz zu den irregulären Borstenmustern sind die regulären Borstenmuster bei den Lepidopterenlarven in den Grundzügen gleichartig, die einzelnen Musterelemente können daher homologisiert und die Differenzen in den Borstenmustern der rezenten Lepidopterenlarven systematisch ausgewertet werden (Chaetotaxie).
5. Das Problem der Homologie und Homonomie der regulären Musterelemente wurde grundsätzlich erörtert. Die Homologisierung der Musterelemente erfolgt primär durch Ermittlung komplexer übereinstimmungen (Grundmethode) , die auch den Hauptkriterien der Homologie nach REMANE zugrunde liegt. Vielfach ist auch eine indirekte Methode anwendbar, die darauf beruht, daß man von Merkmalen, die sich in der lmtersuchten Organismengruppe bei den nach der Grundmethode sicher homologisierten Musterelementen als unveränderlich erweisen, annehmen kann, daß sie auch bei denj enigen Vertretern der Gruppe nicht verändert worden sind, bei denen die Musterelemente nach Vergleichend . morphologische Analyse der regulären Borstenmuster der Grundmethode nicht mehr homologisiert werden können. Solche Merkmale können dann als mehr oder minder spezifische Kennzeichen homologer Musterelemente gelten. Da nach der Grundmethode sicher homologe Musterelemente in der Evolution auch durch "Parallelentwicklung" entstanden sein können, berechtigt diese Homologie nicht in jedem Einzelfall automatisch zum Schluß, daß die betreffenden Musterelemente direkt von einer gemeinsamen Ahnenform übernommen worden sind. Der Nachweis der direkten Herkunft eines Musterelementes von einer gemeinsamen Ahnenform ist in jedem Einzelfall erst durch die Analyse der Verteilung des Musterelementes bei den Vertretern der jeweils betrachteten Gruppe zu erbringen. Es wird daher zwischen einer Homologie im weiteren Sinne (Homologie s. 1. - infolge nicht zufällig übereinstimmender Merkmalskomplexe) und einer Homologie im engeren Sinne (Homologie s. str. - infolge direkter Übernahme der Struktur von einem gemeinsamen Vorfahren) untersehieden. Soweit bei Einzelmerkmalen von Homologie ge· sprochen wird, kann es sieh hierbei nur um die Homologie s. str. handeln (Hilfskriterien der Homologie nach REMANE).
6. Entspreehend der Unterscheidung der Homologie im engeren und weiteren Sinne wurde hier auch zwischen einer Homonomie s. 1. und einer Homonomie s. str. untersehieden. Homonomie s. str. liegt vor, WOlm die betrachteten meristischen Strukturen in der Evolution wirklieh einmal gleich bzw. gleichartig gewesen sind; für die Homonomie s. 1. wird diese Bedingung nicht gestellt, und es ist nur erforderlich, daß nicht zufällige komplexe Übereinstimmungen bei den meristischen Strukturen nachweisbar sind. Es konnte evident gemacht werden, daß die 4 verschiedenen segmentalen Borstenmustertypen (Prothorax, Meso· und Metathorax, Abdominalsegment 1-9, Analsegment) der Lepidopterenlarven nicht homonom s. str. sein können: die Differenzierung der ehemals gleichartigen (im engeren Sinne homonomen) Segmente in die entsprechenden 4 verschiedenen Segmenttypen ist in der Evolution sicher sehr viel früher erfolgt als die Ausbildung des regulären Borstenmusters der Lepidopterenlarven, so daß diese Borstenmuster auf den bereits differenten Segmenten von vornherein unterschiedlich angelegt worden sind. Homonom s. str. sind bis zu einem gewissen Grade nur die Borsten. muster des gleichen Segmenttypus (also des Meso- und Metathorax einerseits und der Abdominalsegmente 1-9 andererseits, wobei hinsichtlich des 9. Abdominalsegmentes Einsehränkungen zu machen sind). Die speziellen Methoden, die Homonomie s. 1. der regulären Musterelemente verschiedenen Segmenttypus festzustellen, wurden eingehend erörtert (S. 228).
7. Die Grundzüge der bisherigen versehiedenen Benennungssysteme der homologen Musterelemente der regulären Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven wurden zusammenfassend dargestellt.
8. Die weitgehende Gleichartigkeit der regulären Borstenmuster nahezu aller Lepidopterenlarven und die bereits hinreichend gut fundierte Einsicht in die phylogenetische Verwandtschaft der älteren Teilgruppen der Lepidoptera (HENNIG 1953) ermöglichte es, die einzelnen evolutiven Abwandlungen im regulären Borstenmuster durch vergleichend-morphologische Untersuchungen zu erfassen und das ancestrale Borstemuust,er der Lepidopterenlarven bis zu einem gewissen Grade zu rekonstruieren. Dazu wurden außer den eigenen Untersuchungsergebnissen an über 100 Arten aus verschiedenen Lepidopterenfamilien alle die zahlreichen (vor allem in der larvalsystematischen) Literatur niedergelegten erreichbaren Daten über die regulären Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven herangezogen.
9. Die hier angewendete Methode der Rekonstruktion ancestraler Strukturausprägungen an rezentem Material wurde eingehend dargestellt. Sie gründet sich auf den Prinzipien der Phylogenetischen Systematik nach HENNIG und beruht auf der Analyse der Ausprägungsformen von Einzelme1"7cmalen, wobei aus der Verteilung der Ausprägungsformen der Einzelmerkmale bei den Vertretern einer Gruppe auf die ursprüngliche (plesiomorphe) Ausprägungsform geschlossen wird, die auch bei der jüngsten gemeinsamen Ahnen/orm der betrachteten Gruppe vorgelegen haben muß. Die Sicherheit der Schlußfolgerung ist dabei abhängig von der Labilität des Einzelmerkmales (bzw. der Struktur), worunter hier die Häufigkeit verstanden wird, mit der die Ausprägungsform des Merkmals in der Evolution der betrachteten Gruppe in irgendeiner Weise abgewandelt worden ist. (Anhaltspunkte über die Labilität eines Merkmals oder einer Struktur sind in etwa durch die Zahl der monophyletischen Teilgruppen gegebenen, in denen mehr als eine Ausprägungsform des Mcrkmals oder der Struktur vorkommen.) Dem gegenüber wird als Flexibilität das Ausmaß der Mannigfaltigkeit in den Abwandlungsformen des Merkmals oder der Struktur in der Evolution einer Gruppe bezeichnet. Für die einzelnen Merkmale lassen sich Flexibilitätsgrenzen finden, die durch die extremsten Ausprägungsformen der Merkmale innerhalb der betrachteten Gruppe gegeben sind. Die Sicherheit der Aussage über die ancestrale Ausprägungsform eines Merkmals ist bei stabilen (d. h. nicht labilen) Merkmalen maximal und nimmt mit zunehmender Labilität des Merkmals ab (also mit der zunehmenden Häufigkeit von Abänderungen des Merkmals in der Evolution der Grnppe). Bei sehr labilen Merkmalen kann nur angegeben werden, innerhalb welcher Flexibilitätsgrenzen das Merkmal bei der Ahnenform ausgebildet gewesen sein muß. Die im einzehlen als plesioI)1orph (ancestral) ermittelten Merkmalsausprägungen ergeben dann insgesamt ein Bild der ancestralen Strukturen. Die Anwendung dieser Methode setzt eine sichere Kenntnis der phylogenetischen Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen der älteren Teilgruppen der betrachteten Gruppe voraus (was bei den Lepidoptera hinreichend gegeben ist); Vergleichend-morphologische Analyse der regulären Borstenmuster andernfalls sind Aussagen über die ancestrale Ausprägungsform nur hinsichtlich der stabilen Merkmale möglich.
10. Das ancestrale reguläre Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven wurde soweit wie möglich rekonstruiert (Abschnitt 0), wobei im einzelnen die jüngsten gemeinsamen Ahnenformen der Glossata, Neolepidoptera, Eulepidoptera und Ditrysia (mit Af I-IV bezeichnet - s. S. 259) behandelt wurden. Da die plesiomorphen Schwestergruppen der Neolepidoptera, Eulepidoptera und Ditrysia, also die Dacnonypha (Eriocraniidae), Aplostomatoptera (Hepialidae) und Incurvariina (Incurvariidae, Adelidae) artenarm, "relictär" sind und offenbar zahlreiche Autapomorphien aufweisen, konnte über die älteren Ahnenformen weniger ausgesagt werden als über die jüngste gemeinsame Ahnenform der sehr artenreichen Ditrysia (Af IV). Das reguläre Borstenmuster der Rumpfsegmente der Af IV ließ sich so gen au rekonstruieren, daß es schematisch gezeichnet werden konnte (Abb. 19). Es ließ sich zeigen, daß die Larven dieser Ahnenformen der Lepidoptera nur das reguläre Borstenmuster besessen haben können, also vom Typus der "nackten" Raupen gewesen sind - Larven vom "behaarten" Raupentypus sind erst sehr viel später als Apomorphien in einzelnen apomorphen Lepidopterengruppen aufgetreten.
11. Im Laufe dieser Untersuchungen zeigte es sich, daß die Psychidae die älteste Teilgruppe der Ditrysia sein müssen. Sie haben nämlich (im larvalen Borstenmuster) symplesiomorphe Merkmalsausprägungen mit den "monotrysischen" Lepidoptera gemeinsam, während alle übrigen hier erfaßten Ditrysia (einschließlich Tineidae) in den gleichen Merkmalen synapomorph sind (S. 261).
12. Die beobachteten evolutiven Abwandlungen im regulären Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven betreffen in der Regel nur einzelne Musterelemente, wobei die Abwandlung eines Musterteiles oder eines Merkmals eines Musterelementes im allgemeinen nicht zwangsläufig zu einer Abwandlung weiterer Musterteile oder weiterer Merkmale des Musterelementes geführt hat (nicht ausgeprägte bzw. geringe Kopplung bei der evolutiven Abänderung von Musterteilen oder der Merkmale eines Musterelementes). Häufige Abänderungen sind: Verlagerung des Ortes einzelner Musterelemente oder Musterelementgruppen, .Änderungen der Borstenform und der relativen Länge einzelner Borsten. Nicht ganz so häufig ist die Reduktion oder das Neuauftreten einzelner Musterelmente (darunter vor allem der sog. "labilen Borsten") . Außerordentlich selten sind .Änderungen des Zeitpunktes, in dem ein Musterelement während der Larvalentwicklung erstmalig auftritt (Subprimärwerden primärer Borsten) und die Umwandlung einer Pore in eine Borste.
13. Das Phänomen der Labilität wurde am Verhalten der sog. "labilen B01'8ten" in der Evolution eingehender untersucht. Die "labilen Borsten" sind archaische Musterelernente, die nur im Auftreten labil sind, während sie in allen anderen Merkmalen weitgehend stabil sind. Ihre Homologie s.1. ist auf Grund der übereinstimmenden Merkmalskomplexe gesichert. Es ließ sich zeigen, daß die labilen Borsten sowohl jeweils unabhängig reduziert als auch unabhängig voneinander aufgetreten sein können (polytope Entstehung der Borsten - "Parallelentwicklungen"), und es konnte auch wahrscheinlich gemacht werden, daß ein Wiederauftreten einmal reduzierter Musterelemente in der Evolution durchaus möglich ist. Weiterhin konnte demonstriert werden, daß im weiteren Sinne homonome Musterelemente auf verschiedenen Segmenten nicht unbedingt gleichzeitig in der Evolution aufgetreten zu sein brauchen (S. 335).
14. Aus den beobachteten Abwandlungsvorgängen und dem erschlossenen Verhalten der labilen Borsten wurde versucht, Anhaltspunkte über die phänogenetisohen Bedingtheiten bei der Bildung des
regulären Borstenmusters zu gewinnen. Es zeigte sich, daß die Ausprägungsform der Merkmale jedes einzelnen Musterelementes für jedes Musterelement durch einen oharakteristischen Komplex von ontogenetischen Entwicklungsfaktoren bedingt sein muß, und es gibt Momente, die dafür sprechen, daß besonders die zur Homologisierung der Musterelemente herangezogenen Merkmale der einzelnen Musterelemente (Art des Musterelementes - Pore oder Borste, Ort, Größe und der Zeitpunkt des erstmaligen Auftretens während der Larvalentwicklung) entwicklungsphysiologisch enger korreliert sind. Der Komplex der Entwicklungsfaktoren jedes einzelnen Musterelementes wurde hier Musterlocus genannt. Ähnlich wie die regulären Musterelemente selber sind auch deren Loci (wenigstens theoretisch) homologisierbar.
15. Das Phänomen der "labilen Borsten" (polytope Entstehung von im weiteren Sinne homologen Borsten, Wiederauftreten eines Musterelementes nach erfolgter Reduktion) kann mit Hilfe des Begriffes der Musterloci so erklärt werden, daß die Loci nicht in jedem Falle morphologisch in Erscheinung treten müssen, sondern auch latent (virtuell bzw. morphogenetisch inaktiv) bleiben können. Durch direkte Übernahme solcher latenter Loci von einer gemeinsamen Ahnenform und durch die voneinander unabhängige Manifestation der Loci wird die polytope Entstehung von im weiteren Sinne homologen Borsten ohne weiteres verständlich - und damit ist auch ein Modell für die kausale Deutung der Pa1'ipotenz im Sinne von HAEoKER gewonnen. Bei der Reduktion (Wegfallen) eines Musterelementes wird offenbar der zugehörige Locus aus dem aktiven in den latenten Zustand versetzt, ohne daß das Gefüge des Locus zerstört oder wesentlich verändert wird, so eine erneute Manifestation des Musterelementes ermöglichend.
16. Das Inaktivwerden (Wegfallen, Reduktion des Musterelementes) bzw. die Aktivierung (Neuauftreten, Realisation oder Manifestation eines Musterelementes) eines Locus kann als Schwelleneffekt gedeutet werden: Vergleichend-morphologische Analyse der regulären Borstenmuster latente Loci sind unterschwellig, morphogenetisch aktive überschwellig. Reduktion und Manifestation können so als entgegengesetzt gerichtete SchweZlenübergänge eines Locus aufgefaßt werden. Die weiteren schwellentheoretischen Folgerungen über die HäufigkeitsverteiJung der labilen Borsten im regulären Borstenmuster der Lepidopterenlarven stimmen mit der beobachteten I-Iäufigkeitsverteilung gut überein.
17. Die ermittelten evolutiven Abänderungen im regulären Borstenmuster lassen sich - soweit sie qualitative oder quantitative Abänderungen der Ausprägungsform der einzelnen Merkmale betreffen - auf Änderungen des Gefüges der einzelnen Musterloci zurückführen, während Reduktion bzw. Neuauftreten als Unter- bzw. überschwelligwerden der Loci gedeutet werden können, wobei das Gefüge der Loci nicht entscheidend geändert wird.
18. Schließlich wurde der Versuch unternommen, an Hand bekannter entwicklungsphysiologischer und genetischer Tatsachen, eine kausale Interpretation der Schwellenübergänge der Loci zu geben. Die Realisation eines latenten Musterlocus ist dabei ein Beispiel für das Manifestwerden
latenter Entwicklungspotenzen überhaupt. Am Beispiel der bereits lange bekannten Ommochrombildung bei Insekten wird auf die Existenz von "unvollständigen morphogenetischen Komplexen" hingewiesen, das sind morphogenetische Reaktionskomplexe, bei denen irgendein Glied einer für das Zustandekommen der Struktur unbedingt notwendigen entwicklungsphysiologischen Reaktionskette ausgefallen ist (etwa durch einen genetischen Block). Die Ausbildung der Struktur wird durch den Ausfall einer derartigen "sine-qua-non" -Bedingung verhindert, wobei jedoch alle übrigen Reaktionsglieder funktionstüchtig bleiben. Die latenten Loci lassen sich als derartige "unvollständige Morphogenesen" auffassen - durch Schließung der Lücke in der "Reaktionskette" wird die Morphogenese vollständig und der latente Locus morphologisch manifest. Umgekehrt bedeutet die Reduktion eines Musterelementes,daß eine sine-qua-non-Bedingtmg für das Musterelement ausgefallen und der Locus des Musterelementes mithin latent geworden ist. Das Verhalten der labilen Borsten in der Evolution der Lepidoptera läßt sich im Sinne der aufgestellten Schwellentheorie durch in der Evolution erfolgte unregelmäßige quantitative Schwankungen eines für das Zustandekommen der Musterelemente unbedingt notwendigen Entwicklungsfaktors (sine-qua-non-Bedingung) wiedergeben. Diese quantitativen Schwankungen des Entwicklungsfaktors sind ihrerseits auf die Veränderungen der Konstitution des Genoms während der Evolution zurückführbar, wobei die Quantität des Entwicklungsfaktors sicher polyfaktoriell bedingt ist. Die hier vorgelegte Konzeption der Realisierung virtueller Entwicklungspotenzen wurde als "Hypothese der unvollständigen morphogenetischen Komplexe" bezeichnet.
Bei meinen Untersuchungen über die Algenflora Lettlands habe ich bisher einigen Gruppen weniger Aufmerksamkeit widmen können; es sind das besonders die farblosen Monaden und die Chrysophyceen. In den letzten Jahren habe ich von Zeit zu Zeit, unter anderen Arbeihm, nach Möglichkeit auch diese zwei Gruppen beachtet. Selbstverständlich setzt das die Untersuchung von lebendem Materiale voraus und womöglich gleich nach dem Einsammeln, da viele in Frage kommende Formen beim längeren Stehen der Proben sehr bald eingehen und verschwinden; an ihrer Stelle treten danach einige verbreitete Saprophyten und andere ubiquitäre Monaden in Vordergrund: Vielfach erwies es sich auch nötig, um die Entwicklungsgeschichte einzelnen Typen einigermassen lernen zu können, mit isolierten Hängetropfkulturen zu arbeiten,was jedoch meist nur dann möglich war, wenn die Monade für die Isolierung in etwas reichlicherer Menge vorlag. Nun konnten die meisten gefundenen Formen der Rhizomastigaceen, Monadaceen und Bodonaceen, sowie die Mehrzahl der untersuchten Eugleninen nicht mit den schon bekannten Arten identifiziert werden. Von den unten berücksichtigten 12 Cyanophyceen, 125 Flagellaten im engeren Sinne, 1 Kalkflagellate, 8 Peridineen und 14 Volvocineen, insgessamt etwa 160 Arten (incl. einiger Varietäten), erwies sich die reichlich grösste Hälfte als neu.
Aus Bequemlichkeitsgründen habe ich auch in diesem Teil meiner Beiträge vorläufig noch die frühere Gruppeneinteilung beibehalten, obwohl diese unseren gegenwärtigen Kenntnissen über die verwandschaftlichen Beziehungen innerhalb der Protisten nicht völlig entsprechen.
Es werden auch 8 neue Gattungen beschrieben. Davon gehört Parabodo zu den Bodonaceen, Kathablepharis und Spiromonas zu den Cryptomonadalen, Gyropaigne und Protaspis zu den Eugleninen, endlich Aulacomonas, Gyromitus lmd Hemitoma zu den Volvocineen. Drei von diesen repräsentieren
meines Erachtens zwei besondere Familien - die der Kathablepharitdaceen und Protaspidaceen.
Iter Turcico-Persicum : pars 1. Plantarum collectarum enumeratio (Ranunculaceae - Dipsacaceae)
(1923)
In this paper all the Japanese species of the family Lejeuneaceae were critically reviewed. As the result four subfamilies, twenty-one genera, and seventy-eight species were recognized under the family. Discussions were made on the relationship of the genera within the family and with other families (Tables 1-4). The new subfamily Jubuloideae was established (the type is Jubula), and the genera, Hattoria and Nipponolejeunea, were included in it. More than thirty species were reduced to synonymy under others, and eighteen new combinations were made. The seven types of distribution were recognized, according to the distribution patterns of species in Japan (Map 1, Table 5).
In the field of mycology at the present time, many of the fungi which are most frustrating to attempt to classify are the Ascomycetes of pyrenomycetous nature. While it is possible to identify many species from descriptions in the literature, the position of these species in respect to one another is difficult to assign. A major step toward a modern classification was provided by Luttrell (1951b, 1955), where he expanded Miller's (1928) and Nannfeldt's (1932) recognition of differences between the subclasses Loculoascomycetes and Euascomycetes and utilized the basic characteristics of the ascus and of centrum development to delimit major groups. Currently, studies of generic types by a number of investigators are providing a firm base for the assignment of taxa to the correct genus. Several systems of classification are available, but none of these is entirely satisfactory. The following synopsis is offered as an alternative arrangement of one order in the Loculoascomycetes. For the present, the system applies to fungi known from temperate North America. The classification probably will have to be expanded and emended as tropical and temperate fungi from other continents are studied. My intention is to continue with similar studies of taxa in the other orders of both Loculoascomycetes and Euascomycetes.
The avifauna of the island of Flores and its satellite islands from Komodo to Alor is reviewed, combining historical data with recent observations. Recent surveys have added substantially to the data base, especially of the resident forest species, and endangered and endemic taxa, as well as adding a number of migrant and maritime species to the island list. Of particular interest are the rare forest endemics Wallace's Hanging-parrot Loriculus flosculus, the almost unknown Flores Scopsowl Otus alfredi, Flores Monarch Monarcha sacerdotum and Flores Crow Corvus florensis. An appeal is made for further surveys over the eastern part of the island and the eastern island chain.
A new genus is proposed within the family Geophilidae: Hyphydrophilus n. gen., for H. adisi n.sp. Four additional new species are described, i.e. the ballophilids ltyphilus crabilli n.sp. and Taeniolinllm arborum n.sp. and the schendylids Pecfiniunguis ascendens n.sp. and Schendyluflls amazonicl/s n.sp. The geophilid species Ribautia centralis (SILVESTRI, 1907) is redescribed, after material from Brazil compared with the holotype. The ballophilid Thalthybil/s perrieri BROLEMANN, 1909 is transferred to the genus ltyphi/us COOK, 1889 and a lectotype is designated here for it.
This paper is an annotated catalogue of the geophilomorph centipedes known from Mexico, Central America, West Indies, South America and the adjacent islands. 310 species and 4 subspecies in 91 genera in 111 families are listed, not including 6 additional taxa of uncertain generic identity and 4 undescribed species provisionally listed as 'n.sp.' under their respective genera. Sixteen new combinations are proposed: Garrina pujola (CHAMBERLIN, 1943) and G. vera (CHAMBERLIN, 1943), both from Pycnona; Nesidiphilus plusiopol'us (ATTEMS, 1947), from Mesogeophilus VERHOEFF, 1901; Polycricus bredini (CRABILL, 1960), P. cordoballensis (VERHOEFF, 1934), P. hailiensis (CHAMBERLIN, 1915) and P. nesiotes (CHAMBERLIN, 1915), all from Lestophilus; Tuoba baeckstroemi (VERHOEFF, 1924), from Geophilus (Nesogeophilus); T. culebrae (SILVESTRI, 1908), from Geophilus; T. laticollis (ATTEMS, 1903), from Geophilus (Nesogeophilus); Titanophilus hasei (VERHOEFF, 1938), from Notiphilides (Venezuelides); T. incus (CHAMBERLIN, 1941), from Incorya; Schendylops nealotus (CHAMBERLIN, 1950), from Nesondyla nealota; Diplethmus porosus (ATTEMS, 1947), from Cyclorya porosa; Chomatobius craterus (CHAMBERLIN, 1944) and Cil. orizabae (CHAMBERLIN, 1944), both from Gosiphilus. The new replacement name Schizonampa Iibera is proposed pro Schizonampa prognatha (CRABILL, 1964) ex Schizotaellia prognatha CRABILL, 1964 nec Schizotaenia prognatha COOK, 1896.
A new family (Macronicophilidae) is established for Macronicophilus Silvestri, 1909, currently placed in Geophilidae. Seven new species of Neotropical Geophilomorpha are described: Ilyphilus saudus n.sp. and I. sensibilis n.sp. (Baliophilidae), Hyphydrophilus projeclUs n.sp. and Ribautia onycophaena n.sp. (Geophilidae), Macronicophilus abbrevialus n.sp., M. unguiseta n.sp. and M. venezolanus n.sp. (Macronicophilidae). The hitherto unknown male of Schendylops marchantariae (PEREIRA, MINELLI & BARBIERI, 1995) is described and two species (Pectiniunguis geayi (BROLEMANN & RIBAUT, 1911) and Ityphilus calinus CHAMBERLIN, 1957 are redescribed from the type and new material. A key to the species of Macronicophilus is provided.
This review lists Agama smithii Boulenger 1896 as a synonym of Agama agama (Linnaeus 1758), Agama trachypleura Peters 1982 as a synonym of Acanthocercus phillipsii (Boulenger 1895) and describes for the first time Acanthocercus guentherpetersi n. sp. Without more convincing evidence, Chamaeleon ruspolii Boettger 1893 cannot be accepted as specifically distinct from Chamaeleo dilepis Leach 1819, nor Chamaeleo calcaricarens Böhme 1985 from C. africanus Laurenti 1768. Consequently, 101 species of lizard are currently recognised in Ethiopia, of which some 40% appear to be denizens of the Somali-arid zone. This significant proportion is attributable in part to the importance of the Horn of Africa as a centre for reptilian diversification and endemicity, in part to the fact that this lowland fauna was rather extensively sampled during the 1930s, but also to the conspicuous neglect of lizards in other regions of the country. Mountain and forested habitats are widespread in Ethiopia, so it seems extraordinary to record only five saurian species which are believed to be endemic in such environments. The inference that there are many more still to be discovered has important implications for conservation, because montane forest is known to be among the most threatened of Ethiopian biomes and there is clearly an urgent need for its herpetofauna to be more thoroughly researched and documented.
La distribuzione geografica delle 21 specie di Zygaena e 8 specie di Adscitinae viventi nelle Alpi Liguri è stata analizzata sia nei suoi rapporti col resto della fauna paleartica, sia a livello italiano e ligure. Tale indagine ha consentito di evidenziare l'esistenza di numerosi centri di rifugio e speciazione e di mettere in luce diverse aree di transizione primaria e secondaria intese secondo il senso di Thorpe (1983). Il significato adattativo del cosiddetto melanismo littorale (Burgeff 1950) è discusso in termini di conquista di una nuova nicchia ecologica e di caduta nel valore aposematico.
It has been the goal of this review to describe the functional interrelations between Deiters' vestibular nucleus and numerous brain structures. Emphasis is placed on dynamic and integrative properties of linkages between the neurons of Deiters' nucleus and many other brain structures in order to begin considering the capabilities of the loops in the light of motor control and coordination of movement. The problem of somatotopy within the loops is also considered. Putting this information together, the possible roles of Deiters' nucleus in the control of movements are described. It is suggested that Deiters' nucleus in co-operation with cerebral cortex, cerebellum, subcortical and brainstem structures are responsible for the integration and realization of different movements.
Aus dem Dogger Norddeutschlands und des nordwestlichen Polens sowie aus Dogger-Geschieben werden 1 Art der Neritimorpha und 30 Arten der Caenogastropoda beschrieben. Neu sind 7 Arten. 14 Arten werden bereits beschriebenen Arten zugeordnet und 10 unter offener Nomenklatur beschrieben. Neu sind die Gattung Bicorempterus (Aporrhaidae) und die Familien Naricopsinidae, Tripartellidae und Maturifusidae. Die beschriebenen Caenogastropoden zeigen mehr Gemeinsamkeiten zu bisher aus dem Dogger Mittel- und Westeuropas bekannt gemachten Faunen als es bei den Archaeogastropoda und den Heterostropha der Fall war. Die Gleichsetzung der hier vorgestellten Arten mit aus der Literatur bekannten ist oftmals problematisch. Taxonomisch relevante Details besonders der Frühontogenese wurden bisher kaum beschrieben. Auch Fragen der innerartlichen Variation wurden nur gelegentlich angesprochen. Vatopsis antiquus n. sp. ist der älteste genauer bekannte Vertreter der Cerithiopsoidea. Pictavia und Oonia konnten als Vertreter der Ampullospiridae erkannt werden (Ausbildung des Protoconchs). Naricopsina repräsentiert eine Gruppe, die möglicherweise zu den echten Naticidae führte. Einige Gattungen der Aporrhaidae können genauer gefaßt werden. Maturifusus ist der älteste sichere Vertreter der höheren Caenogastropoda (Neomesogastropoda).
A review of biological control efforts against Diptera of medical and veterinary importance includes pertinent literature of major dipterous taxonomic groups where some success has been achieved or where work is currently being conducted on species breeding in aquatic (e.g., mosquitoes, blackflies, tabanids) and terrestrial habitats (muscids, tsetse, etc.). Most effort has been directed against aquatic Diptera because of the human and animal disease agents they transmit. Research has established that the natural enemy component frequently is responsible for significant population reduction and indispensable to integrated control which seeks to maintain populations below annoyance or disease transmission levels. The manipulation of natural enemies through introduction and/or augmentation has in some cases provided satisfactory control, and sustained releases of natural enemies over several years may overcome the relative high cost of massive release rates. Ultimately, to guarantee the existence and maximum expression of resident natural enemies has become almost universally accepted, and challenging, to sound control practices. Indeed, chemical industry recognizing this, has sought to manufacture products such as Bacillus toxins, juvenile hormones, and baits that are minimally disruptive to existing natural controls. Although such easily applied products have been widely adopted, their cost continues to become prohibitive with developing resistance, as was observed earlier with many organophosphate and chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. Further advancements in the control ofthese Diptera should continue to embrace a sound appreciation for the natural control component and nurture ways to allow its maximum expression. Keyword Index: Biological Control, Diptera, Medical, Veterinary.
Arthropods use fluid medium motion-sensing filiform hairs on their exoskeleton to detect aerodynamic or hydrodynamic stimuli in their surroundings that affect their behaviour. The hairs, often of different lengths and organized in groups or arrays, respond to particular fluid motion amplitudes and frequencies produced by prey, predators, or conspecifics, even in the presence of background noise peculiar to the environment. While long known to biologists and experimentally investigated by them, it is only relatively recently that comprehensive physical-mathematical models have emerged offering an alternative methodology for investigating the biomechanics of filiform hair motion. These models have been developed and applied to quantitatively predict the performance characteristics of filiform hairs in air and water as a function of the relevant parameters that affect their physical behaviour. They even allow the exploration of possible biological evolutionary paths for filiform hair changes resulting from physical selection pressures. In this chapter we review the state of knowledge of filiform hair biomechanics and discuss two physical-mathematical models to predict hair dynamical behaviour. One modelling approach is analytically exact, serving for quantitative purposes, while the other, derived from it, is approximate, serving for qualitative guidance concerning the parameter dependencies of hair motion. Using these models we look in turn at the influence of these parameters and the fluid media physical properties on hair motion, including the possibility of medium-facilitated viscous coupling between hairs. The models point to areas where data is currently lacking and future research could be focused. In addition, new results are presented pertaining to transient tlows. We qualitatively explore the possibility of an overlapping water-air niches adaptation potential that may explain how, over many generations, the filiform hairs of an arthropod living in water could have evolved to function in air. Because flow-sensing hairs have served to inspire corresponding artificial medium motion microsensors, we discuss recent advances in this area. Significant challenges remain to be overcome, especially with respect to the materials and fabrication techniques used. In spite of the impressive technological advances made, nature still remains unrivalled.
The birds of Billiton Island
(1937)
Resume 1) The egg of Squilla oratoria DE HAAN is centrolecithal and undergoes partial cleavages resulting in rudimentary primary yolk pyramids. 2) The germinal disk is first represented by a pair of optic lobes and a ventral plate, which are afterward connected by paired, lateral ectoderm thickenings to form a V-shape. The V is then transformed into an O by the appearance of a transverse band between the optic lobes of both sides. 3) A small blastopore is formed. Of the mesendoderm cells derived from the blastopore by cell immigrations, those attached to the lower surface of the lateral ectoderm thickenings are differentiated into a U-shaped, naupliar mesoderm band. This inesoderm band joins the preante:mulary mesoderm derived from the optic lobe, and grows into a complete ring conforming to the shape of the germinal disk. 4) The extra-blastoporic immigrants consist of a preantennulary mesoderm, mesodermal yolk cells and a part of the naupliar mesoderm. The greater part of the preantennulary mesoderm cells disintegrate sooner or later, without forming any distinct structure. The mesodermal yolk cells also degenerate after taking part in the dissolution of the deutoplasm. A discussion as regards the mutual relationship between these elements, with the conclusion that the formation of the preantennulary mesoderm represents the initial step of the extra-blastoporic cell sinking from the whole egg surface, is included. 5) The endodermal elements consist of a compact cell mass differentiated from the posterior part of the mesendoderm layer and the endodermal yolk cells immigrated from the blastopore. The yolk cells, after migrating through the most peripheral part of the yolk, scatter all over its surface. The endoderm plate is nothing but a mass of yolk cells. which remain without scattering. 6) Eight mesoteloblasts derived from the blastoporic lip are attached to the inner surface of the thoracico-abdominal process, making four groups. The ectoteloblasts are differentiated from the ordinary blastoderm cells in a later stage than the mesoteloblasts. In the final condition they consist of 21 cells forming a complete ring around the thoracico-abdominal process. 7) Both the ectoderm and the mesoderm are derived from the teloblasts in all of the post-naupliar segments.· The dorsal ectoderm, however, is non-teloblastic in only a few anterior segments. Differentiation of segments proceeds from the front toward the back. 8) The telson mesoderm is formed by the cells sunk from the telson ectoderm which is derived from the peri-blastoporic ectoderm . 9) The anus is the remnant of the blastopore. In accordance with the change of the caudal furca, the anus is displaced from the dorsal side of the telson to the ventral border between this and the last abdominal segment. 10) There is a distinct nauplius stage. Of the meta-naupliar segments, those from the m:txillula to the second maxilliped are laid on the germinal disk, the following segments together forming a thoracico-abdominal process. Two maxiliiped segments, however, are later separated from the cephalon with the development of the carapace fold, and join the trunk segments. Externally, six abdominal segments are formed. 11) The ganglionic cells are proliferated from the neuroblasts occupying the most superficial part of the centra1 nervous system. The giant ganglionic cells arise from the ordinary ganglionic cells and not directly from neuroblasts. The development of the cerebrum is described. The tritocerebra of both sides are conne~ted by a transverse nerve-fibre bundle behind the stomodaeum. The ganglia of the segments from the mandible to the second maxilliped first exhibit a typical ladder-like shape. Of these ganglia, the anterior three constitute a sub-resophageal ganglion by more or less complete fusion, while the posterior two are transferred from the cephalon to the thoracico-abdomimil process with the constriction of the segments. The inter-ganglionic cell groups take part in the constriction of the consecutive segments. The seventh abdominal ganglion is clearly indicated by the presence of such a cell group as well as of a pair of nerve fibre masses. 12) The development of the compound eye is traced. The ganglion opticum is derived from the ectoderm of the optic lobe lateral to the protocerebrum; it is not an outgrowth of the cerebrum. 13) The ganglion visceralum is differentiated from the anterior wall of the stomodaeum. 14) A median dorsal organ is formed. In close connection with the activity of this organ, the embryo undergoes one ecdysis. 15) The mid-gut epithelium is formed by the gradual expansion of the anterior and posterior endoderm plates over the yolk sac. These plates, however, extend only on the ventral side of the yolk sac before hatching. The posterior plate is produced by the concentration of the scattered yolk cells toward the periphery of the. plate differentiated from the mesendoderm, while the anterior plate is formed by yolk cells alone. 16) The greater part of the intestine develops from the outgrowth of the posterior endoderm epithelium, the proctodaeum occupying only the rectum. 17) The posterior liver lobes are produced from the posterior endoderm plate as a pair of blind tubes and extend as far backward as the telson. The anterior liver lobes and the lateral mid-gut cceca are rather incompletely developed, being ~eparated by shallow superficial grooves of the yolk sac. These two pairs of diverticula are only partially covered by the endoderm epithelium, and develop into more or less distinct coeca during larval life. They later seem to be completely absorbed again by the mid-gut. 18) The product of each division of the mesoteloblast is equivalent to one mesodermal-segment. The mesoderm of the seventh abdominal segment is derived from the posteriorly situated daughter cell produced by the last division of the teloblast. In' accordance with the grouping of teloblasts, the trunk mesoderm is separated into two ventral and two dorsal bands. Each band is further separated into segmentally arranged blocks, the somites. The ccelom develops in no stage and in no segment. 19) The dorsal mesoderm gives rise to the extensor and the oblique muscles of the trunk, the anterior and posterior limb muscles, as well as to the mesodermal inclusion of the limb. The -ventral mesoderm grows into the flexor. The connective tissue investing the intestine -and the liver lobes are principally constructed from the dorsal mesoderm. The germ cell does not appear until hatching. A brief account is also given of the fate of the naupliar mesoderm. 20) The heart wall and the pericardial floor are morphologically one unit. They arise from the dorsal mesoderm as a pair of membranes stretching between it and the intestine. The dilated and elongated parts of the heart are formed by the subsequent union of these paired rudiments. 21) The anterior dorsal vessel has a two-fold origin; it is formed by the fusion of an anterior rudiment extending backward from the rostrum and a posterior one developing as a tubular outgrowth of the heart. The former is derived from the rearrangement of mesenchymatous cells which migrated from the anterior end of the naupliar mesoderm. 22) By the time of hatching, two pairs of lateral vessels are formed as hollow linear thickenings of the pericardial floor in front and behind the dilated part of the heart. 23) The antennal gland remains rudimentary without acquiring any intercellular lumen. The maxillar gland is not laid until hatching. The labral and anal glands are derived from the peristomodaeal and the telson mesoderm respectively. 23) Comparisons are made bewteen Squilla and other orders of Malacostraca as regards the salient points of the embryonic development. These have led to the conclusion that the Stomatopoda are most closely related in their embryonic development to Nebaliacea, and further that Stomatopoda represent a rather primitive group separated from the main stem of Malacostraca very early, only next in order to Nebaliacea.
Die Buchenwälder Griechenlands umfassen eine Fläche von rund 220.000 ha oder 9% der gesamten Waldfläche des Landes. Diese Wälder verteilen sich in vier Hauptrealen: in Mazedonien und Thrazien, in Zentral-Chalkidiki, auf den Gebiergsketten Ost-Griechenlands (Vermion, Pieria, Olymp, Ossa und Pelion) und in Zentral- und Nord-Pindos. Sie kommen hauptsächlich an den feuchteren 0, NO, N und NW Hängen vor und stocken auf Böden, die aus Silikatgesteinen oder Flysch entstanden. Sie bilden selten grössere, geschlossene Waldkomplexe zonalen Charakters; häufiger kommen sie inselartig vor. Im Gegensatz zu den mitteleuropäischen Buchenwäldern treten sie sehr selten oder fast nie auf Kalkgesteine ein. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Ausscheidung und Beschreibung von Standsortseinheiten der Buchenwaldgesellschaften, die den waldbaulichen Zweck dienen. Von einer systematischen Anordnung dieser Geselschaften im strengen pflanzensoziologischen Sinne wurde verzichtet. Zu diesem Ziel wurden 108 pflanzensoziologische Aufnahmen gemacht, die mit 17 Bodenprofilen kombiniert wurden. Aus der Verarbeitung des gasamten Untersuchungsmaterials ergab sich folgendes: Die Buchenwälder der untersuchten Gebieten unterscheiden sich geographisch, chloristisch, ökologisch und historisch deutlich in drei verschiedenen Grundpflanzengesellschaften. Die erste, Fagetum submontanum genannt, umfasst Buchenwälder der submontanen Stufe bis zu einer Höhe über das Meer von ungefähr 900 m. Diese Pflanzengesellschaft kommt in Chalkidiki sowie in Ost-Griechenland (Ossa-, Pieria-, Pilionberg) vor und hat als Hauptmerkmal die Erscheinung der orientalischen - Buche sowie anderer Pflanzenarten der Eichen- und Kastaniengesellschaften und das Vorwiegen der Fagus moesiaoa f. spatulolepis. Die zweite Gesellschaft, Fagetum montanum genannt, kommt sowohl in Ost-Griechenland (Pieria-, Ossa-, Pilionberg) als auch in Pindos von 900 bis 1600 m ü.M. vor. Ihr Hauptmerkmal ist das Vorwiegen der Fagus moesiaoa f. tainiolepis. Die dritte Gesellsohaft, Fagetum subalpinum genannt, schliesst sich der zweiten an und erstreckt sich bis zu den Waldgrenzen (1600 - 1900 m ü.M.). Ihr Hauptmerkmal ist das Vorwiegen der Fagus moesiaoa f. tainiolepis sowie anderer Buchenformen die sich Fagus silvatioa nähern. Diese Unterscheidung dient nur den reinen pflanzensoziologischen Gesichtspunkten und nioht unseren waldbaulichen Erfordernissen. Deshalb wurden weiter pflanzensoziologisohe Einheiten unabhängig von dieser Unterscheidung mit Hilfe von Pflanzenzeigergruppen ausgeschieden. Anfänglich unterschieden sich für jede pflanzensoziologische Grundgesellschaft getrennt pflanzensoziologische Einheiten. Durch den Vergleich der Tabellen wurde bewiesen, dass dieselben Pflanzenzeigergruppen mit kleinen Abweichungen sowie die gleichen Kombinationen in den drei Gesellschaften vorkommen. Dieses Ergebnis erlaubte uns die pflanzensoziologischen Einheiten sowie die entsprechenden Standortstypen unabhängig von den pflanzensoziologischen Grundgesellschaften zu untersoheiden. Durch die Kombination der ausgeschiedenen fünf Pflanzenzeigergruppen unterschieden sich sechs pflanzensoziologisohe Einheiten bzw. Standortstypen oder Standortsgüten. Zur Erleichterung der Anwendung in der Praxis wurden auch die entspreohenden Baumhöhekurven als Standortszeiger in Abhängigkeit vom Alter (Abb. 10) eigerichtet. Aus reinen waldbauliohen Gesiohtspunkten können wir die ausgechiedenen Standortsgüten wie folgt in drei zusammendrängen: I und II, III und IV, und V und VI. Bei den I und II Standortsgüten (Bonitäten) weisst die Buche ihre maximale Produktivität auf. Dagegen zeigt die natürliche Verjüngung der Bestände, wegen der Tendenz des Bodens zur Verkräutung und des reichlichen Vorkommens eines üppigen Unterwuchses naoh jeder Lockerung des Kronenschlusses, manche Schwierigkeiten. In diesen Standortstypen wird die Verjüngung unter klein- oder grossflächigem Schirmschlag empfohlen. Wegen des starken Wettbewerbes der Unkräuter, des raschen Wachstums und der kräftigen Differenzierung ist eine intessive Jungwuchs- u. Dickungspflege als unentbehrlich zu bezeichnen. Bei den III mid IV Standortsgliten weisst die Buche eine befriedigende Produktivität auf. Die natürliche Verjüngung ist hier sehr leicht und tritt nach jeder Lockerung der Bestände massenartig ein. Die V und VI Standortsgüten kommen hauptsächlich auf Kupenlagen, Südhängen oder auf stark erodierten Böden vor. Hier weisst die Buche eine gering"e Produktivität und eine schwache Konkurenzfähigkeit auf. Die natürliche Verjüngung wird wegen der ungünstigen ökologischen Verhältnisse erschwert. Zur Steigerung der Produktivität an Nutzholz wird die Einfuhr der anspruchloseren Schwarzföhre emfohlen.
The purpose of the present paper is to describe the thoracic cirripeds found in the waters around the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory. The material dealt with in this paper was collected almost entirely by myself during the period extending from the summer of 1930 up to the present time, except a few species obtained from the Soyo-maru Expedition undertaken by the Imperial Fisheries Experimental Station during the years 1926-1930. Descriptions of the latter have already been given (HIRO, 1933a). The present material consists, with few exceptions, of specimens from the littoral zone and shallow water; none of the specimens are from deep water. However, I have paid special attention to the commensal forms from the ecological and faunistic standpoint, and have thus been able to enumerate a comparatively large number of species in such a restricted area as this district.
I) Durch die vielen Extrem-Faktoren, die im Seewinkel zusammentreffen, erscheint dieses Steppengebiet, das östlich des Neusiedlersees gelegen ist, als besonders geeignetes Untersuchungsobjekt, sowohl für faunistische als auch für ökologische Forschungen. II) Die geologischen Verhältnisse und III) die Entstehungstheorien der Lacken werden in großen Zügen skizziert. IV) Das Klima ist als kontinental zu bezeichnen, es unterscheidet sich aber vom typischen Steppenklima der Ungarischen Tiefebene. V) Die Salzlacken sind durch eine hohe Alkalinitkit, bedeutende Salzgehalte, die zum Großteil auf Soda zurückzuführen sind, ihre große Härte, vor allem aber die Schwankungen im Ionenverhältnis und in der Gesamtkonzentration gekennzeichnet. Die Brunnen sind ebenso wie die Schottergruben als Süßwasser anzusprechen. VI) Es wurden insgesamt 32 Locken, 3 Brunnen, 3 Schottergruben und 7 Kanäle auf ihre Turbellarienfauna untersucht. VII) Die in den Gewässern gefundenen Turbellarien (30 an der Zahl) werden systematisch geordnet. Auch ihre Verteilung auf die einzelnen Lacken in den verschiedenen Monaten wird erläutert. Castrada gigantea ist eine neue Castrada-Art, die in zwei chemisch sehr verschiedenen Lacken gefunden wurde. Die allgemeine Organisation weicht von der der anderen Castraden nicht ab, auffallend ist hier lediglich der sehr große Kopulatiol1sapparat und die eigenartige "pflastersteinartige" Bestachelung der Bursa. Es sind vor allem die Karbonat-, in geringem Maße die Chlorid- und Sulfatkonzentrationen, die für das Artengefüge ausschlaggebend und als auslesender Faktor wirksam sind. Die meisten Turbellarien vertragen nur mittlere und niedere Konzentrationen, die Art der Ionen scheint dann eine untergeordnetere Rolle zu spielen. VIII) Zur Autökologie der Arten in den einzelnen Gewässertypen wird Stellung genommen und mit ihrem von anderen Autoren beschriebenen Vorkommen verglichen. Auf Grund der großen jahreszeitlichen Temperaturschwankungen ist es verständlich, daß wir im Gebiet einen starken Faunenwechsel vermerken können. In den Lacken haben die Temperaturänderungen aber gleichzeitig eine solche der Konzentration zur Folge, diese beiden Faktoren ließen sich nur im Experiment trennen. Man findet in den Lacken hauptsächlich Frühjahrsformen, einige davon erscheinen neben neu hinzutretenden auch im Herbst. Stenostomum leucops ist die einzige Art, die das ganze Jahr hindurch zu finden ist. Übersichtlich sind die Verhältnisse in den Brunnen, da hier die Schwankungen im Chemismus nicht so groß sind. Da das Brunnenwasser viel kühler ist und auch im Sommer nicht versiegt, können sich hier mehrere Arten über das ganze Jahr behaupten. IX) Abschließend wird auf den Entwicklungszyldus von Monocystella Arndti, einer parasitischen Gregarine, die in den Planarien des Brunnens am Sandeck vorkommt, eingegangen.
The following new species are described from the Maghreb: Tapinocyba algirica n. sp. and Walckenaeria heimbergi n. sp. The unknown male of Minicia elegans and the unknown females of Alioranus pauper, Cherserigone graciipes and Entelecara truncatifrons are described. Tmeticus hipponense is transfered to the genus Gongylidiellum and HybocoptliS ericicola is removed from synonymy with H. corrugis and revalidated. The Maghrebian species of the genera Alioranus, Brachycerasphora, Cherserigone, Didectoprocnemis, Entelecara, Eperigone, Erigone, Gnathonarium, Gonatium, Gongylidiellum, Hybocoptus, Lessertia, Maso, Mierargus, Microetenonyx, Minicia, Monocephalus, Nematogmus, Ostearius, Prinerigone, Styloetetor, Tapinocyba, Triehoncoides and Trichoncus are all revised. As a final paper in a series on the Linyphiidae of the Maghreb, all the remaining genera are reviewed. A total of 169 species of Linyphiidae has currently been recorded in the Maghreb.
In this study the rich variety of fossil microorganisms and other ultrastruchlres in the Messel oil shale is documented. The taphonomy of the micro- and the macro organisms is discussed and a basic model for microbial life in the Eocene Lake Messel is proposed. Documentation of the Messel microbiota was made using a scanning electron microscope fitted with an energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer, and a transmission electron microscope. The most common objects discovered were fossil bacteria in the form of cocci, coccobacilli, bacilli, curved rods and filaments, preserved as moulds, crusts, casts, encrusted casts and clay-coated casts. The main lithifying mineral is apatite, followed by siderite. The bacteria occur on fossil remains of macroorganisms. Sideritic bacteria are usually found on keratinous substrates, whereas apatitic bacteria occur preferentially on fish remains. Lithification of the bacteria was selective. It is suggested that the preserved bacteria were heterotrophic, Gram-positive anaerobes, which may have belonged to the group of clostridians.
The family Cimicidae consists of 6 subfamilies, 23 genera, and 91 species. Nineteen new species names, one new species, and one new genus have been proposed since the monograph by Usinger was published in 1966. A checklist includes the world cimicid fauna with sinonymy. A selected bibliography is concerned with cimicids as potential disease vectors; the bibliography is a comprehensive treatment of the cimicid literature of the Americas and islands of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
This paper aims to compile an exhaustive list of the behavioral patterns exhibited by the chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. The compilation is based on the glossary compiled by Goodall (1989), but a substantial numbers of new terms have been added. Thus, we list 316 simple anatomical terms, 81 complex anatomical terms, 37 simple functional terms, and 81 complex functional terms, in addition to 116 synonyms. The behavioral patterns are divided into eight categories on the basis of degree of universality: (1) commonly seen in both Homo and two species of Pan, (1?) commonly seen in Homo and only one species of Pan, (2) patterns common to the genus Pan but not to Homo, (3) patterns common to the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes but not the bonobo Pan paniscus, (4) patterns common to eastern (P.t. schweinfurthii) and central (P.t. troglodytes) but not western (P.t. vents) chimpanzees, (5) patterns unique to the eastern chimpanzees, P.t. schweinfurthii, (6) patterns unique to the population of Mahale, (7) patterns unique to many individuals (at least most members of an age/sex class) of M group chimpanzees, (8) patterns limited to a single (idiosyncrasy) or a few individuals of M group. It is most likely that the behavior patterns of the last common ancestor of Homo and Pan are found in Categories 1 and I? and less likely in Categories 2 and 3. It is possible that behavior patterns belonging to Categories 5, 6 or 7 are cultures.
È stata effettuata una revisione sistematica sulle specie del genere Genista in Italia. L'indagine ha permesso di accertare la posizione tassonomica delle diverse entità che rappresentano il genere nel territorio italiano. In questa prima nota sono riferiti i risultati emersi dallo studio delle entità di sezioni a prevalente distribuzione in opposte zone del bacino del Mediterraneo e precisamente Erinacoides Spach del Mediterraneo occidentale ed Ephedrospartum Spach, Aureospartum sect. nova del Mediterraneo centrale. La sezione Erinacoides é rappresentata da G. salzmanii DC. in Sardegna e in Corsica, G. pichisermolliana sp. nov. in Sardegna, G. aspalathoides Lam. in Sicilia, Pantelleria, Africa settentrionale, G. desoleana Valso in Liguria, Toscana, Elba, Corsica e Sardegna, G. arbusensis Vals., G. sulcitana Valso e G. toluensis Valso in Sardegna. La sezione Aureospartum (sect. nova) comprende solo l'endemica sardo-sicula G. aetnensis (Raf.) DC. e l'Ephedrospartum racchiude G. ephedroides DC. presente in Sardegna, G. thyrrena Valso nell'arcipelago ponziano, G. gasparrini in Sicilia e G. cilentina Vals. in Campania e in Sicilia.
1. The migration of the spotted mackerel, Pneumatophorus tapeinacephalus distributing in the coastal sea of Japan was investigated in relation to the geographical distribution of the fishing grounds, seasonal change of fishing condition. sea conditions and fork length. Secondarily, some anatomical and histological observations were carried out on spotted mackerels caught in the coastal sea area around Kagoshima and its vicinity to clarify the sex differentiation and the seasonal cycle of the gonads. 2. Spotted mackerels are distributed throughout a wide sea area stretching from north of Formosa to the south of Japan Sea. including the Pacific coastal sea from Kyushu to Chiba Prefecture. The northern limit of the distribution area is assumed to be the sea areas off San-in and Chosi. 3. The schools of adult fish make a feeding migration to the circumference of Saishu Island and to the sea area off Ashizuri cape in summer. and these schools make a spawning migration toward the sea area around the Osumi Islands and the southern area of the East China Sea in winter. 4. In winter some schools of adult fish remain living in the sea area south of the Izu Islands. These schools belong to a group isolated incompletely from that of the East China Sea. as some of them are those which came from the East China Sea. 5. The larvae grow while they are being brought by the sea current or tide current. When they have reached 50~60mm. in total length. they aggregate in schools and approach the coast. In spring they swim in the coastal nursery grounds. 6. From summer to autumn, the schools of the young fish make a feeding migration to the sea off San-in and to the eastern coastal sea of Chiba Prefecture. In winter. they make a seasonal migration to the coastal sea of South Kyushu, the East China Sea and the southern sea area of the Izu Islands. 7. The range of vertical distribution of the larvae is supposed to be the layer from the surface to 40m. in depth. The vertical distribution of the adult fish is chiefly in the layer, 40-70m. in depth, during the period from late autumn to early spring. It becomes shallower in late spring and summer, the depth being about 20-40m. 8. The ranges of water temperature and salinity in the sea where the adult fish schools are distributed are 17.0-26.0°C and 34.0~34.8%0. respectively. 9. The spawning takes place during the period from the end of January to June in the southern part of the East China Sea and the sea areas around the Osumi Islands, off Ashizuri Cape and around the Izu Islands. These spawning grounds are sea areas where a comparatively rapid current is running towards a land shelf. 10. The ranges of the optimum water temperatures and salinities for the spawning are assumed to be 17-23°C and 34.0-34.8 0/00, respectively. 11. The primordial germ cells seem to migrate to the gonad by amoeboid movement from other places than the gonad. 12. The early indifferent gonad is very slender and suspended with a mesogonium, in the coelom. It is composed of peritoneal epithelium, stroma cells and primordial germ cells. 13. The formation of the gonocoel begins as a longitudinal depression on the surface of the gonad, facing the mesentery. This depression takes place in the gonad of the fish, about 60mm. in fork length, prior to the sex differentiation. 14. The sex differentiation occurs directly without a phase of a juvenile hermaphrodite. 15. The gonad in which the gonocoel is greatly enlarged becomes an ovary, while that in which the gonocoel is left narrow becomes a testis. 16. In the early ovary the layer containing oogonia is surrounded with stroma cells. The surface of the ovary is covered with cuboidal epithelium. 17. In the ovary of the fish, 100-130mm. in fork length, the wall of the ovocoel forms small protuberances, which become the lobes of the ovary. The oocytes are situated in these lobes. The yolk formation begins in the oocytes, 15.....,20.a in diameter, 18. The maturing process of eggs is clasified into the following 7 stages; the chromatin nucleolus, the peripheral nucleolus, the yolk vesicle, the early yolk globule, the late yolk globule, the migrating nucleus and the matured stage. Ovarian eggs at the migrating nucleus stage and the matured stage are observed in the fish, more than 300mm. in fork length. 19. The surface of the early testis is covered with peritoneal epithelium. The interior is filled up with the multiplied stroma cells and the spermatogonia scattered among them. In the testis of a somewhat later stage, a lot of branches are stretched out of the testocoel. Some of the spermatogonia are arranged directly beneath the peritoneal epithelium and the others are buried deep in the testis. The testis lacks a layer of stroma cells under the peritoneal epithelium. 20. In the testis of young male fish the spermatogonia increase in number and surround the small branches of testocoel; they form seminiferous tubules. The testocoel and its large branches become the rete apparatus constructed of collecting ducts. The maturation division appears in the testes of the fish more than 280mm. in fork length. 21. The sex ratio of the young fish is approximately 1 : 1. The ratio between the gonad length and the fork length shows an exponential increase. The gonads of adult fish are enlarged about 9-13 % of the original length during the spawning season. 22. During the months from July to November the oocytes in the ovaries of adult female :fish are at the chromatin nucleolus stage and the peripheral nucleolus stage. During the same season there are only spermatogonia in the testes of adult male fish. The gonads of adult fish begin to increase in size in December and become the largest in March and April. The increase in size of the ovary is chiefly due to the enlargement of ova on account of yolk deposition. The increase in size of the testis is due to accumulation of spermatozoa. 23. A few oogonia can be seen m the ovanes of adult female fish during and immediately after spawning. Numerous spermatogonia appear along the inner walls of the seminiferous tubules late in the spawning season.
Die Pilzgattung Hygrocybe wird taxonomisch besprochen, wobei die bisherige Sektion Oreocybe Boertmann (subgenus Cuphophyllus) den Status einer eigenen Untergattung erhält. Ein Bestimmungsschlüssel zur Gattung wird vorgelegt, wobei Gruppen sehr ähnlicher Arten, die früher teilweise nicht getrennt wurden, im Hauptschlüssel zu Aggregaten zusammen gefaßt wurden. Diese Aggregate werden getrennt aufgeschlüsselt. 50 europäische Arten der Gattung Hygrocybe werden schließlich hinsichtlich ihrer Morphologie, Taxonomie, Ökologie und Verbreitung vorgestellt.
Scharben und Scharbenfischerei : nach einem Vortrag in der "Ornithologischen Gesellschaft in Bayern"
(1938)
The re-emergence of tuberculosis in its present-day manifestations - single, multiple and extensive drug-resistant forms and as HIV-TB coinfections - has resulted in renewed research on fundamental questions such as the nature of the organism itself, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the molecular basis of its pathogenesis, definition of the immunological response in animal models and humans, and development of new intervention strategies such as vaccines and drugs. Foremost among these developments has been the precise chemical definition of the complex and distinctive cell wall of M. tuberculosis, elucidation of the relevant pathways and underlying genetics responsible for the synthesis of the hallmark moieties of the tubercle bacillus such as the mycolic acid-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan complex, the phthiocerol- and trehalose-containing effector lipids, the phosphatidylinositol-containing mannosides, lipomannosides and lipoarabinomannosides, major immunomodulators, and others. In this review, the laboratory personnel who have been the focal point of some to these developments review recent progress towards a comprehensive understanding of the basic physiology and functions of the cell wall of M. tuberculosis.
Les microcèbes de l'espèce Microcebus murinus doivent leur succès évolutif à leurs capacités à s'adapter aux conditions climatiques et écologiques difficiles auxquelles ils ont à faire face. Ces adaptations concernent tous les systèmes de communication. La vision semble particulièrement performante dans le biotope de branches fines de cette espèce strictement nocturne. L'appréhension du monde extérieur par le sens du tact passe moins par les membres que par le museau, organe multisensoriel riche en terminaisons tactiles. Cependant, les échanges sociaux par signaux visuels et tactiles sont beaucoup plus l'ares que chez les simiens ou même que chez les prosimiens diurnes. Les seuils de détection gustative démontrent une sensibilité relativement faible pour les sucres et, pour les composés amers comme la quinine ou astringents comme les tanins, une variation saisonnière liée aux ressources du milieu. Les autres détecteurs de signaux chimiques - olfaction et sens voméronasal - sont particulièrement développés. Il s j agit de deux systèmes différents dont l'indépendance fonctionnelle a été démontrée. Chez le microcèbe, l'urine, dispersée grâce à des comportements de marquage extrêmement efficaces, joue un rôle social fondamental, notamment par toute une série d'effets de type phéromonal. Les émissions sonores se caractérisent par des fréquences élevées, en partie ultrasoniques. Le répertoire vocal comprend au moins huit types de vocalisations dont certaines, ayant, dans une population locale donnée, une partie de leur structure acoustique en commun, sont interprétées comme des dialectes. Au niveau interindividuel, certains cris de contact pourraient fournir, comme c'est le cas pour les traces urinaires, des repères suffisant à identifier l'émetteur et comatitere son état psychophysiologique. Cette revue montre que le microcèbe est un généraliste, chez qui tous les organes des sens sont bien developpés sans dominance ni spécialisation excessive de l'un d'entre eux. Elle montre, aussi que ce primate possède un développement cerebral suffisant pour répondre de manière originale aux contraintes de son environnement physique et social.
Sexual reproduction in yeasts has a survival function by providing an alternative to the vegetative processes when conditions are no longer conducive for growth. If both sexes are in the correct physiological state (usually under starvation conditions), then initiation of copulation involves the mutual induction of a sexual response. This response is mediated by diffusible compounds and by physical contact. Initial cell contacts between opposite mating types can be disrupted easily, but stronger intercellular bonds form later that result in the fusion of two cells into one. Union between mates involves mixing of parental gene pools. The new diploid organism or its subsequent offspring might be better equipped to survive in a new environment because they may contain new combinations of parental genes. Hence, sex is more advantageous to the survival of the species than it is to the individual organism. The purpose of this review is to compare the steps in the mating process in three species of yeasts. The various physiological factors, events and regulatory phenomena that are part of the mating process will be described for Hansenuta wingei, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in Sections II, III and IV, respectively. Then, in Section V, the similarities and differences among these yeast systems will be discussed. Emphasis in this article will be on recent observations since reviews of earlier work are available for each mating system (for H. wingei: Crandall and Brock, 1968; Crandall and Caulton, 1975; for Schizosacch. pombe: Leupold, 1970; Gutz et at., 1974; for Sacch. cerevisiae: Fowell, 1969a, b; Bilinski et at., 1975; Sena et at., 1975). For a comprehensive review of conjugation in all yeasts, fungi and other micro-organisms, consult Crandall (1977). The three yeasts to be reviewed here are quite diverse in terms of their ecological niches, metabolism, morphology and life cycles. Therefore, for a better understanding of the physiology of sexual reproduction in these organisms, it is necessary first to consider these characteristics. A more detailed description of each yeast is given in Lodder (1970).
A synthesis of the Carabid fauna of the Central and Eastern Alps and Pre-Alps, from a biogeographical point of view, is presented. Only the Italian side of the Alpine chain is considered, from the basin of the Toce river to the Trieste and Gorizia Karst. Main features of the landscape are: 1. an ancient orogenetic history and evolution, that made this area available to the colonization by carabids, of both gondwanaland and laurasian lineages, since the lower Tertiary; 2. a marked geological and geo-morphological complexity, with highest elevation at Pizzo Bernina m 4.049; 3. the presence of a very developed, dolomitic-calcareous and markedly carsified prealpine belt, rich of deep and large hypogean systems (also at high altitude), which makes this area highly different, from the geo-morphological point of view, from the Western Alps; 4. the geographic position, as a mountain chain of some 750 kms between central Europe and the Padanian plain, connected with the Caravanche and the Dinaric chain and close to the Adriatic sea in me Eastern part; 5. finally, a puzzled climate situation, that includes xero-thermic areas (500-700 mm of rain per year, also in some intra-alpine sectors), close to highly rainy areas - more than 2.500 mm per year - in the westernmost and easternmost parts of the chain. Thus, like in the Western Alps, sub-mediterranean vegetation types, dose to cool-moist forests, coexist with high-altitude environments above the timber line. These facts explain the heterogeneity, the richness, the variety, and the interest of the carabid fauna of the area: the highest number of species (658) ascertained so far, i.e. 112 of the whole Italian carabid fauna and about 115 of the carabid fauna cited so far for the Europe in politic sense, fi·om me Canary islands to the Urals; the high number of euri- or stenoendemites (204, i.e. abour 31 % of the species, 3/5 of which concentrated in the pre-alpine belt), and the complex origins and/or affinities of different taxa. A large number of species (174, i.e. 26%) belongs to European chorotypes (European, South-European or typically Alpine), and even more (255, i.e. 38%) to Holarctic (Holarctic, Palaearccic, West-Palaearctic, Asiatic-European, Siberian-European, Central-Asiatic-European, Central-Asiatic-European-Mediterrancan, Turanic-European, Turanic-EuropeanMediterranean, European-Mediterranean) chorotypes. This darum confirms the well known role, both of connection and separation, that the Alps as a whole played between Europe and the Mediterranean area. Furthermore, it is to be recalled the presence, in some localities of the Eastern Alps, of micro thermophilous, boreal species, like Miscodera arctica, now widespread in Northern regions of the Holarctic Region. Many orophilous, forest-dwelling, riparian and hygrophilolls species, are of northern, north-eastern, ruranic or dinaric-balkanian origin. A very small, bur interesting group of thermophilous elements (mostly Harpalini), originally from the Mediterranean area or temperate steppes, during the hypsothermic periods of the Pleistocene and Olocene, reached the Central and Eastern Alps and Pre-Alps, and persist in xerothermlc biotopes. Some of these could increase their range of distribution as a consequence human activities in agricultural use overgrazing and deforestation. Some others, like Carabus montivagus and Laemostenus algerinus, seem to be present owing to very recent anthropogenic introduction. From the biogeograpic point of view, however the most important group of species is represented by the impressive number of endemics (204, of which 116 species restricted to politic Italy), either eurendemics to Central and Eastern Alps and Pre-Alps, or stenoendemics to single sectors of the area or to very small biotopes (caves, isolated montane massifs): among these, we may cite some large-sized species like Cychrus cylindricollis, endemic at high altitude, to the Central Pre-Alps, several montane, very localized Trechus species, many subterranean, highly specialized Trechini of the peculiar genera Boldoriella, Orotrechus, Anophthalmus, Allegrettia, Italaphaenops, Lessinodytes: many Pterostlchini, and others, Most of them must be considered as pre-Quaternarian elements, With affinltl,es either til Gondwana (such as the blind Reicheina of the genus Alpiodytes), or in the Angarian (as the Broscosoma species) areas, They are, the result of an ancient, subtropical or temperate forest dweller Carabid fauna, tied now to soil: forest littter, superficlal subterranean environment, caves, and upper montane refugia, Both from floristic and faunistic informatlon, It IS a well known fact that the pre-alpine belt as a whole represents a large, unique Pleistocene refugium, that shows a scenario of marked isolation and speciation in mountains, valleys and hypogean compartments. The analysis of the entire Carabid fauna in the Central and Eastern Alps and Pre-Alps shows that the present composition and complexity is the result both of ancient clado-vicariance events and of recellt, ecological factors, These facts surprisingly make this area (not only concerning carabids) very close to important towns and to one of the most populated, cultivated and industrialized area of Italy (the Padanian plain), and in spite of its relatively small surface, one of the most important hot spar of biodiversity in Europe, in which many biotopes are presently highly endangered, or in some cases completely destroyed, A checklist of the Carabid species of the Central and Eastern Alps and Pre-Alps, with their chororypes, is added.
The Invertebrate section of the Museum of Zoology QCAZ at the Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador in Quito maintains nearly two million curated specimens, and comprises Ecuador's largest collection of native taxa. We review 1902 type specimens from 6 subspecies and 320 species in 121 genera and 42 families, currently kept in the Museum. The list includes 116 holotypes, 10 allotypes, 1774 paratypes and 2 neoparatypes. The collection of type specimens is particularly strong in the Coleoptera (family Carabidae and Staphylinidae) and Hymenoptera. However, other insect orders such as Diptera and Lepidoptera and non-insect arthropods such as Acari, Aranea and Scorpiones, are moderately represented in the collection. This report provides original data from labels of every type specimen record. An analysis of the geographic distribution of type localities showed that collection sites are clustered geographically with most of them found. towards the northern region of Ecuador, in Pichincha, Cotopaxi and Napo provinces. Sites are mainly located in highly accessible areas near highways and towns. Localities with a high number of type species include the cloud forest reserve Bosque Integral Otonga and Parque Nacional Yasunf in the Amazon rainforest near PUCE's Yasuni Scientific Station. Type localities are not well represented in the Ecuadorian National System of Protected Areas. Future fieldwork Sllould include. localities in the southern region of Ecuador but also target less accessible areas not located near highways or towns. We discuss the value of the collection as a source of information for conservation and biodiversity policies in Ecuador.
Gli Autori presentano i risultati preliminari dello studio interdisciplinare (geostratigrafia e paleopedologia; palinologia; malaccfaune; faune mammologiche; industrie; datazioni raiometriche) dei depositi würmiani, fortemente antropizzati, del Riparo Tagliente in Valpantena (Monti Lessini). I depositi più antichi, riferibili al I Pleniglaciale wiirmiano e alla parte iniziale del Würm medio, contengono industrie del Paleolitico Medio e della fase arcaica del Paleolitico Superiore (Aurignaziano a dufours). Una fase erosiva, la deposizione di ghiale fluviali all'esterno del riparo e fenomeni di geliflusso sono riconducibili al II Pleniglaciale würmiano. I depositi più recenti, riferibili al Tardiglaciale (dal Dryas antico all'oscillazione di Alleriöd), hanno dato industrie dell'Epigravettiano italico finale e altri resti di occupazione antropica del riparo (strutture di abitato, oggetti ornamentali, una sepoltura, opere d'arte). Le sequenze di industrie musteriane cd epigravcttianc del Riparo Tngliente costituiscono attualmente il punto di riferimento fondamentale per lo studio dei complessi del Paleolitico Medio e della fine del Paleolitico Superiore nell'Italia nordorientale.
The impact of naval sonar on beaked whales is of increasing concern. In recent years the presence of gas and fat embolism consistent with decompression sickness (DCS) has been reported through postmortem analyses on beaked whales that stranded in connection with naval sonar exercises. In the present study, we use basic principles of diving physiology to model nitrogen tension and bubble growth in several tissue compartments during normal div ng behavior and for several hypothetical dive profiles to assess the risk of DCS. Assuming that normal diving does not cause nitrogen tensions in excess of those shown to be safe for odontocetes, the modeling indicates that repetitive shallow dives, perhaps as a consequence of an extended avoidance reaction to sonar sound, can indeed pose a risk for DCS and that this risk should increase with the duration of the response. If the model is correct, then limiting the duration of sonar exposure to minimize the duration of any avoidance reaction therefore has the potential to reduce the risk of DCS.
Im Jahre 1932 wurden 4 Beobachtungen über Strömungen im Schwarzen Meere (Meerbusen Mamaia) mit folgendem Ergebnis angestellt: 1. Zwischen 24. Juni und 2. Juli wurde eine S.N.-Strömung beobachtet, deren Wasser am 26. Juni in den Meerbusen Mamaia eindrang und da ein plötzliches Temperatursinken um 8,40 C hervorrief. Die Fischbevölkerung änderte sich ebenso rasch, da mit dem kalten Wasser grosse Exemplare von Mugil cephalus, Temnedon saltator und Trachurus trachurus an der Stelle der sonst täglich an der Küste angetroffenen Fische traten. 2. Zwischen 5. und 12. Juli wurde eine Verminderung der Dichte von 1,010 auf 1,005 binnen 24 Stunden bei fast gleichbleibender Wassertemperatur festgestellt. Parallel mit der Verminderung des Salzgehaltes wurden im Meere grosse Mengen Süsswasserfische, besonders Karpfen, die aus der Donaugegend stammten, gefischt; andererseits warfen die Wellen Zweige und Wurzeln von Weidebäumen an die Küste. Diese Erscheinungen sprechen für das Vorhandensein einer N.S.-Strömung, die in dieser Zeit in den Mamaiaer Meerbusen einströmte. 3. In der Zeitspanne 22. August - 18. September wurde die N.S.-Strömung wieder beobachtet, da sie eine abermalige Verminderung des Salzgehaltes im Meerbusen herbeiführte. Am 23. August wurde die Hauptströmung zirka 10 km. vor Constantza, in der Gegend der 20-25 m. Tiefenlinie gefunden (bei 27° C war die Dichte 1,005). Durch langanhaltende und wiederholte N.O.- und O.-Winde wurde das warme Wasser der N.S.-Strömung in den Meerbusen Mamaia getrieben, sodass dort am 11. September das Dichteminimum von 1,0039 bei 22,5° C erreicht wurde. 4· Schliesslich wurde zwischen 31. Oktober und 7. November ein Eindringen von kaltem Wasser in denselben Meerbusen beobachtet, das ein plötzliches Temperatursinken von 16° C auf 6,50 C bei fast gleichbleibenden Dichtewerten zur Folge hatte. Dieses kalte Wasser gehörte der S.N.-Strömung an, denn wir stellten in dieser Zeit fest, dass die Stellnetze 100-.300 m. weit nordwärts von ihrem Platze getrieben wurden . Der Fischfang zeigte sich ergiebig zwischen 15,5° C und 8° C., während bel 6,5° C die Makrelen, die vorher in grossen Mengen gefangen wurden, ausblieben.
The siliceous claystone and chert lithologic units of the Triassic-Jurassic chert-clastic sequence are well exposed in the Inuyama, Mt. Kinkazan and Hisuikyo areas of the southeastern Mino Terrane. Twenty-one continuous sections from those areas were investigated in order to establish comprehensive radiolarian biozones and clarify the successive lithologic changes through the Triassic and lowest Jurassic. Twenty new radiolarian zones are established; the lowest two are assemblage zones and the others are defined by the first or last occurrence of index taxa. The definitions are as follows in chronological order: TR 0, Follicucullus Assemblage Zone (early Spathian or older); TR 1, Parentactinia nakatsugawaensis Assemblage Zone (late Spathian); TR 2A, Eptingium nakasekoi Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Anisian); TR 2B, Triassocampe coronata group Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Anisian); TR 2C, Triassocampe deweveri Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Anisian); TR 3A, Spine A2 (possiblly derived from Oertlispongus inaequispinosus) Lowest occurrence Zone (late Anisian) ; TR 3B, Yeharaia elegans group Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Ladinian); TR 4A, Muelleritortis cochleata Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Ladinian); TR 4B, Spongoserrula dehli Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Ladinian to early Carnian); TR 5A, Capnuchosphaera Lowest-occurrence Zone (early Carnian); TR 5B, Poulpus carcharus sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (early to late Carnian); TR 6A, Capnodoce- Trialatus Concurrentrange Zone (late Carnian to early Norian), TR 6B, Trialatus robustus-Lysemelas olbia gen. et sp. nov. Partial-range Zone (early Norian); TR 7, Lysemelas olbia gen. et sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (early to late Norian); TR 8A: Praemesosaturnalis multidentatus group Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Norian); TR 8B: Praemesosaturnalis pseudokahleri sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Norian) ; TR 8C: Skirt F (possiblly derived from Haeckelicyrtium takemurai) Lowest-occurrence Zone (late Norian to early Rhaetian); TR 8D: Haeckelicyrtium breviora sp. nov. Taxon-range Zone (early to late Rhaetian) ; JR OA: Haeckelicyrtium breviora sp. nov.-Bipedis horiae sp. nov. Partial-range Zone (Hettangian); and JR OB: Bipedis horiae sp. nov. Lowest-occurrence Zone (Hettangian/Sinemurian) . These zones are correlated to previousy established radiolarian assemblages and zones in Japan and other regions. Age assignment of the zones is also discussed on the basis of the correlation and other available chronological data. The original stratigraphic succession of the Triassic in the studied area, which ranges in age from Early Triassic to Early Jurassic, is more than 100 m in thickness and can be reconstructed in detail. The succession is subdivided into seven units based on lithologic features. Each unit was probably accumulated under a particular sedimentary condition, thus successive changes of paleoceanographic environments during Triassic time can be traced continuously. Nine new genera including Ayrtonius, Blonzella, Braginella, Bulbocampe, Enoplocampe, Lysenzelas, Parvibrachiale, Spongoxystris and Veles, and 47 new species are described herein. A comprehensive list of identified taxa is presented.
South-Western Anatolia (including provinces Antalya, Burdur, Isparta, Denizli, Aydın, Muğla) was surveyed for the fauna of Neuroptera during 2000–2002. In total, 2817 specimens representing 77 species, 43 genera and 10 families: Osmylidae (1 species), Chrysopidae (22 species), Hemerobiidae (11 species), Coniopterygidae (7 species), Dilaridae (1 species), Mantispidae (4 species), Berothidae (1 species), Nemopteridae (3 species), Myrmeleontidae (22 species), Ascalaphidae (6 species). The records of Nineta guadarramensis, Sympherobius (S.) elegans, Nimboa ressli, Dilar turcicus, Mantispa aphavexelte, Synclisis baetica, Solter ledereri, Myrmeleon inconspicuous, Megistopus flavicornis are their second records from Turkey. Fourty five species are recorded for the first time from the studied area. As a result of the present study the total number of species reported from Southwest Anatolia increased to 87.
Einleitung: Ernährungsbiologische Untersuchungen dienen unter anderem dazu, die Position einzelner Tierarten in der jeweiligen Lebensgemeinschaft, der sie angehören, näher zu bestimmen. Dabei wird man sich nicht darauf beschränken können, die Nahrungsbestandteile in kleinen Serien zu ermitteln, denn die Zusammensetzung der Nahrung variiert entsprechend den Umweltbedingungen und dem physiologischen Zustand des Tieres. Die Variationsbreite des Nahrungsspektrums ist allerdings bei omnivoren Tieren, zu denen auch die Sperlinge zählen, verhaltnismäßig schwer zu erfassen, und es bedarf dazu einer grösseren Anzahl von Stichproben aus verschiedenen Populationen, die in unterschiedlichen Lebensräumen vorkommen. Noch schwieriger ist es, die Variationsursachen zu erkennen, denn dazu sind quantitative Untersuchungen über das Nahrungsangebot und seine Ausnutzung notwendig. Die Arbeiten in dieser Richtung sind in den letzten Jahren vor allem von L. Tinbergen und seinen Schülern, denen Vögel und Arthropoden als Forschungsobjekte dienten, entscheidend gefördert worden. Doch auch viele andere Forscher davor und danach befassten sich mit Nahrungsuntersuchungen an Vögeln und begründeten damit eine Sammlung von Faktenmaterial zur Problemstellungen, die zum Teil nur im Rahmen ökologischer Komplexaufgaben sinnvoll bearbeitet werden können. Im Internationalen Biologischen Programm bot sich eine Gelegenheit, die Ergebnisse vieler tausender Arbeitsstunden, die der Erforschung der Ernährung von Haus- und Feldsperling gewidmet waren, zusammenzufassen und einer allgemeinen Synthese zuzuführen. Auf Grund ihrer weiten Verbreitung und der hohen Dominanz, dle die Sperlinge stellenweise erreichen können, ist nicht nur ihre Bedeutung im Artengefüge (species network; Elton 1966) von Ökosystemen ziemlich hoch einzuschätzen, sondern es besteht auch ein begründetes volkswirtschaftliches Interesse an der Verringerung der von ihnen in der Landwirtschaft verursachten Schäden. Die im folgenden vorgetragenen Fakten und Vorstellungen sollen dazu beitragen, ein Modell zu finden, das die Rolle der Sperlinge in verschiedenen Ökosystemen zum Ausdruck bringt und uns dadurch befähigt, zweckmässigere Wege bei der Regulierung von Sperlingspopulationen einzuschlagen. Es kann jedoch nicht die Aufgabe dieser Abhandlung sein, die trophische Position der Sperlinge in verschiedenen Klima- und Vegetationsgsbieten erschöpfend zu analysieren und quantitativ zu vergleichen, da dies einen Gesamtüberblick über das produktionsbiologische Datenmaterial voraussetzt, der erst noch in Gemeinschaftsarbeit geschaffen werden muss.
L'Autore esamina le specie di Scafopodi del Neogene del Bacino del Mediterraneo, dandone un'ampia iconografia. Vengono riassunte varie notizie relative alle differenti specie ed in particolar modo viene proposta una rilettura filologicamente corretta delle diagnosi originarie. Due nuove specie sono istituite: Fustiaria (Fllstiaria) emersoni e Cadulus (Gadila) razzorei, dal Pliocene italiano. Anche le specie attuali mediterranee sono esaminate e correlate, ove occorra, alle forme fossili.
Habitat, food and population dynamics of the field vole Microtus agrestis (L.) in south Sweden
(1971)
The habitat, food and population dynamics of the field vole (Microtus agrestis) were studied mainly in southernmost Sweden (Scania) with a few comparisons from a northern locality. The habitats of Microtus agrestis consist mainly of successional stages, arising from abandoned cultivated fields, drained mires and felled mature forests. They were characterized botanically and classified according to moisture and time since abandonment. Capture distributions were significantly clumped, being most contagious at the lowest densities. Microdistribution was affected more by shelter than by food conditions. The weight of the stomach contents showed various skewed distributions, giving indications of the feeding behaviour of various population categories. The staple food in southernmost Sweden was various grasses, while herbs, gnss seeds, vegetative storage organs and moss were primary food items during summer, summer-autumn, winter and early summer respectively. In a northern locality herbs played a more important role in summer. Among plant species e.g. Agrostis spp., Festuca rubra, Achillea millefolium and Ranunculus spp. were often eaten, while the common Deschampsia caesjJiiosa and Charnaenerion angustifoliurn were disliked. There were clear differences between habitats but plant species belonging to the same group replaced each other in the diet. There were few differences between populatipn categories. Experiments disclosed the same preferences as found at stomach analysis. Digestibility was higher during spring than winter, that of the preferred species being highest. The digestibility was most affected by the proportions of crude protein but the changes in weight by the amounts consumed. The animals showed a decided interest in certain carbohydrates and fatty substances with differences between seasons and years. The interest in sugars was not correlated with the similar interest in bark. The probability of capture was especially low in juveniles and during winter. Trap lines and grids showed the same trappability, but, the intervals between checkings influenced the removal rate. The density changes on two distant, large, dry fields in southernmost Sweden were correlated, while a nearby isolated population in a spruce plantation fluctuated out of phase. The increases during the reproductive season were significantly lower than those expected at exponential increase. The density in various habitats did not depend on the moisture conditions. Differences in population structure and body weight in various areas were partly related to the phase of population development. However, there were also differences in the same area between habitats, which might differ in plant nutrient supply. The animals had a low energy reserve in their depot fat, which would only sustain the animals for 5-14 hours in an emergency. It was highest during midwinter but with significant depressions in April and December. Drier habitats could sustain populations of little more than 200 animals/ha over :winter and these densities were not realized in southernmost Sweden. The spring-summer density variations in a northern locality were correlated with the spruce seed supply during the following autumn-winter. A relation was assumed with the quantity or quality of previous storage tissues. In southernmost Sweden, with irregular and low-amplitude fluctuations, there was no clear relation to primary production.
Arthropods inhabiting the sporophores of Fomes fomentarius (Polyporaceae) in Gatineau Park, Quebec
(1971)
The fauna of the sporophores of the perennial bracket fungus Fomes fomentarius (L. ex Fr.) Kickx were examined in a 3-year study. One species of molluscs and more than 152 species of arthropods excluding mites, representing 13 orders, 70 families, and 5400 individuals, emerged from or were found on or in, 1448 sporophores detached from dead birch trees; the sporophores were collected each year in Gatineau Park, Que., kept individually in screen-topped glass jars in a laboratory, and examined for several months. Mites, which were recorded quantitatively only in the final year, added 4 orders, 19 families, and 30 species to the preceding totals. Mites were the most frequently occurring and probably the most numerous arthropods, followed by Coleoptera, Psocoptera, Collembola, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. The key organisms of the fauna were five species of beetles that were primarily responsible for tunnelling and destruction of the sporophores and would therefore exert great influence on the composition of the community. Their tunnels provided shelter and food for many smaller arthropods or facilitated their feeding. Some beetle species tunnelled the sporophores for one season and others, for several, but many living sporophores and most dead ones tunnelled by beetles were tunnelled in the same season by more than one species of beetles. There was considerable latitude in types of sporophores inhabited by various arthropods but some species were particularly attracted to living or dead, to younger or older, and to smaller or larger, sporophores. Some species were also attracted to certain regions of the sporophore more than were other species. Possible economic implications of observations made in the study are discussed.
Application of vibrational spectroscopy to the problem of structure determination of molecules of biological interest goes back to the early uses of raman and infrared spectroscopy in the study of organic molecules. For reviews of earlier work the reader is referred to compilations by Kohlrausch (1943) and by Jones and Sandorfy (1956), whereas more recently a comprehensive discussion has been presented by Bellamy (1975). These compilations accentuate the correlation of vibrational spectra with molecular structure from an essentially empirical point of view and culminate in the establishment of empirical correlation charts. For typical examples the reader is referred to Weast (1974) and Bellamy (1975). There have been many treatments of the theoretical basis of molecular vibrational spectroscopy. Among them the classical work by Herzberg (1945) and by Wilson et al. (1955) should be mentioned. Applications of infrared spectroscopy (IR) to structure problems of biological interest have been summarized by Susi (1969), Fraser and MacRae (1973), and Wallach and Winzler (1974). It was remarked quite eraly that relevant structural information about biological systems often requires study in aqueous solution, which forms the natural environment for most biologically important systems. Besides critical control of experimental conditions and samples the conventional methods of raman spectroscopy may be applied to aqueous solutions in a quite straightforward manner, cf. the contribution by Lord and Mendelson, Chapter 8. The condition of biological environment, i.e., the study in aqueous solutions, by IR spectroscopy is difficult to achieve by conventional absorption technique, since the high absorption coefficient of water in wide regions of the mid and far infrared implies use of thin layers and high concentrations. As a consequence the application of special techniques for measurement of IR spectra of biological material has been a necessity in many cases. This contribution covers the following topics: (1) specific spectroscopic techniques used in this field, in particular for membrane spectroscopy, (2) discussion of typical results derived from application of IR techniques to model and natural membrane systems and to important constituent molecules of such systems.
Die Arbeit enthält Ergänzungen und Korrekturen zu Teil I der Revision, insbesondere einen revidierten Bestimmungsschlüssel für die in Europa vertretenen Gattungen und Bemerkungen zur Taxonomie und Verbreitung der Arten. Zusätzlich wird die Gattung Baryenemis Förster revidiert. Es werden eine Gattung (Gelanes spec. nov.; Typusart Thersylochus fusculus Holmgren) und 30 Arten neu beschrieben, sechs bisher als Gattungen ausgefaßte Taxa als Untergattungen eingeordnet und neun Arten neu synonymisiert.
El autor hace observaciones sobre diferentes formas de Enmolpidos sudamericanos. Agrega una lista provisoria de especies y variedades argentinas. Llama la atención sobre el hecho que los Eumolpidos son mal conocidos y sobre la necesidad de revisar el sistema de clasificacion de este grupo, en lo que se refiere a los géneros y tribus. Se enumeran 87 especies de Eumolpidos para la República Argentina, varias de ellas señaladas por primera vez en el país.
Hatching asynchrony and the onset of incubation in birds revisited : when is the critical period?
(1995)
1. Birds are unique among animals in being able to influence the birthing intervals of their young through the timing of the onset incubation. However, many species hatch their young asynchronously, frequently resulting in reduced survivorship for later-hatched young. This is the Paradox of Hatching Asynchrony. 2. The Brood Reduction Hypothesis provided a resolution to the paradox by suggesting an adaptive function to the offspring mortality that results from asynchrony. Experimental tests have provided little support, and 16 alternative hypotheses have been proposed, but few have been tested. Most experimental tests have not measured important parameters such as parental effort and postfledging survival. Many have lacked adequate controls or sufficient statistical power. 3. We divide the hypotheses for hatching asynchrony into four categories based on the effects of intrinsic or extrinsic factors during a critical period of the nesting cycle which constrains reproductive success. Hatching asynchrony could be simply the consequence of the early onset of incubation during egg-laying, either as a result of physiological constraints on incubation or because parents derive fitness benefits from the protective function of early incubation. During the nestling period, hatching asynchrony could be adaptive if it allowed parents to eliminate one or more nestlings selectively, or increased parental efficiency. Alternatively, parents could manipulate the duration of the different periods of the nesting cycle to maximize benefits. 4. Because the onset of incubation generally determines hatching patterns, we encourage refocusing attention from the search for adaptive hatching patterns during the nestling period to the events surrounding the onset of incubation during egg-laying. Many factors can affect when incubation is begun, including physiology, and interactions with the environment, predators, competitors, and mates. 5. Patterns of the onset of incubation are difficult to determine and to quantify, in part because many birds begin incubating gradually, or at night. In some species, the onset of incubation varies with clutch size, but not in others. 6. The onset of incubation is the principle proximate control of hatching patterns, but other factors, such as egg size, embryonic vocalizations, and time of year may also affect hatching patterns. 7. Synchronous hatching is the primitive condition in birds, and is widespread in the lower, primarily precocial taxa. Most altricial species hatch their eggs asynchronously, although some exhibit synchrony as a secondarily derived trait. Hatching patterns show wide variation within some orders and families. 8. Patterns of the onset of incubation and hatching in a species may reflect the influence of multiplefactors. The relative importance of those factors may depend on the trade-offs associated with the potential benefits of early incubation to the survival of eggs and the potential costs to the survivor of later-hatching young associatedwith nestling size hierarchies. 9. The relative effects of multiple factors can be examined by integrating the results of empirical tests of single factors through modeling. 10. We demonstrated the use of a stochastic model by using empirical data from the House Sparrow. Results revealed the trade-offs inherent in the onset of incubation from differences in egg viability and nestling survivorship. An intermediate onset of incubation produced the greatest fledging success. 11. Other factors may be integrated into such models if they can be measured in terms of their effects on fledging success. Different factors, represented by different hypotheses, vary in how readily they may be modeled.
Vengono descritti 2 nuovi sottogeneri di Agrilus: Lilliput (specie tipo: A. paracuspidatus Obenberger, 1939) e Agriphylus (specie tipo: A. maddalenae n. sp.). Vengono inoltre descritte 34 nuove specie e 4 nuove sottospecie di Agrilus (sensu lato) provenienti da diverse regioni del continente africano e dall' Arabia Saudita: A. (Paralophotus) sahelicus n. sp. del Marocco; A. (Diplolophotus) rastellii n. sp., A. (Paralophotus) rubescens n. sp., A. (Paralophotus) vo- 101 n. sp. del Senegal; A. (Lilliput) minimus n. sp., A. (Diplolopbotus) somalus n. sp., A. (Paralopbotus) myops n. sp. della Somalia; A. (Robertius) ocellatus n. sp. del Kenya; A. (Duftus) exoletus ugandensis n.ssp. dell'Uganda; A. (Pinarius) muehlei n. sp., A. (Robertius) provincialis n. sp., A. (Robertius) syndici n. sp., A. (Agrilus) wagneri n.sp. del Ruanda; A. (Pantberina) teocchii n. sp., A. (Robertius) delenilor celtivorus n. ssp., A. (Robertius) regius n. sp., A. (Roher/ius) ocularius n. sp., A. (Robertius) boanoi n. sp., A. (Robertius) mabokeamls n. sp.,A. Vlgrilus) parapupala n. sp.) A. (Agrilus) pupalinus n. sp., A. (Agrilus) hal'l7lodius centrafricanu.' n. ssp. della Repubblica Centrafricana; A. (Nigritius) leveyi n. sp., A. (Agrilus) 01- mii tropicus n. ssp. dello Zambia; A. (Agriphylus) maddalenac n. sp., Il. (Robertius) iniudicatus n. sp. della Sierra Leone; A. (Robertius) scutatus n. sp., Il. (Rohertius) rotundus n. sp. della Costa d'Avorio; A. (Robcrtius) zehra/us n. sp., Il. (Rohertius) subgravidus n. sp., A. (Agrilus) balena n. sp. del Camerun; Il. (Agripbylus) trico n. sp., A. (Pantherina) barbutulus n. sp., A. (Agrilus) salurnus 11. sp. dello Zaire; A. (Agrilus) olmii n. sp. del Mozambico; A. (Lilliput) lorscbbammcri n. sp. del Botswana e del Sud Africa.; A. (Robertius) bruschii n. sp. dei Sud Africa, Botswana e del Mozambico; A. (Bubagrilus) saudita n. sp. dell'Arabia Saudita. Sulla base dell\'esame del materiale tipico viene proposta infine una nuova sinonimia: A. schoutedeni Kerremans, 1913 (= A. rothkircbi Obenberger, 1923), nov. syn.
Fly larvae of the Anthomyiidae, Muscidae, Calliphoridae, and Sarcophagidae are scavengers and breed in filthy material such as animal dung, human feces, dead animals and decaying vegetables. Therefore, the presence of these larvae in our environment indicates defective sanitary conditions, and offers many problems from the standpoint of public health. Clinically, the larvae of some species cause myiasis in man and animals. On the other hand, in the field of legal medicine postmortem time of dead bodies is estimated in some cases by the species and age of larvae collected from them. Thus, the fly larvae are closely associated with our lives. Morphologic studies on larval stages of flies were started in the beginning of this century by Portchinsky (1910), Banks (1912), MacGregor (1914), and Keilin (1915 and 1917). Portchinsky first described chiefly the habits and metamorphosis, and later MacGregor emphasized structure of posterior spiracles in the identification of the larvae. Keilin (1917) discovered and emphasized the importance of the characteristic structures such as the cephalopharyngeal sclerite, anterior and posterior spiracles and other external and internal characters. Following them, many authors made comparative and systematic studies of fly larvae and there are many reports of such research. However, morphology, taxonomy and ecology of these fly larvae have not been studied systematically in Japan. During the period from 1915 to 1936, 10 or more accounts were made about fly larvae that caused intestinal myiasis in man. In 1937, Kodama and Yasuda reported Ophyra nigra Wied. asa cause of intestinal myiasis. Yasuda (1939) reported 12 species of fly larvae in Seoul, Korea with detailed drawings and descriptions. Lopes (1943 and 1946) reported sarcophagid larvae from Neotropical region. Hall (1947) described calliphorid larvae from North America in his publication "The blow flies of North America". In 1951, Roback used the characters of the larvae such as pharyngeal sclerites and posterior spiracles for the classification of the Calypterate, Diptera. In the same year, Zimin reported Russian muscoicllarvae in his publication "Fauna USSR, Muscidae" using the external characters such as spines, papillae, and anal plate on the body surface as well as anterior and posterior spiracles and cepahlopharyngeal sclerite. Fan (1957) reported some filth fly larvae from China. In Japan, Kana et a!. (1950-1958) described larvae of 39 species belonging to 4 families. In the present paper, the author describes 3rd stage larvae belonging to 70 species in 33 genera of 4 families. In addition, photographs of internal and external structures and keys to families and species of 3rd stage larvae are given. Moreover, 6 species belonging to Muscidae and 1 species ofSarcophagidae for which the larvae were not seen are cited from the descriptions and figures published by Keilin (1917), Zimin (1951), Kano and Sato (1951), and Fan (1957). Those species are also included in the keys of this paper.
Fauna of Isopoda and Tanaidacea in the coastal zones of the Antarctic and Subantarctic waters
(1968)
This work presents results of the processing of the material collected by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition (1955 - 1963), chiefly on the "Ob" and to a lesser extent by the geographer E. S. Korotkevich and the ichthyologist V. M. Makushek., during their wintering at the Mirnyi station, as well as by the hydrobiologist G. A. Solyanik on board the whalers "Slava" and "Ivan Nosenko."
Notes on some primates, Carnivora and the babirusa from the Indo-Malayan and Indo-Australian regions
(1949)
The Great Spotted Woodpecker is the most common and best-known woodpecker species in the W Palearctic. The sections Habitat, Distribution, Population, Movements, Food, Social pattern and behaviour, Voice, Breeding, Plumages, Bare parts, Moults, Measurements, Weights, and Geographical variation have been updated or completely rewritten, and a new section has been added on Conservation. High flexibility enables the Great Spotted Woodpecker to utilize a great variety of habitats, from Arctic taiga through boreal and temperate to Mediterranean (N Africa and Canary Islands) and Alpine forest zones, wherever there are mature trees of any sort with sufficient growth to accommodate nest-holes and with a supply of available food. The Distribution and Population sections include new data of population tendencies, with stable or positive trends in most European countries and fluctuating populations in N Europe. Recent negative range trends with small decreases only in S Europe, apparently due to loss of wooded habitats. The Conservation section presents literature on the Great Spotted Woodpecker as the key or umbrella species for secondary cavity-nesting species. This section also demonstrates the importance of woodpeckers as indicators for naturally dynamic forests with tree species diversity, forest management, and sustainable forestry. Woodpeckers can be part of a monitoring system of e.g. sustainable forestry, but species from other organism groups are also required. The section on Movements has been updated with new data on dispersal and summer/autumn and spring migration. The Great Spotted Woodpecker uses a very wide and varied diet and is characterized as a 'universalist' in food-gathering; pecking and hammering are most important in autumn and winter, gleaning and probing are important at times of high food availability at the tree surface in spring and summer. It takes arthropods and insect larvae, coniferous seeds and various nuts mainly in autumn and winter, and drills holes for sap-sucking in spring, takes surface dwelling arthropods and caterpillars, bird eggs and nestlings, and fruits and berries in spring and summer. The Social pattern and behaviour section presents new data on the mating system, parental effort, pair-bond, divorce rate, survival rate, and mortality. Great Spotted Woodpeckers are socially and genetically monogamous with a potential to polyandry, which was recorded in Japan. Changes of partner between seasons common. Males usually invest more in nesthole construction and guarding than the females and contribute the same amount or more to brood care. Males usually incubate and brood at night, as with all studied woodpeckers, and defend territories, which seem to be important for female choice. Females compete intensely for access to males and perform male-like courtship behaviours such as drumming. Great Spotted Woodpeckers are intelligent and currently doing damage to house facades. The Voice section presents mainly new data on calls and instrumental signals of the young. The Breeding section has been updated with new information about nest-sites, breeding behaviour, and breeding success. New data on age determination are shown in the Bare parts and Moults sections. Additional data are provided on size and weight.
The Japanese micropterigid moths are revised. Seventeen species in five genera are recognized from Japan, described or redescribed with the male and female genital figures. Of these, two genera, Issikiomartyria HASHIMOTO and Kurolkopteryx HASHIMOTO, and seven species, Issikiomartyria akemiae HASHIMOTO, Issikiomartylia plicata HASHIMOTO, Issihiomartyria distincta HASHIMOTO, Issihiomartyria bisegmentata HASHIMOTO, Kurokopteryx dolichocerata HASHIMOTO, Neomicropteryx hiwana HASHIMOTO, and Neomicropteryx redacta HASHIMOTO, are new to science. A new combination is given: Issikiomartyria nudata (Issuu). Biology and immature structures of the Japanese species are also described together with the keys to genera and to species provided on the basis of the adult characters. Phylogenetic relationships among the Northern Hemisphere genera are analyzed by the cladistic analysis using PAUP* (SWOFFORD, 2002) based on the morphological characters of adults. A monophyly of the Northern Hemisphere genera except for Micropterix is supported by nine apomorphies, but their immediate sister taxon remains unresolved.
"Neobiota" ist ein biologischer Begriff zur Bezeichnung von nicht-einheimischen Arten, welche infolge direkter oder indirekter menschlicher Einwirkungen in neue geografische Gebiete eindringen. Biologische Invasionen durch neue gebietsfremde Lebewesen (Neobiota), die sowohl Tierarten (Neozoa) als auch Pftanzenarten (Neophyta) betreffen, wurden in den letzten Jahren zunehmend von Interesse, da ihre Anzahl und Ausbreitung ständig zunimmt. Solche Fremdlinge (Aliens) verändern oft ihre neue Umwelt, die einheimischen bodenständigen Planzen- und Tierarten müssen sich an diese ungewohnte Umgebung anpassen. Insbesondere invasive fremde Arten werden als eine der Hauptursachen für Verluste an Biodiversität erachtet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden für Südtirol einige markante Beispiele rezent einschleppter Tier- und Pflanzenarten erörtert. Es wird der bestehende Trend einer rezenten Zunahme von Neobiota aufgezeigt, als Folge einer Zunahme von Verkehr und Warenaustausch, und auf die Notwenigkeit hingewiesen, die Einschleppungswege und Zeiträume genau zu verfolgen und zu registrieren. Insgesamt werden hier 44 Tierarten behandelt: davon 40 Invertebraten und 4 Vertebrata, sowie 5 Pflanzenarten. Davon sind einige Arten auch Neumeldungen für Südtirol: Diptera: Rhagoletis alternata, Rhagoletis completa; Heteroptera: Leptoglossus occidentalis; Pisces: Rhodeus amarus, Pseudorasbora parva; Crustacea: Procambarus klarkii; Araneae: Atea triguttata und Araniella displicata (beides heimische Arten), Tegenaria atrica (adventiv).
Die Gattung Phormictopuswurde im Jahre 1901 von POCOCK aufgestellt. In seine neue Gattung nahm er als Typusart Mygale cancerides LATREILLE, 1806 von der Insel Hispaniola auf, dazu kam Lasiodora cautus AUSSERER, 1875, eine Art, die ohne Angabe des locus typicus beschrieben worden war. Bisher waren 14 Arten und 2 Unterarten bekannt, von denen 5 aus Südamerika stammen. Die vorliegende Arbeit reduziert die Artenzahl auf 12, wobei 5 neue Arten beschrieben und 4 synonymisiert, 3 zu nomina dubia (Typus verschollen), und 3 "incertae sedis" (in andere Gattungen gehörig) erklärt werden.
La famille des Pyuridae n'est représentée en Nouvelle-Calédonie que par onze espèces, la plupart vivant dans les zones portuaires. Une seule espèce est nouvelle, Bolteniopsis pacificus, qui vit dans des sables grossiers et représente la première espèce de ce genre trouvée dans le littoral tropical. Les Molgulidae ne sont représentées que par une espèce nouvelle.
Dix-neuf espèces de Styelidae, pour la plupart coloniales, sont décrites ou signalées du lagon. Huit sont nouvelles. Sur les onze espèces connues, neuf sont présentes en Australie. Quatre espèces ont une repartitlon tres vaste couvrant dans certains cas toutes les mers chaudes. Les espèces nouvelles appartiennent toutes à des genres dont la diversité maximale est en zone tropicale.
Quinze espèces dont deux nouvelles pour la Science ont été récoltées en Nouvelle-Calédonie. La plupart d'entre elles sont aussi connues de l'Australie et de l'Indonésie. Une seule espèce est considérée comme faisant partie d'une faune tempérée australe. Toutes les autres sont d'affinités tropicales.
Quinze espèces d'ascidies Phlébobranches ont été récoltées dans le lagon de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Elles appartiennent à quatre familles: Corellidae, Ascidiidae, Perophoridae et Cionidae. Cette dernière n'avait pas encore été signalée de cette région. Quatre espèces sont nduvelles pour la science: Diazona textura (Cionidae), Ascidia dorsalis (Ascidiidae), Ecteinascidia aequale et E. koumaci (Perophoridae). Seules cinq espèces (une Corellidae et quatre Ascidiidae) étaient déjà connues de Nouvelle-Calédonie.
Homology of virtually all major components of facial anatomy is assessed in Archosauria in order to address the function of the antorbital cavity, an enigmatic structure that is diagnostic for the group. Proposed functions center on its being a housing for a gland, a muscle, or a paranasal air sinus. Homology is approached in the context of the Extant Phylogenetic Bracket method of reconstructing unpreserved aspects of extinct organisms. Facial anatomy and its ontogeny was studied in extant archosaurs (birds and crocodilians) to determine the osteological correlates of each soft-tissue component; resemblances between birds and crocodilians comprised the similarity test of homology. The congruence test of homology involved surveying phyiogenetically relevant fossil archosaurs for these bony signatures. The facial anatomy of extant birds and crocodilians is examined in detail to provide background and to discover those apomorphic aspects that contribute to the divergent specialization of these two groups and thus obscure homologies. Birds apomorphically show enlarged eyeballs, expanded nasal vestibules, and reduced maxillae, whereas crocodilian faces are dorsoventrally flattened (due to nasal rotation) and elongated. Most facial attributes of archosaurs are demonstrably homologous and in fact characterize much more inclusive groups. Special emphasis has been placed on the nasal conchae and paranasal air sinuses. Within Amniota, the following conchal structures are homologous, and all others are neomorphs: avian caudal concha, crocodilian concha + preconcha, Sphenodon caudal concha, squamate concha, and probably the mammalian crista semicircularis. The avian antorhital paranasal air sinus is homologous with the crocodilian caviconchal sinus; the maxillary sinus of placental mammals is not homologous with the archosaurian paranasal sinus. With regard to the function of the antorbital cavity, archosaurs possess homologous nasal glands, dorsal pterygoideus muscles, and paranasal air sinuses, but the osteological correlates of only the paranasal sinus involve the antorbital fenestrae and fossae. Thus, the antorbital cavity is best interpreted as principally a pneumatic structure.
An annotated checklist and bibliography of 197 species (representing 78 genera and 26 families) of non-marine polychaetes of the world is presented, including synonymies, information on ecology, distribution, habitat, and references to the taxonomic and biological literature. Over half (57%) of the checklist species are represented by just three families as follows: Nereididae (61 species including Namanereis, Namalycastis, Neanthes and Hediste), Aeolosomatidae (27 species, mostly Aeolosoma) and Sabellidae (24 species including Caobangia and Manayunkia). Other well-represented taxa are the epizoic histriobdel1id Stratiodrilus (11 species), the inland-sea-specialist ampharetid Hypania and related genera (5 species), and the freshwater-tolerant spionid Marenzelleria (5 species). One new combination is proposed for the nereidid Nereis tenuipalpa Pflugfelder, 1933, viz. Paraleonnates tenuipalpa n. comb.
Birds are characterized by pneumatization of their skeletons by epithelial diverticula from larger, air-filled cavities. The diverticula-or 'air sacs'-that invade the postcranium result from outgrowths of the lungs; poslcranial pneumaticity has been very well studied. Much more poorly understood are the air sacs that pneumatize the skull. Study or craniofacial pneumaticity in modern birds (Neornithes) indicates the presence of two separate systems: nasal pneumaticity and tympanic pneumaticity, The lacrimal and maxillary bones arc pneumatized by diverticula of the main paranasal cavity, the antorbital sinus. There are five tympanic diverticula in neornithines that pneumatize the quadrate, articulare and the bones of the braincase. The pneumatic features of the following six genera of Mesozoic birds are examined: Archaeopteryx, Ellaliornis, Baplomis, Parahesperornis, Hesperornis and lchthyornis. Despite the 'archaic' aspect of most of these birds, many of the pneumatic features of neornithines are found in .Mesozoic birds and are considered primitive for Aves. The phylogenetic levels at which most of the avian pneumatic features arose within Archosauria are uncertain. Until the phylogenetic levels at which homologous pneumatic features arose are determined, it is unwise to use most pneumatic characters in the discussion of avian origins. Within avian phylogeny, Ornithurae and Neornithes are well-supported by pneumatic synapomorphies. There is a trend towards reduction of craniofacial pneumaticity within Hesperornithiformes. Witthin Neornithes, four derived pneumatic characters suggest that the Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous) is monophyletic.
Aus den vorhergehenden Untersuchungen erhellt, dass die fossilen Hölzer von König-Karls-Land ein aussergewöhnliches Interesse beanspruchen. Sie umfassen sechs Arten, die zu fünf verschiedenen Gattungen gehören, und zwar: Phyllocladoxylon sp., Xenoxylon phyllocladoides GOTHAN, Cupressinoxylon cf. McGeei KNOWLTON, Cedroxylon cedroides n. sp., Cedroxylon transiens n. sp., Protopiceoxylon exstinctum n. gen. et sp. und dazu noch ein paar nicht bestimmbare Arten.
After giving a brief historical account of the use and precise definitions of the various measurements and their indices in termites, the need for bringing together all such known measurements and indices in the fonn a monograph is explained. Precisely defined measurements obviate the necessity of using vague expressions for the comparison of allied taxa. Of the 88 measurements and 53 indices thus listed, 66 and 34 respectively have been used already in the published literature, and 22 and 19 new ones are added here.
Carnian (Upper Triassic) fishes from Polzberg bei Lunz have been known since 1886 but no comprehensive account has been published. Eleven species are described nine of which, Saurichthys calcaratus, Polzbergia brochatus, Peltoplellrus dinlmptus, Habroichthys gregarius, Nannolepis elegans, Phaidrosoma lunzensis, Elpistoichthys pectinatus, E. striolatus and Pholidophoretes salvus are new, and two others, Thoracopterus niederristi Bronn and Gigantopterus telleri Abel, previously little-known. New supraspecific taxa defined are: the order Polzbergiiformes, the family Thoracopteridae and the genera Polzbergia, Nannolepis, Phaidrosoma, Elpistoichthys and Pholidophoretes. Habroichthys. Thoracopterus, Gigantopterus and Nannolepis show an unusual skull-roof pattern and are included in the re-defined order Luganoiiformes. Two new ichthyokentemids considerably extend the known time-range of this family. The genus Pholidophoretes is intermediate between the Archaeomenidae Goodrich 1909, and the Pholidophoridae sensu stricto Nybelin 1966. The Polzberg assemblage was probably mainly marine with a small freshwater contribution; it shows less similarity to the Besano and Raibl assemblages than these do to each other. The Luganoiiformes are probably, but not certainly, monophyletic; relationships within the order are analyzed and a cladogram constructed. The Platysiagiformes, Peltopleuriformes, Luganoiiformes and Cephaloxeniformes could all have been derived from a common ancestor at the Perleidus level and are probably offshoots of the perleidid radiation.
Recently, the first part of the morphological revision of the Southeast Asian water monitor lizards of the Varanus salvator (Laurenti, 1768) species group provided a taxonomic overview over the members of this successful and widespread species complex (Koch et al. 2007). There, the Philippine taxa marmoratus, nuchalis and cumingi were reelevated to species status due to diagnostic morphological characteristics, e.g. significantly enlarged scales on the neck region. In this second part of the ongoing revision, these three species are re-investigated using additional voucher specimens and advanced statistical techniques including canonical variates analysis and principal component analysis. Our new investigations indicate that V. marmoratus represents a composite species, comprising at least three distinct taxa. Hence, the populations of the Sulu Archipelago (Tawi-Tawi Island) and those of the Palawan region are described as new species, viz. Varanus rasmusseni sp. nov. and V. palawanensis sp. nov., respectively. The allopatric island populations of V. cumingi inhabiting Samar, Leyte, and Bohol (the East Visayan subregion) show characteristic and geographically correlated colour patterns distinct from the type locality Mindanao (the second subregion of Greater Mindanao), warranting subspecific partition of this species. The new subspecies is named V. cumingi samarensis ssp. nov. In contrast, the taxonomic status of V. nuchalis remained unchanged, although this species shows some considerable variation in colour pattern. The systematic chapters are supplemented with notes about biology and conservation status. The hitherto underestimated diversity and zoogeography of Philippine water monitors is discussed in the light of Pleistocene sea level fluctuations. Finally, we introduce a scenario for the evolution and spread of Southeast Asian water monitor lizards and provide an identification key for the Philippine members of the V. salvatoI' complex.