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This paper discusses the use of comparative data when describing a particular language. That is, even tho ugh we might be describing one variety, we can gain insights into the development of that variety from comparisons with related varieties. The examples presented are from the Rawang and Dulong languages. two closely related Tibeto-Burman languages in Myanmar and China respectively. We see that comparison with Dulong data can help us to understand the development of the applicative benefactive in Rawang. and comparison with Rawang can help us understand the development of the verbal first-person plural long vowels and nominal agentive marking long vowels in Dulong.
This paper is an overview of the motivations and methodology for doing empirical in situ fieldwork on languages. It suggests specific methods for carrying out fieldwork in a maximally empirical way.
Der folgende unterrichtspraktische Beitrag ist die Fortsetzung eines bereits erschienenen Aufsatzes zur Phraseologismenvermittlung im DaF-Unterricht (vgl. Bergerová 2005). Während es dort im Wesentlichen um grundlegende theoretische Fragestellungen der Phraseodidaktik ging, behandelt der vorliegende Beitrag die Umsetzung der neuesten Erkenntnisse der phraseodidaktischen Forschung am Beispiel eines Didaktisierungsvorschlages anhand der Textsorte Filmankündigung. Vorangestellt wird dafür zunächst eine instruktive Einleitung zu ausgewählten Fragen der Phraseologie im Allgemeinen und der Phraseodidaktik im Besonderen, um auf dieser Grundlage den Didaktisierungsvorschlag entwerfen und erklären zu können.
U radu se analizira uloga jednog tipa referencijalnih izraza – anaforičkih izraza – u diskurzivnom oblikovanju odabranog medijsko-znanstvenog događaja (“uskrsnuće” bakterije Deinococcus radiodurans). Predlaže se transverzalna analiza anaforičkih izraza utemeljena na modularnom pristupu kompleksnosti organizacije diskursa i na dinamičnoj koncepciji anaforičke referencije, shvaćene kao segment šireg procesa konceptualnog strukturiranja svijeta diskursa i usuglašavanja mentalnih predodžbi sudionika u interakciji.
O presente artigo tem por objetivo apresentar uma amostra de pesquisas com a língua alemã nos trabalhos de grau da pós-graduação (nível de mestrado) envolvendo a tradução. Seguindo uma tradição que, na Universidade de São Paulo, remonta aos anos de 1960, tais trabalhos têm por objetivo apresentar a tradução de textos inéditos, acompanhados de notas e comentários, e – ao contrário dos trabalhos realizados àquela época – são ancorados numa perspectiva teórica dos Estudos da Tradução (Translation Studies na nomenclatura internacional). A partir de três relatos de pesquisas em andamento, procura-se revelar os bastidores do trabalho com os textos, bem como a fase de análise do texto a ser traduzido, que é pautada e aprofundada por leituras teóricas e realizada paralela e concomitantemente à fase de tradução propriamente dita. Esta última, empreendida em várias etapas, enfoca a cada vez uma dificuldade específica dos diferentes níveis da análise lingüística – e, dependendo do caso, também literária – e sugere a redação de notas, comentários e diferentes tentativas de reescritura. Ao final do processo, as notas e comentários são selecionados e relacionados com a perspectiva teórica, para que só então se processe a redação final da Dissertação, cuja diretriz é construída numa direção que vai da prática de traduzir para a reflexão.
Ausgehend von einer Definition der materialen Topik soll in diesem Aufsatz untersucht werden, welche Position Topik einerseits als selbst-organisierendes System, andrerseits als intentional eingesetzte Argumentationsstrategie in der Kommunikation zwischen Leser und Text einnimmt. Dieser Leseakt kann letzten Endes als Interaktion zweier topischer Systeme gedeutet werden, jedoch ohne dass sich dabei die Rezeption eines Textes in vollständiger Kontingenz verliert.
The Germanic perfect presents (Präteritopräsentien) form a past tense by adding the endings of the weak preterit to the stem of the past participle, e.g. Go. wissa ‘knew’. This is a recent formation (cf. Kortlandt 1989). We may therefore ask ourselves if we can reconstruct the earlier formation which was ousted by the weak preterit. We may also try to recover the motivation for the replacement.
The Germanic weak preterit
(2007)
The main difficulty with the Germanic weak preterit is that one cannot endeavor an explanation of its origin without taking into account almost every aspect of the historical phonology and morphology of the Germanic languages. In the following I intend to show how a number of problems receive a natural explanation in a unified treatment on the basis of earlier studies. The theory presented here is not revolutionary, but aims at integrating earlier findings into a coherent whole. There is no reason to give a detailed account of the scholarly literature, which is easily accessible (cf. Tops 1974, Bammesberger 1986).
This paper reconciles the standpoint that language users do not aim at improving their sound systems with the observation that languages seem to improve their sound systems. Computer simulations of inventories of sibilants show that Optimality-Theoretic learners who optimize their perception grammars automatically introduce a so-called prototype effect, i.e. the phenomenon that the learner’s preferred auditory realization of a certain phonological category is more peripheral than the average auditory realization of this category in her language environment. In production, however, this prototype effect is counteracted by an articulatory effect that limits the auditory form to something that is not too difficult to pronounce. If the prototype effect and the articulatory effect are of a different size, the learner must end up with an auditorily different sound system from that of her language environment. The computer simulations show that, independently of the initial auditory sound system, a stable equilibrium is reached within a small number of generations. In this stable state, the dispersion of the sibilants of the language strikes an optimal balance between articulatory ease and auditory contrast. The important point is that this is derived within a model without any goal-oriented elements such as dispersion constraints.
Humans possess a number concept that differs from its predecessors in animal cognition in two crucial respects: (1) it is based on a numerical sequence whose elements are not confined to quantitative contexts, but can indicate cardinal/quantitative as well as ordinal and even nominal properties of empirical objects (e.g. ‘five buses’: cardinal; ‘the fifth bus’: ordinal; ‘the #5 bus’: nominal), and (2) it can involve recursion and, via recursion, discrete infinity. In contrast to that, the predecessors of numerical cognition that we find in animals and human infants rely on finite and iconic representations that are limited to cardinality and do not support a unified concept of number. In this paper, I argue that the way such a unified number concept could evolve in humans is via verbal sequences that are employed as numerical tools, that is, sequences of words whose elements are associated with empirical objects in number assignments. In particular, I show that a certain kind of number words, namely the counting sequences of natural languages, can be characterised as a central instance of verbal numerical tools. I describe a possible scenario for the emergence of such verbal numerical tools in human history that starts from iconic roots and that suggests that in a process of co-evolution, the gradual emergence of counting sequences and the development of an increasingly comprehensive number concept supported each other. On this account, it is language that opened the way for numerical cognition, suggesting that it is no accident that the same species that possesses the language faculty as a unique trait, should also be the one that developed a systematic concept of number.
Sprache als kranker Organismus : linguistische Anmerkungen zum Spiegel-Titel "Rettet dem Deutsch!"
(2007)
U radu se analizira sintaktička funkcija participa u hrvatskome jeziku 15./16. st. jer su se otprilike u to vrijeme u sintaktičkom ustrojstvu (staro)hrvatskoga jezika događale vrlo krupne jezične promjene, koje su posljedica “departicipijalizacije” participa, tj. preobrazbe naslijeđenih participnih oblika u glagolske priloge.
U radu se iznose tzv. lažni parovi (prijatelji), leksemi u hrvatskom i rumunjskom jeziku koji zbog svoje izrazne podudarnosti navode na pogrešno prevođenje. Navode se značajke koje su dovele do takvih pojava. S obzirom na podrijetlo, najčešće je riječ o leksemima naslijeđenima iz latinskoga jezika ili kasnijim romanizmima te dakako slavenskima, kojih je u rumunjskome nezanemariv broj. Izdvojeni se leksemi razvrstavaju u tablicu koja omogućuje njihovu prozirniju usporedbu i lakše prepoznavanje.
U radu se predstavlja rukopisni rječnik Vocabolario italiano-illirico, dvojezični hrvatsko-talijanski rječnik, djelo Dubrovčanina fra Lovre Cekinića. Rukopis je nastao 40-ih godina 18. stoljeća, a danas se čuva u biblioteci Samostana Male braće u Dubrovniku. Analizira se autorova leksikografska metoda te se naznačuje leksičko bogatstvo desne, hrvatske strane.
Romance suffix rivalry of action nouns from Middle English verbs in the OED textual prototypes
(2007)
U članku se prikazuje razvoj miljevačkoga prezimenskoga sustava od prvih prezimena zabilježenih u matičnim knjigama potkraj 17. stoljeća do prezimena koja se javljaju tek potkraj 19. stoljeća. Utvrđuje se koja su prezimena u međuvremenu ugašena, tj. koja su nestala zbog izumiranja loze ili zamjene novim prezimenom, najčešće dotadašnjim obiteljskim nadimkom. Analiziraju se motivacijsko-strukturna svojstva današnjih miljevačkih prezimena i njihovo jezično podrijetlo.
U radu se raspravlja o leksikografskom postupku koji se primjenjuje u izradbi Rječnika hrvatskoga kajkavskoga književnog jezika pri uspostavljanju nadnatuknice i kanonskih likova za dvadesetak potvrđenih leksičkih varijanata za ‘rajnski forint’, novčanu jedinicu koja označuje kovani novac u uporabi u Hrvatskoj od 16. do 19. stoljeća. Nakon navođenja svih kontekstualnih potvrda, utvrđuje se vrijednost novčane jedinice i podrijetlo naziva, provodi se morfološka analiza leksema, određuju se kanonski likovi i njihove gramatičke odrednice te se lik rajniški uspostavlja kao najreprezentativniji gdje se donose etimologija i definicija. Dvadesetak leksičkih varijanata za naziv ‘rajnski forint’ posljedica su različitih jezičnih procesa u prihvaćanju, upotrebi i adaptaciji toga naziva u kajkavskom književnom jeziku.
U ovome se radu pokušava dati pregled mnogobrojnih i raznolikih odraza svetačkog imena Juraj u hrvatskome antroponimijskom sustavu s osobitim naglaskom na područje Zažablja (prostora između rječice Misline, istočno od Metkovića, i zapadnih granica nekadašnje Dubrovačke Republike, a danas općine Dubrovačko primorje, te prostora od Hrasna na sjeveru do Neuma na jugu) i Popova (jugozapadne Hercegovine). Na temelju odabrane literature i autorova terenskog istraživanja nastoje se iznijeti i neke izvanjezične (poglavito povijesne i sociolingvističke) činjenice koje su uzrok takvu stanju.
Autorica donosi osnovne informacije o knjizi Kinch oſzebuini i njegovu autoru, osvrće se na onimiju, antroponimiju i osobna imena osoba koje se u djelu spominju. Središnji dio rada posvećen je prezimenima zasvjedočenim u Kinchu oſzebuinome – prikazuju se tipovi identifikacijskih formula dio kojih su prezimena, ilustrira posredan način imenovanja pojedinca te promatra pojavnost prezimena iz Kincha oſzebuinog u Leksiku prezimena.
Pokazatelji brojivosti
(2007)
Die Problematik des sprachkommunikativen Umgangs mit dem Kulturphänomen "Phraseologie" ist im Falle zwei- bzw. mehrsprachiger Diskursgemeinschaften bisher kaum ins Blickfeld der Forschung geraten. Daher konzentriert sich der vorliegende Aufsatz auf Aspekte phraseologischer Sprachverwendung in einem komplexen Konrakt-, Konvergenz- und Integrationsraum von mehreren Sprachen und Kulturen und möchte zur Modelierung bi- bzw. multilingualen Diskursverhaltens im Hinblick auf die Phraseologie beitragen, indem er ein breites Spektrum von enmpirischen Manifestationsklassen bzw. -typen kommunikativen Synkretismus und sprachlicher Hybridität erfasst, systematisiert, beschreibt und evaluiert. Diese Forschungsfrage erlangt auch insofern eine besondere Bedeutung, als sich die Mehrschichtigkeit bilingualer Variationsdimensionen gerade anhand der Phraseologieverwendung aspektreich eruieren Iässt.
Parni prijedlozi
(2007)
Interjeições e onomatopéias recebem pouca atenção dentro dos estudos lingüísticos, e gramáticas e dicionários freqüentemente restringem-se a apresentar uma definição estereotipada e alguns poucos exemplos. Desprezadas pela literatura tradicional, essas expressões encontram seu "habitat natural" nas histórias em quadrinhos, nas quais se tornam elementos imprescindíveis da linguagem própria desse gênero textual. Este breve experimento sobre interjeições e onomatopéias presentes em mangás (histórias em quadrinhos japonesas) traduzidos para alemão e português mostra que, embora haja padrões fonéticos básicos comuns de acordo com o que representam (riso, passos etc.), as interjeições e onomatopéias da amostra diferem muito em ambas as línguas, o que ressalta sua condição de signos lingüísticos, mesmo que diferenciados em relação aos demais elementos do léxico.
Last year Georg Holzer proposed a relative chronology of accentual developments in Slavic (2005). Here I shall compare his chronology with the one I put forward earlier (1975, 1989a, 2003) and discuss the differences. For the sake of convenience, I first reproduce the relevant parts of my chronology, omitting asterisks before pre-historic Slavic forms. 1. Proto-Indo-European. 2. Dialectal Indo-European. 3. Early Balto-Slavic. During this period the characteristic lateral mobility of Balto-Slavic accent patterns came into existence. 4. Late Balto-Slavic. During this period the Balto-Slavic accent patterns obtained their final shape.
On the Indo-European nature of non-Indo-European animals metaphor : the case of Chinese zoosemy
(2007)
U radu se obrađuju načini tvorbe pridjeva, priloga, prijedloga, zamjenica i veznika na primjerima iz Tadijanovićeva djela „Svašta po malo“. Posebno se upozorava na tipove tvorba koji su neobični zbog značenja koje ima tvorenica, na tvorbu neuobičajenih tvorenica prema već postojećim modelima, na različite pristupe i tumačenja u određivanju tvorbenih načina te na odnos motiviranih i nemotiviranih riječi sa stajališta povijesne i suvremene tvorbe. Analizirani se primjeri uspoređuju s potvrdama iz „Rječnika hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika JAZU“.
U radu se analizira drugi cjeloviti objavljeni prijevod Svetoga pisma na hrvatski jezik, Škarićevo Sveto pismo Staroga i Novoga uvita (Beč, 1858. – 1861.); opisuju se njegove jezične osobine, utvrđuje se njegovo mjesto u dugoj hrvatskoj svetopisamskoj prevodilačkoj tradiciji te njegov utjecaj na proces standardizacije hrvatskoga jezika.
Evidentiality is a grammatical category which has source of information as its primary meaning — whether the narrator actually saw what is being described, or made inferences about it based on some evidence, or was told about it, and so on. Evidentials are a particularly salient feature of Tibeto-Burman languages. This volume features in-depth studies of evidentiality systems in six languages: Rgyalthang, a Kham Tibetan dialect, by Krisadawan Hongladarom; Yongning Na (Naxi group; believed to be closely related to Lolo-Burmese), by Liberty Lidz; Darma (Almora branch of Western Himalayish), by Christina Willis; nDrapa (Qiangic), by Satoko Shirai; Magar (Himalayish), by Karen Grunow-Hårsta, and Tabo (or Spiti), a Tibetan dialect, by Veronika Hein. Each opens new perspectives on the composition and the semantics of evidential systems, on the marking of more than one information source in one sentence, and on the grammaticalized expression of mirativity.
The new insights on evidentiality and related issues from the Tibeto-Burman area are crucial for understanding evidentials in a cross-linguistic perspective.
Syntactic negation and particularly the position of the negative particle 'nicht' are challenging themes not only for learners of German as a foreign language, but also for teachers and researchers of the grammar of German. This paper gives an overview of recent studies related to negation in Modern German. In its main part, it presents results of empirical research on the relationship between syntax and prosody in the field of negation.
This article analyzes two oral narratives produced in a school in Santa Maria do Herval (RS). These narratives are peculiar because of the frequent code switching, sometimes from Portuguese to standard German, sometimes from standard Portuguese to the dialectal variety spoken in that particular community. The first narrative to be analyzed is produced in the story telling time, in which the librarian tells the children a story from a picture book, switching the code between Portuguese and German. The second narrative is a story told by the class teacher during talking in circle, also based on a picture book. The code switching in this narrative involves teacher/pupils interaction directly. The use of both languages is, as mentioned by Breunig (2005), a cultural responsive pedagogy, since the language spoken at home by most children is being positively valued at school. Furthermore, teachers’ practices are close to those carried out by the children at home.
U članku se opisuje morfonologija glagolske osnove u prezentskoj paradigmi na građi hrvatsko-crkvenoslavenskih (dalje: HCS) glagola s temeljnom osnovom na -i- u kojih tom završnom -i- prethodi zubni sonant: r, l, n (tj. tipa tvori-ti, moli-ti, brani-ti). U obzir su uzeti svi glagolski leksemi tog tipa iz kartoteke Rječnika crkvenoslavenskoga jezika hrvatske redakcije: 110 li-glagola, 127 ni-glagola i 83 ri-glagola i njihovi prezentski oblici. Metoda opisa je usporedba dotičnog fragmenta HCS gramatike sa staroslavenskim stanjem kao i sa stanjem u starohrvatskim (čakavskim) govorima. U staroslavenskom jeziku u prezentskoj je paradigmi tihglagola osnova okrnjena (tj. okrnjen je sufiks -i-) i pojavljuje se u dvije varijante: palatalnoj (u 1. licu jednine), i tvrdoj (u svim ostalim oblicima). Tako u prezentu nalazimo u osnovi alternacije r ~ ŕ, l ~ ĺ i n ~ ń. U HCS tekstovima morfonološki su najinovativniji ri-glagoli. Kako je u hrvatskom depalataliziran fonem ŕ, kod ri-glagola nije sačuvan staroslavenski morfonološki model. HCS građa ne pokazuje staroslavensku alternaciju r ~ ŕ, tj. kod ri-glagola nema variranja osnove u prezentu (okrnjena osnova u svim oblicima završava nepalatalnim suglasnikom). Kod li-glagola i ni-glagola staroslavenski je morfonološki model očuvan. Međutim, u tekstovima su ipak potvrđene rijetke devijacije od tog modela. Naime, usprkos postojanju grafijskoga sredstva za označavanje palatalnosti fonema ĺ i ń ispred gramatičkog morfema 1. lica jednine -u (tj. uporaba slova ű iza l, n), neki su pisari u rijetkim slučajevima izostavljali označavanje palatalnosti, tj. pisali grafem u (molu, branu). Autorica predlaže različita moguća objašnjenja te pogreške i utvrđuje u kojoj je mjeri ta pojava ograničena na određene HCS tekstove.
Minority languages of China
(2007)
This chapter looks at language endangerment in the People's Republic of China, focusing on three of the main factors that influence language maintenance in China today: increased contact due to population movements and changes in the economy; the population policies of the government, particularly the identification of nationalities and languages; and the education system, particularly bilingual education. Finally, we give a brief account of the major efforts to document endangered languages.
The special issue of The Linguistic Review on "The Role of Linguistics in Cognitive Science" presents a variety of viewpoints that complement or contrast with the perspective offered in Foundations of Language (Jackendoff 2002a). The present article is a response to the special issue. It discusses what it would mean to integrate linguistics into cognitive science, then shows how the parallel architecture proposed in Foundations seeks to accomplish this goal by altering certain fundamental assumptions of generative grammar. It defends this approach against criticisms both from mainstream generative grammar and from a variety of broader attacks on the generative enterprise, and it reflects on the nature of Universal Grammar. It then shows how the parallel architecture applies directly to processing and defends this construal against various critiques. Finally, it contrasts views in the special issue with that of Foundations with respect to what is unique about language among cognitive capacities, and it conjectures about the course of the evolution of the language faculty.
U radu se prikazuje i analizira leksikografski status brojevnih riječi u Rječniku hrvatskoga kajkavskoga književnog jezika. Prilaže se popis brojevnih riječi obrađenih u rječniku, utvrđuje se u kojoj su mjeri u rječničkome članku zastupljeni elementi gramatičkoga opisa i navode li se oni dosljedno. Analiziraju se elementi definicije brojevnih riječi i njezina koherentnost.
U ovome radu analizira se dio korpusa hrvatskih i ruskih frazema s kulinarskim elementima kao komponentаma i onih koji u svom semantičkom talogu imaju sliku povezanu s jelom. Cilj rada je prikazati simbolički, metaforički i konotativni potencijal hrane kao frazeološke komponente putem analize načina izgradnje frazeološkog značenja, te istaknuti najočitije sličnosti i najzanimljivije razlike između ovakvog tipa frazeologije u hrvatskom i ruskom jeziku.