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This paper examines the development of periphrastic constructions involving auxiliary "have" and "be" with a past participle in the history of English, on the basis of parsed electronic corpora. It is argued that the two constructions represented distinct syntactic and semantic structures: while the one with have developed into a true perfect in the course of Middle English, the one with be remained a stative resultative throughout its history. In this way, it is explained why the be construction was rarely or never used in a number of contexts, including past counterfactuals, iteratives, duratives, certain kinds of infinitives and various other utterance types that cannot be characterized as perfects of result. When the construction with have became a true perfect, it was used in such contexts, regardless of the identity of the main verb, leading to the appearance of have with verbs like come which had previously only taken be. Crucially, however, have was not spreading at the expense of be, as the be perfect had never been used in such contexts, but rather at the expense of the old simple past. At least until the end of the Early Modern English period, the shift in the relative frequency of have and be perfects is to be explained in terms of the expansion of the former into new contexts, while the latter remained stable. A formal analysis is proposed, taking as its starting point a comparison with German which shows that the older English be perfect indeed behaves more like the German stative passive than its haben and sein perfects.
To model the pied piping in interrogative and exclamative clauses Ginzburg & Sag (2000) proposes a nonlocal head-driven treatment, thus emphasizing the resemblances with extraction. This treatment has a number of drawbacks: it relies on poorly motivated lexical rules and nonbranching phrase structure rules, it makes false predictions about pied piping in PPs, and it presupposes an implausible structure for NPs with predeterminers. To solve these problems I propose an alternative in which pied piping is treated as a local functor-driven dependency. Technically, the WH feature is integrated in the CATEGORY objects, and the propagation of its values is modeled by constraints which are independently needed for the treatment of other phenomena.
Rad je svojevrsna autoričina zahvala dugogodišnjem kolegi i voditelju projekta dr. sc. Miji Lončariću. S obzirom na to da sam se dijalektologijom bavila više od 40 godina, opažam ubrzane jezične promjene koje zahvaćaju hrvatske mjesne govore. Književni tekstovi nerijetko postaju spomenici koji čuvaju starije jezično stanje. U radu se na temelju zbirka Zlatice Balas govori o čakavštini grižanskoga kraja. Dvije zbirke te autorice vrijedan su prinos očuvanju govora. Osobito su vrijedni leksički i naglasni podatci koji se nalaze u zbirkama.
This paper provides a treatment of Polish Plural Comitative Constructions in the paradigm of HPSG in the tradition of Pollard and Sag (1994). Plural Comitative Constructions (PCCs) have previously been treated in terms of coordination, complementation and adjunction. The objective of this paper is to show that PCCs are neither instances of typical coordinate structures nor of typical complement or adjunct structures. It thus appears difficult to properly describe them by means of the standard principles of syntax and semantics. The analysis proposed in this paper accounts for the syntactic and semantic properties of PCCs in Polish by assuming an adjunction-based syntactic structure for PCCs, and by treating the indexical information provided by PCCs not as subject to any inheritance or composition, but as a result of applying a set of principles on number, gender and person resolution that also hold for ordinary coordinate structures.
Plural semantics for natural language understanding : a computational proof-theoretic approach
(2005)
The semantics of natural language plurals poses a number of intricate problems – both from a formal and a computational perspective. In this thesis I investigate problems of representing, disambiguating and reasoning with plurals from a computational perspective. The work defines a computationally suitable representation for important plural constructions, proposes a tractable resolution algorithm for semantic plural ambiguities, and integrates an automatic reasoning component for plurals. My solution combines insights from formal semantics, computational linguistics and automated theorem proving and is based on the following main ideas. Whereas many existing approaches to plural semantics work on a model-theoretic basis using higher-order representation languages I propose a proof-theoretic approach to plural semantics based on a flat firstorder semantic representation language thus showing that a trade-off between expressive power and logical tractability can be found. The problem of automatic disambiguation of plurals is tackled by a deliberate decision to drastically reduce recourse to contextual knowledge for disambiguation but rely instead on structurally available and thus computationally manageable information. A further central aspect of the solution lies in carefully drawing the borderline between real ambiguity and mere indeterminacy in the interpretation of plural noun phrases. As a practical result of my computational proof-theoretic approach to plural semantics I can use my methods to perform automated reasoning with plurals by applying advanced firstorder theorem provers and model-generators available off-the shelf. The results are prototypically implemented within the two logic-oriented natural language understanding applications DRoPs and Attempto. DRoPs provides an automatic plural disambiguation component for uncontrolled natural language whereas Attempto works with a constructive disambiguation strategy for controlled natural language. Both systems provide tools for the automated analysis of technical texts allowing users for example to automatically detect inconsistencies, to perform question answering, to check whether a conjecture follows from a text or to find equivalences and redundancies.
This article compares the noun plural systems of ten Germanic languages focusing on the number of allomorphs, their formal shape and the assignment principles used for allomorph distribution. It further aims at identifying the interrelating factors, categories, and features decisive for the very different ways in which plural allomorphy is organized in languages of the same origin. The major relevant factors are pointed out with special emphasis on the role of gender, semantic and rhythmic assignment, and the role of high token frequency. On formal grounds, the fusion vs. separation of case and number as well as the role of zero morphology vs. redundant marking, of stem alternation and the direction of influence between stem and affix are discussed.
Pluralität im Tagalog
(1998)
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit einem bisher für das Tagalog noch nicht eingehender untersuchten Phänomenbereich: den verschiedenen Mitteln zur Bildung von sprachlichen Ausdrücken mit pluralischer Bedeutung. Im Tagalog kann nicht ohne weiteres von einer grammatischen Kategorie "Numerus" ausgegangen werden. Diese Kategorie basiert auf der Untersuchung von (indoeuropäischen) Sprachen mit ausgeprägter Nomen/Verb-Distinktion. Sie wird als eine nominelle Kategorie angesehen (vgl. Bußmann 1990), die sich gegebenenfalls im Verbalkomplex widerspiegelt. Eine solche Beziehung besteht vor allem zwischen Subjekt und Prädikat, tritt obligatorisch auf und wird als Kongruenz bezeichnet. Für das Tagalog ergeben sich in dieser Hinsicht mehrere Probleme: Zum einen besteht das Problem der Identifizierbarkeit von Wortklassen bzw. lexikalischen/syntaktischen Kategorien, damit zusammenhängend das Problem der Zuweisung bestimmter Mittel der "numeralen" Markierung zu einer lexikalischen/syntaktischen (Sub)-Kategorie. Zum anderen hat man - ausgehend von der Hypothese der optionalen Markierung von "Numerus" im Tagalog - das Problem der Erfassung von Restriktionen / Regularitäten der Pluralmarkierung je nach lexikalischer / 'syntaktischer. Subklasse, sowohl auf Satz- als auch auf Diskursebene.
This paper addresses the syntax and semantics plurals, and then applies it to reciprocal expressions. In the course of this investigation, I address two problems for the conventional view that a reciprocal makes essentially the same semantic contribution to the sentence as other noun phrases, but has an interesting internal structure. I will show that both problems are properties of plurality in general, and can be successfully explained along these lines. As a result, the paper is more about plurality in general than reciprocals though the goal of the paper is to account for the two problems relating to reciprocals.
Podravski kajkavski dijalekt
(2011)
Pokazatelji brojivosti
(2007)
Hrvatski jezikoslovac, leksikograf i prevoditelj Adolf Bratoljub Klaić (Bizovac, 1909. – Zagreb, 1983.) svoj je prvi rad, pjesmu „Na grobu srpanjskih žrtava”, god. 1926. objavio kao gimnazijalac u srednjoškolskom časopisu „Omladina”. Otada se razvijala njegova djelatnost u kojoj su postupno prevladavale filološke (dijalektološke, akcentološke, pravopisne, tekstološke) teme, a u četrdesetim godinama počinje i njegova leksikografska djelatnost. Članak je pokušaj periodizacije ukupne Klaićeve djelatnosti od god. 1926. do smrti.
Polabian accentuation
(2007)
From a synchronic point of view, the accentuation of Late Polabian has been clarified by Trubetzkoy (1929) and Olesch (1973, 1974). The stress fell on the last full vowel of a word form, which was found either in the final or in the penulti-mate syllable. In the latter instance, the final syllable contained a reduced vowel. This rule was challenged by Kurylowicz (1955), who maintained that the stress was fixed on the initial syllable of the word. The latter theory has the advantage of accounting for the absence of reduced vowels in initial syllables.
This paper describes in detail the development of the Polish version of the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (LITMUS-MAIN). We first describe its two earlier versions, the unpublished version and the published version, developed in 2012, as well as the revised version. We also justify the differences between the unpublished Polish version developed in 2012 and the original MAIN. Then we summarize the results from studies that used the unpublished version of the Polish MAIN. We end with outlining a study that could be conducted to compare the two slightly different procedures in order to examine whether the results obtained with MAIN are resistant to changes in the procedure details.
U hrvatskom crkvenoslavenskom jeziku postpozicija pridjeva smatra se manje obilježenom od antepozicije, a rezultat je utjecaja grčkoga i latinskoga jezika, s kojih su se tekstovi prevodili. Stoga je cilj ovoga istraživanja, koje je provedeno na građi Rječnika crkvenoslavenskoga jezika hrvatske redakcije, bio utvrditi čimbenike koji utječu na odabir antepozicije pridjeva. Razmotreni su ovi čimbenici: pridjevni vid i s njim povezani kratki i dugi pridjevski oblici, tvorbeno značenje pridjeva, ustaljeni izrazi (imena, nazivi), višečlane skupine, razbijanje imenske skupine, koordiniranje atributa, odnos imenske skupine prema ostatku rečeničnoga ustrojstva, usporedne sintaktičke strukture, stilističko variranje reda riječi u skupini.
Tema je našega rada položaj zamjeničkoga pridjeva sam uz naglašeni oblik povratne zamjenice (sebe) unutar konstrukcija s pravim povratnim glagolima. U tim konstrukcijama zamjenički pridjev sam može biti u akuzativu ili u nominativu (hvalim sam sebe / hvalim samog sebe). Poznato je svojstvo zamjeničkoga pridjeva sam da u pojačajnome značenju najčešće slijedi iza lične zamjenice, ali prethodi imenicama (On sam to radi. / Sama Marija to radi.). Cilj je ovoga istraživanja utvrditi koji mu je neobilježeni položaj uz povratnu zamjenicu te ponaša li se drukčije s obzirom na red riječ kad je u nominativnome ili u akuzativnome obliku.
U radu se prikazuju rezultati terenskoga istraživanja o pomicanju naglasaka u imenskih riječi na prednaglasnicu, odnosno o praslavenskom prijenosu siline unutar naglasne cjeline u čakavskome govoru Crikvenice. Pomicanje se naglasaka na prednaglasnicu provodi dosljedno u svima razmatranim kategorijama (osim u brojeva) u kojima su zadovoljeni ovi uvjeti: prvotni silazni naglasak na prvome (ili jedinome) slogu osnove one riječi koja čini naglasnu cjelinu s prijedlogom ispred sebe. U akuzativu su imenica muškoga i ženskoga roda zabilježene alternacije. Pomicanje naglasaka na prednaglasnicu u nekim primjerima srednjega roda u L jd. zahvaća i drugotne silazne naglaske koji su se na prvome slogu osnove našli naknadno, zbog naglasnoga ujednačavanja paradigme ili naglasnoga tipa.
Dragutin Antun Parčić svojim nam je leksikografskim opusom u trajno nasljeđe ostavio niz dvojezičnih rječnika, talijansko-hrvatskih i hrvatsko-talijanskih, od kojih je Rječnik hrvatsko-talijanski, tiskan 1901. godine, svakako kruna njegova leksikografskoga rada. Iako bogat izvor nazivlja, rječnik je do danas nedovoljno istražen. Cilj je ovoga rada usporediti pomorsko nazivlje koje Parčić donosi u svome rječniku s pomorskim nazivljem koje pola stoljeća kasnije Adolf Bratoljub Klaić zapisuje u Rječniku stranih riječi. Analiza suvremenoga pomorskog nazivoslovlja pokazuje da su noštromizmi, tj. hrvatskome jeziku prilagođeni pomorski nazivi mediteranskoga, uglavnom talijanskoga porijekla, u uzusnoj uporabi, dok je u normativnoj literaturi prednost dana hrvatskome nazivlju. Uzusno je strukovno nazivlje zabilježeno u suvremenim hrvatskim pomorskim rječnicima i rječnicima stranih riječi, a osim noštromizama zapisanih u rječnicima iz 19. stoljeća uvodi se novo nazivlje pod utjecajem engleskoga kao međunarodnoga jezika prometa i pomorstva. U radu se osim u Klaićevu i Parčićevu rječniku propituju zapisi pomorskih leksikografa iz 19. stoljeća.
This article provides a comprehensive overview of the contribution of linguistic research on Portuguese as a heritage language in Germany to the general understanding of heritage language development. From 1955 to 1973, nearly 166,000 Portuguese migrants found work in Germany as so-called ‘guest workers’ (Gastarbeiter). Because the aim of many Portuguese migrant families was to return to Portugal, their children met relatively good conditions for the acquisition of their heritage language. Nonetheless, second-generation heritage speakers (HSs) show some linguistic particularities in comparison to monolingual Portuguese speakers in Portugal. Based on the results of previous research, we show that the following factors shape the linguistic knowledge of this group of bilinguals: (1) Restricted exposure to the heritage language may cause a delay in the development of certain linguistic structures, (2) deviations from the standard norm may be related to the lack of formal education and the primacy of the colloquial register and (3) heritage bilinguals may accelerate ongoing diachronic development. We argue that apparent effects of influence from the environmental language can often have alternative explanations.
Part-of-Speech tagging is generally performed by Markov models, based on bigram or trigram models. While Markov models have a strong concentration on the left context of a word, many languages require the inclusion of right context for correct disambiguation. We show for German that the best results are reached by a combination of left and right context. If only left context is available, then changing the direction of analysis and going from right to left improves the results. In a version of MBT (Daelemans et al., 1996) with default parameter settings, the inclusion of the right context improved POS tagging accuracy from 94.00% to 96.08%, thus corroborating our hypothesis. The version with optimized parameters reaches 96.73%.
In this study I want to show, above all, that the linguistic expression of POSSESSION is not a given but represents a problem to be solved by the human mind. We must recognize from the outset that linguistic POSSESSION presupposes conceptual or notional POSSESSION, and I shall say more about the latter in Chapter 3. Certain varieties of linguistic structures in the particular languages are united by the fact that they serve the common purpose of expressing notional POS SESSION. But this cannot be their sole common denominator. How would we otherwise be able to recognize, to understand, to learn and to translate a particular linguistic structure as representing POSSESSION? There must be a properly linguistic common denominator, an invariant, that makes this possible. The invariant must be present both within a particular language and in cross-language comparison. What is the nature of such an invariant? As I intend to show, it consists in operational programs and functional principles corresponding to the purpose of expressing notional POSSESSION. The structures of possessivity which we find in the languages of the world represent the traces of these operations, and from the traces it becomes possible to reconstruct stepwise the operations and functions.
This paper deals with restitutive and repetitive 'wieder'. Proceeding from the assumption that adverbial adjuncts have base positions which reflect their semantic relations to the rest of the sentence, it is shown that repetitive 'wieder' belongs to the class of event adverbs minimally c-commanding the base positions of all arguments whereas restitutive 'wieder' has many properties in common with process adjuncts, minimally c-commanding the final verb.
This paper deals with restitutive and repetitive wieder. Proceeding from the assumption that adverbial adjuncts have base positions which reflect their semantic relations to the rest of the sentence, it is shown that repetitive wieder belongs to the class of event adverbs minimally c-commanding the base positions of all arguments whereas restitutive wieder has many properties in common with process adjuncts, minimally c-commanding the final verb.
Posljedice globalizacijskih procesa vidljive su i u jeziku kao tendencija k internacionalizaciji. Internacionalizacija, ili možda preciznije angloamerikanizacija, zahvatila je sve jezike modernoga svijeta. Hrvatski jezik nije iznimka. U ovom ćemo radu spomenuti samo neke od posljedica internacionalizacije, i to na leksičkoj, tvorbenoj i semantičkoj razini.
Possession im Dakota
(1985)
Zweck dieser Arbeit ist die Darstellung der sprachlichen Mittel, derer sich das Dakota zum Ausdruck von Possessiv-Relationen bedient. Dem Hauptteil geht eine in die Thematik einführende Charakterisierung der untersuchten Sprache sowie eine Betrachtung des sprachtheoretischen Hintergrundes voraus. Eine systematisierende Zusammenfassung der relevanten Daten bildet den Abschluß der Arbeit. Mangels Belegstellen konnten allerdings nicht alle Fragen, die sich aus der Auseinandersetzung mit der Materie ergaben, restlos geklärt werden. Die Beispiele stammen großenteils aus Mythen; sofern sie nicht mit Quellenangaben versehen sind, sind sie von der Verfasserin konstruiert.
Possessive constructions are grammatical constructions which contain two nominals and express that the referent of one of these nominals belongs to the other. The kind of relationship denoted by possessive constructions is not only that of ownership (1), as the term "possessive" might suggest, but also that of kinship (2), bodypart relationship (3), part/whole relationship (4) and similar relationships [...]. The following investigation will start with possessive constructions on phrase level, i.e. possessive phrases, and then deal with possessive constructions on clause level.
The basic question is whether POSSESSOR and POSSESSUM are on the same level as the roles of VALENCE, two additional roles as it were. My research on POSSESSION has shown (Seiler 1981:7 ff.) that this is not the case, that there is a difference in principle between POSSESSION and VALENCE. However, there are multiple interactions between the two domains, and these interactions shall constitute the object of the following inquiry. It is hoped that this will contribute to a better understanding both of POSSESSION and of VALENCE.
Eine allgeneine und theoretische Antwort auf die Frage, ob der Begriff "Possesivität" zur grammatischen Beschreibung einer natürlichen Sprache gehören solle oder nicht, wird je nach Standpunkt verschieden ausfallen. Man kann auch anders vorgehen, indem man in einem vortheoretischen Verständnis einen Begriff "Possesssivität" zunächst annimmt und zusieht, wie die Repräsentationen eines solchen Begriffs in je einer einzelnen Sprache sich gestalten. Die Möglichkeit, dass sich daraus, fast von alleine, eine Bestätigung und Präzisierung für diesen Begriff, ja sogar der eine oder andere Anhaltspunkt für dessen Universalität ergibt, dürfte man nicht ausschliessen. Der .Aufsatz von Hansjakob Seiler scheint schon in Zusammenhangmit diesem Problem nicht nur das Wesentlichste klargemacht zu haben; er stellt auch die Frage nach einem gemeinsamen Prinzip, dem die einzelnen Sprachen gehorchen, wenn sie die Possessivitätsrelation ausdrücken.
Dieser Beitrag ist ein Vorschlag, auf der grammatisch-semantischen Ebene dieses Prinzip in einer konktreten Sprache, dem Polnischen, aufgrund der die Possessivität ausdrückenden Mittel und ihrer Bereiche zu illustrieren. Daher wird hier semantisch davon ausgegangen, dass die Possessivität eine Relation ausdrückt, die den Verhältnis des Teils zum Ganzen entspricht. Ob man nun diese Relation als direkte Zugehörigkeit zur Menge oder als eine Art indirekter Zugehörigkeit, nämlich zum Besitzer der Menge auffasst, wäre eine Frage über die aufgrund der Struktur der betreffenden Sprache entschieden werden sollte, – vorausgesetzt immer, dass die Possessivität ein sprachlich ausgeprägtes und sprachwissenschaftlich beschreibbares Phänomen ist.
I. Zum Problem der Possessivität im Cahuilla (Uto-Aztekisch, Süd-Kalifornien) -
Von "possessiv", ''Possessivität'' wird in den Grammatiken verschiedener Sprachen in mindestens zwei verschiedenen Zusammenhängen gesprochen: 1.) Im Zusammenhang mit den "Possessivpronomina" und mit "Genitiv", z. B. dt. 'Karls Vater', 'sein Tod', 'seine Verurteilung', 2.) Im Zusammenhang mit 'haben', 'gehören', 'besitzen'. Daß die beiden Zusammenhänge nicht koextensiv sind, zeigt sich etwa bei 'sein Tod', wo neben es kein *'er hat einen Tod' gibt. Ebenso ist neben 'Karls Vater' ein Satz wie *'Karl gehört der (oder: ein) Vater' abweichend, zumindest wenn es sich um den leiblichen Vater Karls handeln soll. Das zeigt sich auch, daß die von der TG lange geübte Praxis, die Genitiv-Syntagmen auf 'haben'-Syntagmen zurückzuführen, nicht den Tatsachen entspricht. In anderen indogermanischen Sprachen finden wir ähnliches wie im Deutschen. Wir wissen zwar, was "Possessivpronomina" qua morphologische Klasse sind; aber syntaktisch und erst recht semantisch ist das Phänomen ''Possessiv'' weitgehend ungeklärt.
[...]
Ich glaube nun in einer Sprache den Bereich der Probleme einigermaßen zu überschauen, die man traditionellerweise und ohne recht zu wissen wie, mit dem Terminus "possessiv" in Verbindung bringt. Die Sprache heißt CAHUILLA, wird im südlichen Kalifornien von wenigen Sprechern noch gesprochen und gehört zur Uto-Aztekischen Sprachfamilie.
II. Possessivität und Universalien -
In meinem ersten Vortrag bin ich davon ausgegangen, daß für eine gegebene Sprache bei guter Kenntnis derselben eine zunächst intuitive Erfassung eines Bereichs der Grammatik möglich ist, den man sodann durch eine Theorie und nachprüfbare Methoden schrittweise auf die Ebene des wissenschaftlichen Bewusstseins zu heben versucht. Es handelt sich um jenen Bereich, dessen Grundprinzipien semantischer Natur sind, an dem aber auch die Syntax einen wesentlichen Anteil hat. Wie man den Bereich nachher nennt, ist weniger wichtig; ich sehe kein Hindernis, den traditionellen Terminus "possessiv", "Possessivität" dafür zu verwenden. Auch heute, in dem zweiten Vortrag, in dem es zunächst vor allem ums Deutsche, dann aber um die Frage nach den sogenannten Universalien geht, will ich wieder davon ausgehen, daß es möglich ist, einen semanto-syntaktischen Bereich "Possessivität" intuitiv abzustecken. Ich will dafür zunächst einen prominenten Zeugen aufrufen, der das fürs Griechische getan hat: Aristoteles.
The present study poses the question on what phonetic and phonological grounds postalveolar fricatives in Polish can be analyzed as retroflex and whether postalveolar fricatives in other Slavic languages are retroflex as well. Velarization and incompatibility with front vowels are introduced as articulatory criteria for retroflexion, based on crosslinguistic data. According to these criteria, Polish and Russian have retroflex fricatives, whereas Bulgarian and Czech do not. In a phonological representation of these Slavic retroflexes, the necessity of perceptual features is shown. Lastly, it is illustrated that palatalization of retroflex fricatives both in Slavic languages and more generally causes a phonetic and phonological change to a non-retroflex sound.
The present study investigates the representation of non-standardised varieties of English in literary prose texts. This is achieved by creating and annotating a corpus of literary texts from Scotland, West Africa, and Southeast Asia. The analysis addresses two major topics. Firstly, the extent of representation reveals clearly distinct feature profiles across regions, coupled with varying feature densities. Feature profiles are also relevant to individual characters, as certain traits such as social status, ethnicity, or age can be signalled by linguistic means. The second topic, accuracy of representation, compares the features observed in literary texts with descriptions of the actual varieties, and suggests that representations of varieties may differ from their real-life models in the sense that highly frequent features may be absent from texts, while less frequent but more emblematic ones, or even invented ones, may be used by authors to render a variety of English in their texts.
U radu se raspravlja o leksikografskome statusu dvorječnih pozdrava dobro jutro, dobar dan, dobra večer i laku noć u hrvatskim rječnicima te se upućuje i na strane leksikografske pristupe. Naglasak je na značenjskim i komunikacijskim obilježjima pozdrava koja ih određuju kao posebnu leksičku skupinu te se predlaže da dvorječni pozdravi kao i jednorječni (zdravo, zbogom, doviđenja) postanu samostalne rječničke natuknice.
U ovome se radu bavimo formom i funkcijom poštapalica u razgovornom bosanskom jeziku s obzirom na njihovu pozicijsku valentnost u konstrukcijskim komunikacijskim jedinicama (TCU). Poštapalice zauzimaju periferno mjesto u formalno-gramatičkim modelima i najčešće se analiziraju sa stilskog ili sociolingvističkog aspekta, pri čemu se njihova uporaba ne preporučuje, jer se smatraju obilježjem lošeg govornog stila i nepotrebnim dodatcima u govoru. Ovdje ih promatramo s aspekta njihove uporabe pri organizaciji i konstrukciji komunikacijskih cjelina i tvrdimo da su poštapalice neophodni konverzacijski elementi čija funkcija proizlazi iz elementarnih mehanizama konverzacijske razmjene definiranih u Sacks et al. (1974) – potrebe da se pri konverzaciji umanje praznine i simultani govor. Analiza obuhvaća oko 550 poštapalica izdvojenih iz korpusa (Kurtić et al. 2012) koji se sastoji od audio-vizualnog zapisa razgovora četiriju govornika bosanskog jezika (oko četiri sata snimljenog materijala). Služeći se metodološkim okvirom konverzacijske analize, opisat ćemo različite funkcije poštapalica, čime ćemo nastojati revidirati tvrdnje da su poštapalice smetnja u konverzaciji.
In this paper we compare the distribution of PPs introducing external arguments in nominalizations with PPs introducing external arguments in the verbal domain. We show that several mismatches exist between the behavior of PPs in nominalizations and PPs in the verbal domain. This leads us to suggest that while PPs in the verbal domain are licensed by functional structure alone, within the nominal domain, PPs can also be licensed via an interplay of the encyclopaedic meaning of the root involved and the properties of the preposition itself. This second mechanism kicks in in the absence of functional structure.
Even if we can generate a logical form, principles of use may limit the ways in which we can use it. In this paper, I motivate one such principle of use, and explore its effects. Much of the discussion involves kinds of sentences that have received attention in the literature on "individual-level predicates".
In LaPolla 1990, I presented arguments to show that Chinese is a language in which there has been no grammaticalizalion of the syntactic relations "subject" and "object". This being the case, then syntactic relations cannot be what determines word order in Chinese. In this paper I will argue that, aside from a semantic rule that the actor of a verb, if expressed, must precede that verb, it is pragmatic relations (information structure) that are the main determinants of word order in Chinese.
U radu se analiziraju pravi tvorbeni mocijski parnjaci u kajkavskome književnom jeziku. Utvrđuju se sufiksi produktivni u mocijskoj tvorbi u književnoj kajkavštini, njihova učestalost i korelativni parnjaci u kojima se javljaju. Rezultati se uspoređuju s osobitostima mocijske tvorbe u hrvatskome standardnom jeziku.
Die Entwicklung eines individuellen Standards „vom grünen Tisch“ führt selten zu zufriedenstellenden Ergebnissen. Bei der automatischen Prüfung stellt man schnell fest, dass die „ausgedachten“ Regeln einer systematischen Anwendung nicht standhalten. Bei der Implementierung solcher Richtlinien stellt man fest, dass sie oft zu wenig konkret formuliert sind, wie z.B. „formulieren Sie Handlungsanweisungen knapp und präzise“. Wie jedoch kann ein Standard entwickelt werden, der zu einem Unternehmen, seiner Branche und Zielgruppen passt und für die automatische Prüfung implementiert werden kann? Sprachtechnologie hilft effizient bei der Entwicklung individueller Richtlinien. Durch Datenanalyse, Satzcluster und Parametrisierung entsteht ein textspezifischer individueller Standard. Ist damit aber der Gegensatz von Kreativität und Standardisierung aufgehoben?
The present paper aims at describing different pre-verbal focus strategies in Kisikongo (H16a), spoken in the vicinity of Mbanza Kongo, northern Angola. This western Bantu language is part of the Kikongo Language Cluster (KLC), stretching from southern Gabon to northern Angola, including Cabinda and parts of Congo-Brazzaville and Congo-Kinshasa. Kikongo exhibits a clause-internal pre-verbal argument focus position, which has rarely been reported in Bantu languages, except in Mbuun (B87) (Bostoen and Mundeke 2012) and Nsong (B85d) (Koni Muluwa and Bostoen, this volume), both spoken in the neighboring Kwilu region of the DRC. The more extensively studied eastern and southern Bantu languages generally have a post-verbal argument focus position (cf. Watters 1979, Morimoto 2000, Creissels 2004, Güldemann 2007, Buell 2009, van der Wal 2009, among others). In addition to this mono-clausal argument focus strategy, Kisikongo also relies on different bi-clausal constructions to focus arguments, i.e. cleft-constructions.
Predication and equation
(2001)
English is one language where equative sentences and non-equative sentences have a similar surface syntax (but see Heggie 1988 and Moro 1997 for a discussion of more subtle differences). In this paper we address the fact that many other languages appear to use radically different morphological means which seem to map to intuitive differences in the type of predication expressed. We take one such language, Scottish Gaelic, and show that the real difference is not between equative and non-equative sentences, but is rather dependent on whether the predicational head in the structure proposed above is eventive or not.
We show that the aparently odd syntax of “equatives” in this language derives from the fact that they are constructed via a non-eventive Pred head. Since Pred heads cannot combine with non-predicative categories, such as saturated DPs, “equatives” are built up indirectly from a simple predicational structure with a semantically bleached predicate. This approach not only allows us to maintain a strict one-to-one syntax/semantics mapping for predicational syntax, but also for the syntax of DPs. The argument we develop here, then, suggests that the interface between the syntactic and semantic components is maximally economical— one could say perfect.
Predication at the interface
(2001)
We try to show that predication plays a greater role in syntax than commonly assumed. Specifically, we wil argue that predication to a large extent determines both the phrase structure of clauses and trigger syntactic processes that take place in clauses. If we are on the right path, this implies that syntax is basically semantically driven, given that predication is semantically construed.
Preface: New language versions of MAIN: Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives - revised
(2020)
Preferences and defaults for definiteness and number in japanese to german machine translation
(1996)
A significant problem when translating Japanese dialogues into German is the missing information on number and definiteness in the Japanese analysis output. The integration of the search for such information into the transfer process provides an efficient solution. General transfer includes conditions to make it possible to consider external knowledge. Thereby, grammatical and lexical knowledge of the source language, knowledge of lexical restrictions on the target language, domain knowledge and discourse knowledge are accessible.
U radu se raspravlja o prefiksu ne- u kajkavskome književnom jeziku. Proučavaju se rječotvorbeni procesi u kojima sudjeluje, tvorbeni načini u kojima se javlja te se ispituje njegova frekventnost u tvorbi pojedinih vrsta riječi. Istražuju se i rječotvorbene i semantičke veze tvorenica s predmetkom ne- i riječi koje su ih motivirale.
Prenominals in Dutch
(2003)
For modeling the internal structure of noun phrases (Pollard and Sag, 1994, 385) treats the noun as the head and classi£es its dependents in terms of a three-fold distinction, £rst proposed in Chomsky (1970), between complements, adjuncts and speci£ers. For a phrase like the expensive picture of Sandy the structure looks as follows.
Du fait de la traite négrière qui a vu des millions d’Africains être déportés aux Amériques, les langues européennes (anglais, espagnol, français, néerlandais, portugais) des colons qui y étaient déjà installés et qui avaient un fort besoin en main-d’oeuvre africaine, ont eu à intégrer à des degrés divers de nombreux mots africains. Les chercheurs qui travaillent sur ces africanismes sont d’accord pour dire que ces mots ont deux grandes origines africaines : bantoue et non-bantoue.
The effects of different forms of predication have been insightfully (and almost exclusively) studied for 'simple' cases of predication, of which the 'presentational sentence' is maybe the paradigm instantiation. It is the aim of this paper to show that thc same kind of effects as well as in fact the same kind of structures are present at embedded levels in thematically and otherwise more complex structures. Beyond presentational sentences, 'unaccusative' experiencing constructions involving a dative subject, 'double object constructions' and - to a lesser extent - spraylload constructions are discussed. For all of these, it is argued that they comprise a predication encoding the ascription of a transient temporal property to a location. On this basis, a proposal is made as to how the scope asymmetry between the two arguments involved in the colistructions can be explained. Furthermore, a proposal is made as to how what has been called 'argument shift' is motivated.
Prestamos y cultismos
(1957)
Presupposition
(2007)
Schlenker (2012) proposes that when framed within a modern Stalnakerian view of presupposition and common ground (Stalnaker, 1998, 2002), Maximize Presupposition! (Heim, 1991; Sauerland, 2008) can be viewed as a special case of the maxim of Quantity (Grice, 1975).
We provide data suggesting that in some cases, Maximize Presupposition! applies even when speakers are not expected to use a presupposition as vectors of new information. We argue that these data support the view that Maximize Presupposition! is an independent pragmatic principle, distinct from Quantity.
In at least three environments—de se binding, distributive binding, and focus quantification—some presuppositions exhibit unexpectedly weak projection behavior. This holds for the presuppositions of bound pronouns, but also several other cases of presupposition. In this paper, I first describe a general approach to capture the interaction of presuppositions with quantificational operators within a multi-tiered evaluation procedure. Secondly I discuss data from Condition A, in particular non-bound occurrences of reflexives, that motivate a presuppositional account of Condition A and confirm the general approach.
This paper presents two experimental studies investigating the processing of presupposed content. Both studies employ the German additive particle auch (too). In the first study, participants were given a questionnaire containing bi-clausal, ambiguous sentences with 'auch' in the second clause. The presupposition introduced by auch was only satisfied on one of the two readings of the sentence, and this reading corresponded to a syntactically dispreferred parse of the sentence. The prospect of having the auch-presupposition satisfied made participants choose this syntactically dispreferred reading more frequently than in a control condition. The second study used the self-paced-reading paradigm and compared the reading times on clauses containing auch, which differed in whether the presupposition of auch was satisfied or not. Participants read the clause more slowly when the presupposition was not satisfied. It is argued that the two studies show that presuppositions play an important role in online sentence comprehension and affect the choice of syntactic analysis. Some theoretical implications of these findings for semantic theory and dynamic accounts of presuppositions as well as for theories of semantic processing are discussed.
In der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts hat sich die Inselgruppe der Malediven im Indischen Ozean in rasantem Tempo von einem geografisch isolierten und deshalb nahezu unbekannten Flecken am Rande der Welt zum Geheimtipp für Tiefseetaucher und weiter zum modernen, internationalen Touristikzentrum entwickelt. Von den zirka 1250 Inseln, die dem Inselstaat angehören, sind heute fast 100 als "tourist resorts" ausgebaut , die über einen internationalen Flughafen und mit Wasserflugzeugen bequem erreichbar sind. Nur die wenigsten Besucher werden dabei bemerken, dass die Bewohner des zwischen Afrika und Asien gelegenen Archipels zu einer alten Kulturnation gehören. Tatsächlich können die Malediver auf eine schriftliche Tradition zurückblicken, die der des Deutschen in ihrer zeitlichen Erstreckung nicht nachsteht; sie ist zudem durch den durchgreifenden Wechsel der Staatsreligion vom Buddhismus zum Islam und einen mehrfachen Wandel der Schrift geprägt.
This paper aims to work toward a proper understanding of the role of preverbal ge- in Old English (henceforth OE) and its disappearance in the course of Middle English. This prefix is reminiscent of its cognates in Modern German and Dutch (also written ge-) in its distribution, but even a cursory examination of the details reveals it to be quite distinct, as we will see. The proper characterization of that distribution, and of its diachronic development, has proven to be extremely difficult. I have thus carried out a large-scale corpus study using the York-Toronto-Helsinki parsed corpus of Old English prose (Taylor et al. 2003) and the Penn-Helsinki parsed corpus of Middle English, 2nd ed. (Kroch & Taylor 1999). This paper will report the results of the first phase of the project, involving patterns in the data that could be identified primarily on the basis of automatic searches in the corpora.
Autorica donosi osnovne informacije o knjizi Kinch oſzebuini i njegovu autoru, osvrće se na onimiju, antroponimiju i osobna imena osoba koje se u djelu spominju. Središnji dio rada posvećen je prezimenima zasvjedočenim u Kinchu oſzebuinome – prikazuju se tipovi identifikacijskih formula dio kojih su prezimena, ilustrira posredan način imenovanja pojedinca te promatra pojavnost prezimena iz Kincha oſzebuinog u Leksiku prezimena.
U radu se razmatraju teorijska i metodološka polazišta u opisu prijedloga s obzirom na organske i anorganske sustave – dijalekte i standardni jezik, i dalje u odnosu na konkretne ekavskočakavske govore, južnočakavske govore i hrvatski standardni jezik. Osnovna razlika u usporedbi prijedloga u dvama dijalektima i prijedloga u hrvatskome standardnom jeziku uspostavlja se prema kriteriju fonološke, distribucijske i značenjske razlikovnosti, i dodatno prema kriteriju odstupanja od norme standardnoga jezika u odnosu na dijalekte na primjeru pojedinih prijedloga.
U prilogu se s kontrastivnog aspekta analiziraju frazemi hrvatskoga i češkoga jezika kojima je sastavnica zoonim. Životinja je još od pradavnih vremena najbliži čovjekov suputnik. U svim se narodima životinjama pripisuju simbolična značenja i ljudske osobine i to najčešće one negativne što ćemo i pokušati dokazati ovim prilogom. Naime, ljudi su kroz povijest pripisivali životinjama određene stereotipe. Tako se pozitivno određuju domaće životinje i to one od kojih čovjek ima više koristi, za razliku od divljih prema kojima je puno kritičniji i skloniji negativnome određenju. S obzirom na to da zoonimska frazeologija obuhvaća širok dijapazon različitih značenja u ovome ćemo se prilogu baviti onim frazemima koji svojim značenjem ulaze u koncept ljudskih osobina, stanja, izgleda, načina kretanja te odnosa prema jelu i piću. Pri tome se objašnjava i simbolika pojedine životinje jer se time razumije i pozadinska slika pojedina frazema. Također u prilogu se provodi i kontrastivna analiza izdvojenih hrvatskih i čeških frazema s obzirom na navedene koncepte te se utvrđuju podudarnosti i razlike.
Ključne riječi: frazem; zoonim; frazemska pozadinska slika; kontrastivna analiza; hrvatski jezik; češki jezik
U radu se donose rezultati deskriptivnog terminološkog opisa istraživanja provedenog na jednojezičnom korpusu predmetnog područja znanosti o kršu. Semaziološki orijentiranim pristupom provodi se distribucijska analiza terminoloških jedinica i njihovih supojavnica u diskursu. Oslanjajući se na leksičko-gramatički model, kreiraju se pojmovne klase na temelju dvojnosti sintagmatskih i paradigmatskih relacija. U opisu sintagmatskih jedinica posebna se pozornost posvećuje ulozi pridjevskih riječi kao kvalifikatora, ali i nositelja specijaliziranog značenja. Aktivna uloga pridjeva prikazuje se metodom parafraziranja značenja s obzirom na klase pojmova koje pridjev determinira. Analiza pridjeva u terminološkim sintagmama upućuje na višedimenzionalno dinamično strukturiranje pojmovnih struktura specijaliziranog područja znanja.
U ovome se radu nastoji dati pregled mnogobrojnih i raznolikih odraza svetačkog imena Ivan u hrvatskome antroponimijskom fondu s osobitim naglaskom na područje južne Dalmacije (uključujući Boku kotorsku) i Donje Hercegovine. U uvodnome se dijelu rada donose odrazi hebrejskoga muškog osobnog imena Jehochánán u raznim indoeuropskim i neindoeuropskim jezicima, potom se tumači postanje hrvatskoga svetačkog imena Ivan i njegovi odrazi u hrvatskome antroponimijskom fondu s posebnim naglaskom na sličnosti i razlike s antroponimijskim fondovima bliskih južnoslavenskih jezika.
U ovome se radu pokušava dati pregled mnogobrojnih i raznolikih odraza svetačkog imena Juraj u hrvatskome antroponimijskom sustavu s osobitim naglaskom na područje Zažablja (prostora između rječice Misline, istočno od Metkovića, i zapadnih granica nekadašnje Dubrovačke Republike, a danas općine Dubrovačko primorje, te prostora od Hrasna na sjeveru do Neuma na jugu) i Popova (jugozapadne Hercegovine). Na temelju odabrane literature i autorova terenskog istraživanja nastoje se iznijeti i neke izvanjezične (poglavito povijesne i sociolingvističke) činjenice koje su uzrok takvu stanju.
Primjeri preobrazbe u "Ričoslovniku iliričkoga, italijanskoga i nimačkoga jezika" Josipa Voltića
(2011)
U članku se obrađuju tvorenice iz Voltićeva rječnika nastale preobrazbom. Primjeri se određuju prema prvoj potvrdi, i to u odnosu na potvrde u "Rječniku hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika" JAZU. Analizi prethodi teorijsko polazište koje uzima u obzir recentne radove iz područja preobrazbe i tvorbe riječi općenito.
Ever since Wilhelm von Humboldt’s (1836) pioneering study of Nahuatl, linguists have recurrently recognized that languages differ fundamentally in the syntactic weight they attribute to noun-phrases as the arguments of a verb. Currently, the most prominent attempts to turn this intuition into a precise hypothesis revolve around the notion of ‘configurationality’.
Prinzipien der Proprialitätsmarkierung : Familiennamenindikatoren in den nordeuropäischen Sprachen
(2004)
In dem grundlegenden Beitrag "Svenska släktnamn i gar, i dag - i morgon?" liefert Thorsten Andersson einen kompakten Überblick über ein bewegtes Jahrhundert schwedischer Familiennamengeschichte. Dabei handelt es sich zur Überraschung deutscher Leser/innen um das 20. Jahrhundert. In Deutschland wüsste man mit dem Titel ,,Deutsche Familiennamen gestern, heute -morgen?" nicht viel anzufangen, zumindest nicht mit der Frage nach dem Heute und dem Morgen: Die deutschen Familiennamen sind seit Jahrhunderten fixiert; von seltenen und wohlbegründeten Ausnahmen abgesehen kann niemand seinen Familiennamen wechseln geschweige denn frei kreieren. Und die Frage nach dem Morgen hat sich vermutlich noch nie jemand gestellt.
The aim of any Automatic Translation project is to give a mechanical procedure for finding an equivalent expression in the target language to any sentence in the source language. The aim of my linguistic translation project is to find the corresponding structures of the languages dealt with. The two main problems that have to be solved by such a project are the difference of word order between the source language and the target language and the ambiguous words of the source language for which the appropriate word in the target language has to be chosen. The first problem is of major linguistic interest: once the project has been worked out, it will give us the parallel sentence structures for the two languages in question. Since there is no complete analysis of any language that could be used for the purpose of automatic translation, we decided to build up our project sentence by sentence. The rules which are needed for translating each sentence will have to be included in the complete program anyway, and the translation may be checked and corrected immediately. The program is split up into subroutines for each word-class, so that a correction of the program in case of an unsatisfactory translation does not complicate the program unnecessarily.
Ever since the publication of Greenberg 1963, word order typologists have attempted to formulate and refine implicational universals of word order so as to characterize the restricted distribution of certain word order patterns, and in some cases have also attempted to develop general principles to explain the existence of those universals.
In these volumes, we are very pleased to present a collection of papers based on talks and posters at Sinn und Bedeutung 22, which took place in Berlin and Potsdam on September 7-10, 2017, jointly organized by the Leibniz-Centre for General Linguistics (ZAS) and the University of Potsdam.
SuB22 received 183 submitted abstracts. Out of these, the organizing committee selected 39 oral presentations in the main session, 4 oral presentations in the special session ‘Semantics and Natural Logic’, and 24 poster presentations. There were an additional 6 invited talks. In total, 58 of these contributions appear in paper form in the present volumes.
In these volumes, we are very pleased to present a collection of papers based on talks and posters at Sinn und Bedeutung 22, which took place in Berlin and Potsdam on September 7-10, 2017, jointly organized by the Leibniz-Centre for General Linguistics (ZAS) and the University of Potsdam.
SuB22 received 183 submitted abstracts. Out of these, the organizing committee selected 39 oral presentations in the main session, 4 oral presentations in the special session ‘Semantics and Natural Logic’, and 24 poster presentations. There were an additional 6 invited talks. In total, 58 of these contributions appear in paper form in the present volumes.
The volume is a collection of papers given at the conference “sub8 -- Sinn und Bedeutung”, the eighth annual conference of the Gesellschaft für Semantik, held at the Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt (Germany) in September 2003. During this conference, experts presented and discussed various aspects of semantics. The very different topics included in this book provide insight into fields of ongoing Semantics research.
Band II von II
Band I von II
The papers in this volume take up some aspects of the preverbal domain(s) in Bantu languages. They were originally presented at the Workshop BantuSynPhonIS: Preverbal Domain(s), held at the Center for General Linguistics (ZAS), in Berlin, on 14-15 November 2014. This workshop was coorganized by ZAS (Fatima Hamlaoui & Tonjes Veenstra) and the Humboldt University (Tom Güldemann, Yukiko Morimoto and Ines Fiedler).
This volume presents working versions of presentations heard at and selected for the Workshop on Syntax of Predication, held at ZAS, Berlin, on November 2-3, 2001 (except the editor’s own paper).
Predication is a many-faceted topic which involves both syntax and semantics and the interface between them. This is reflected in the papers of the volume.
This volume presents working versions of presentations heard at and selected for the Workshop on Syntax of Predication, held at ZAS, Berlin, on November 2-3, 2001 (except the editor’s own paper).
Predication is a many-faceted topic which involves both syntax and semantics and the interface between them. This is reflected in the papers of the volume.
Within a minimalist framework of sound-meaning correlation, the present study concentrates on process nominalizations of Russian. It is shown how these constructions are built up syntactically and semantically and in which respects they differ from other types of nominalizations. The analysis follows a lexicalist conception of word formation and the differentiation of Semantic Form and Conceptual Structure.
This paper argues for a scopal explanation of the readings of the adverb wieder (‘again’). It is the syntactic entity that wieder is related to which determines whether the repetitive or the restitutive reading obtains. If it is adjoined to the minimal verbal domain, it relates to a situation-internal state thus producing a restitutive interpretation, if adjoined to a higher verbal projection, it relates to an eventuality resulting in a repetitive interpretation. Proceeding from the assumption that adverbial adjuncts have base positions which reflect their semantic relations to the rest of the sentence, repetitive wieder is shown to belong to the class of eventuality adverbs that minimally c-command the base positions of all arguments, whereas restitutive wieder has many properties in common with process (manner) adjuncts that minimally c-command the verb in clause-final base position.
A cognição pode ser definida como um processo de aquisição de conhecimento que tem como material a informação do meio em que vivemos e o que já está registrado na nossa memória. Este processo envolve percepção, atenção, memória e ação, e nem sempre acontece de forma consciente. Mais do que simplesmente a aquisição de conhecimento, é um processo de conversão de tudo o que é captado pelo aprendiz de acordo com sua identidade e suas experiências. Com base nesse conceito, propõe-se um modelo teórico para o processamento cognitivo relacionado à produção em língua estrangeira, fundamentado em teorias recentes da neurociência sobre memória, aprendizagem e processamento de representações de seqüências freqüentes na língua (chunks) e ilustrado com dados referentes ao alemão como língua estrangeira. Como resultado, nota-se que o conhecimento teórico sobre a língua estrangeira e a capacidade de utilizá-la são habilidades complementares que interagem na aprendizagem da mesma, mas como saberes distintos, e não estágios do mesmo conhecimento determinados pelo tempo de aprendizagem ou armazenamento na memória, como sugerem alguns teóricos da área.
Smith (1968) argues that poems may end with formal changes which produce an experience of closure in the reader. I argue that formal changes do not directly cause an experience of closure. Instead, changes in poetic form always demand increased processing effort from the reader, whether they involve new forms, shifts from more to less regular form, or from less to more regular form. I use relevance theory (Sperber and Wilson 1995) to argue that the increased processing effort encourages the reader to formulate rich and relevant thoughts, including the thought "this poem has closure". Closure is thus the content of a thought rather than a type of experience. I further argue that "closure" is a term whose meaning cannot be fully understood, which makes the thought "this poem has closure" into a schematic belief of the kind which Sperber shows has great richness and productivity. This is one of the reasons that the thought "this poem has closure" achieves sufficient relevance to justify the effort put into processing the end of the poem.
Cet article propose une réflexion sur la manière dont la langue bàsàa (Bantu A 43 parlée au Cameroun) exprime la relativisation. En l’absence d’une classe grammaticale de pronoms relatifs la langue utilise la classe des démonstratifs. La stratégie démonstrative mise en place peut selon les cas, associer la classe des locatifs pour déterminer les degrés de définitude. La langue distingue également les relatives restrictives des relatives non-restrictives qui sont soit descriptives, soit emphatiques. Du point de vue prosodique, la fin de la relative en bàsàa coïncide avec une finale de Groupe Intonatif.
The paper presents results from a combined production and comprehension study addressing some of the factors which guide the establishment of intersentential pronominal reference in child and adult Bulgarian. We investigate the time course and different stages in the acquisition of null, personal and demonstrative pro-nouns and their specific anaphoric functions. We target possible age-induced changes in the salience hierarchy of referent features such as animacy and grammatical role. Following the general consent in the field of anaphora research, we assume a division of labour between different pronominal forms with respect to the salience of their referents. Based on the data of Bulgarian preschool children we investigate the validity of this form-function relation, its language-specific shape and its developmentally induced variation. The results reveal an initial prominence of animate referents which later on develops into preference for animate subjects. Although the investigated 3 to 5 year old Bulgarian children do not stick to the adult anaphora resolution strategy, they comply with the principle of the reversed mapping within the range of tested pronouns and react according to their salience criteria which promote animate subjects as the most prominent co-reference candidates.