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Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse zur Reaktivität zweifach reduzierter 9,10-Dihydro-9,10-diboraanthracene [A]2– erweitern das Einsatzspektrum von Hauptgruppenverbindungen im Hinblick auf die Aktivierung kleiner Moleküle. Komplementär zu Übergangsmetallkomplexen und FLPs ermöglichen die Salze M2[A] (M+ = Li+, Na+, K+) die Entwicklung neuartiger Synthesestrategien. Als besondere Herausforderung gilt die Aktivierung des stabilen H2-Moleküls, dessen Bindung die Dianionen [A]2– homolytisch in einer konzertierten Reaktion spalten.
Untersuchungen zur Kinetik der H2-Addition an M2[A] stellten die Abhängigkeit dieses Reaktionsschritts vom borgebundenen Substituenten und vom Kation heraus. Eine geringe sterische Abschirmung der Boratome durch kleine borgebundene Substituenten (C≡CtBu, Me, H) begünstigt die H2-Aufnahme gegenüber großen Substituenten (pTol, Xyl, Et). Die maximale Ausbeute an M2[A-H2] wird für M+ = Li+ erst nach mehreren Tagen bei 100 °C erhalten, während einige Stunden bei nur 50 °C für die quantitative Bildung von K2[A-H2] ausreichen.
Unter den Salzen M2[A] eignet sich Li2[68] mit borgebundenen Me-Substituenten besonders gut für den Einsatz als Hydrierungskatalysator. Mit Li2[68] konnten das Imin Ph(H)C=NtBu, das terminale Alken Ph2C=CH2 und Anthracen erfolgreich im NMR-Maßstab hydriert werden (Katalysatorladung 37 mol%, THF-d8, 1 atm H2-Initialdruck, 100 °C, 16 h). Im Reaktionsautoklaven war für die Hydrierung von Ph(H)C=NtBu eine Verringerung der Katalysatorladung auf 10 mol% Li2[68] möglich (THF, 7 atm H2-Initialdruck, 100 °C, 18 h). Konkurrenzreaktionen begründen Einschränkungen in Bezug auf die Substratpalette, da M2[68] (M+ = Li+, Na+) mit elektronenarmen ungesättigten Verbindungen, die C=C-, C≡C-, C=O- oder C=N-Bindungen enthalten, [4+2]-Cycloadditionsprodukte bilden können. Die Reversibilität dieser Reaktion entscheidet, ob Li2[68] als Katalysator fungiert oder irreversibel in den Strukturen gebunden bleibt.
Vielseitiger sind die H2-Aktivierungsprodukte M2[A-H2] als H–-Donoren geeignet: Na2[68-H2] ersetzt Halogenid- durch H–-Substituenten in Bromethan, sowie in Chlorsilanen und PCl3; CO2 wird in Natriumformiat überführt. Unabhängig von der Anzahl der Chlorliganden werden die Produkte immer vollständig hydriert. Eine erneute Reduktion von 68 kann wieder Na2[68] bereitstellen, das H2 aufnimmt und Na2[68-H2] regeneriert, welches für neue H–-Abgaben zur Verfügung steht. Bei der experimentellen Umsetzung des Kreislaufs ist es wichtig, die beschriebenen Reaktionsschritte nacheinander auszuführen und jeweils nur stöchiometrische Mengen des Elektrophils zuzugeben. Bei Abweichungen vom schrittweisen Syntheseprotokoll finden formale nukleophile Substitutionen mit M2[68] statt und monoanionische Spezies entstehen, z. B. wenn Et3SiBr als Elektrophil anwesend ist.
Gegenüber CO2 zeigt Li2[68] eine hohe Reaktivität, durch die selektiv CO und [CO3]2– gebildet werden. Wie zuvor bei den H–-Transferreaktionen ermöglicht die Reduktion der Neutralverbindung 68 die Regeneration von Li2[68].
Die Dianionen [A]2– stechen unter anderen cyclischen Borverbindungen in niedrigen Oxidationsstufen heraus, da mit [A]2– nicht nur die Aktivierung von H2 oder CO2 gelang, sondern erstmalig über die Einbindung der Additionsprodukte in zum Teil katalytische Folgereaktionen berichtet werden konnte.
Enolase is a glycolytic enzyme, which catalyzes the inter-conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate. Altered expression of this enzyme is frequently observed in cancer and accounts for the Warburg effect, an adaptive response of tumor cells to hypoxia. In addition to its catalytic function, ENO-1 exhibits other activities, which strongly depend on its cellular and extracellular localization. For example, the association of ENO-1 with mitochondria membrane was found to be important for the stability of the mitochondrial membrane, and ENO-1 sequestration on the cell surface was crucial for plasmin-mediated pericellular proteolysis. The latter activity of ENO-1 enables many pathogens but also immune and cancer cells to invade the tissue, leading further to infection, inflammation or metastasis formation. The ability of ENO-1 to conduct so many diverse processes is reflected by its contribution to a high number of pathologies, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular hypertrophy, fungal and bacterial infections, cancer, systemic lupus erythematosus, hepatic fibrosis, Alzheimer’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic sclerosis. These unexpected non-catalytic functions of ENO-1 and their contributions to diseases are the subjects of this review.
Uncaging approach, native membrane dynamics and lipidic cubic phases in biomolecular solid-state NMR
(2019)
It was previously shown for the Escherichia coli diacylglycerol kinase (DgkA) that enzyme-reactions at the membrane interface can be monitored by solid-state NMR. However, such studies can face problems due to limited accessibility of the active sites: Natural substrates for membrane enzymes, but also ligands for membrane proteins or lipid mediators, are either partitioning into the membrane and cannot be added easily, or if soluble exhibit accessibility restrictions, as they cannot freely pass through lipid bilayers. This situation complicates quantitative kinetic analysis of biochemical processes such as enzyme activity, ligand binding, but also oligomerization or folding reactions in the membrane or at its interface under MAS NMR conditions.
To overcome these limitations the feasibility and possible advantages of the uncaging approach as a new tool for biomolecular solid-state NMR to trigger reactions by light have been explored. DgkA’s enzymatic activity, exemplary of a biochemical process on the membrane interface, was thereby triggered in situ during MAS by light-induced release of its substrates that were rendered inactive with photolabile protecting groups. To be capable of uncaging sufficient amounts of substrate during MAS to follow the enzymatic reaction via 31P real-time NMR measurements, several illumination variants including an existing illumination setup to study retinal proteins under cryogenic conditions via DNP enhanced NMR were tested. As uncaging of micromole amounts of substrates requires a higher flux compared to initiation of a photocycle in retinal proteins, a new illumination setup was built with Bruker Biospin and Leoni Fibertech. It consists of a modified MAS probe and a suitable fiber bundle, allowing to efficiently couple light from high power LEDs into a sapphire rotor containing the sample, without disturbing the magnetic field homogeneity or sample rotation. By reducing the sample volume to the illuminated area up to 60 mM ATP were released by uncaging NPE ATP to initiate DgkA’s activity in several tested membrane mimetics. These mimetics included liposomes and bicelles, which are well established in the field of biomolecular solid state NMR as well as the optically transparent lipidic cubic phase of monoolein, widely used in membrane protein crystallography, but not yet well characterized as membrane mimetic under MAS conditions. A unique and powerful but compared to time and spatial resolution often underrepresented advantage of the uncaging approach for biophysical studies has been demonstrated by successful uncaging of a non-miscible lipid substrate to trigger DgkA’s kinase reaction: Initiation of processes that cannot easily be triggered by mixing. Examples of these are reactions involving highly hydrophobic, membrane partitioning compounds including lipid substrates, ligands or interaction partners, but also oligomerization or folding of biomacromolecules. The herein performed experiments therefore serve as a first demonstration of the uncaging approach’s feasibility and compatibility with a wide variety of membrane mimetics and give a first indication of its potential for a variety of biomolecular solid state NMR experiments.
As high accessibility for solutes has been a second focus for the choice of membrane mimetics, DgkA’s activity in the lipidic cubic phases of monoacylglycerols with its two continuous networks of water channels has been further characterized. Kinetic parameters obtained from 31P real time solid state NMR experiments revealed that DgkA’s activity is similar to activities obtained in swollen cubic phases in a bath solution with wider water channels. Diffusion of ATP in a non swollen cubic phase was however strongly reduced compared to ATP in solution as diffusion measurements showed. Therefore, saturation of the enzyme required distinctly higher ATP concentrations. These results thereby underline the advantage of a non invasive and label free method like NMR to directly gain information about enzymatic reactions of immobilized enzymes in porous materials. The obtained wealth of information from 31P real time NMR experiments and biochemical assays in different membrane mimetics in presence and absence of lipid substrates and activators also provided further insight into DgkA’s enzymatic activity. It confirms ATP binding and hydrolysis in the absence of a lipid substrate, in agreement with the proposed mode of substrate binding, and allowed to estimate the in vivo relevance of previously observed ATPase activity in liposomes.
Further exploration of the cubic phase as membrane mimetic for protein solid state NMR revealed its high stability under MAS at elevated temperatures and capacity to reconstitute sufficient amounts of DgkA. Unlike monoolein, DgkA was cross-polarizable in a cubic phase and exhibited similar dynamics compared to DgkA reconstituted into liposomes, allowing to acquire the herein shown dipolar coupling based 2D protein spectra. As lipidic cubic phases are not containing phospholipids, monoacylglycerols could be especially useful as membrane mimetics for 31P correlation spectra. Initial experiments under DNP conditions, where in liposomes line broadening causes severe overlap of phospholipid signals and unspecific cross polarization highlight this aspect.
In summary, herein reported results of the experiments performed with lipidic cubic phases demonstrate that they are robust and versatile membrane mimetics. They could be of advantage for a variety of solid-state NMR experiments where either optical transparency for efficient illumination is desired, accessibility for solutes and membrane components under MAS is required, or interference of phosphorous signals of other membrane mimetics must be avoided.
In the second chapter of this thesis 1H solid-state NMR as a label free method to probe membrane order and dynamics directly within a cellular and disease relevant context was used to observe the effects of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) encoding gene knock-outs on membrane dynamics. Knock-out of the sEH encoding gene changed the overall membrane dynamics in the physiological temperature range of native membranes derived from mouse brains, making the bulk membrane more dynamic. To confirm that these effects are related to the enzymatic activity of sEH, substrates and products of sEH were added to evaluate their effects on membrane dynamics. 19,20 dihydroxydocosapentaenoic acid (DHDP), a product of sEH, partially reversed the knock out phenotype in a concentration dependent manner whereas the substrate 19,20 epoxydocosapentaenoic acid did not cause any effects. As both polyunsaturated fatty acids did not show differences in phase behavior in a simple phospholipid bilayer these results provide evidence that the previously observed concentration dependent DHDP induced relocation of cholesterol away from detergent resistant lipid raft fractions is associated with alteration of membrane dynamics. Therefore, also the effect of cholesterol removal via cyclodextrin on membrane dynamics was analyzed. Removal of cholesterol led to a similar temperature profile of wild type and knock out membranes thereby supporting the hypothesis that DHDP induced relocation of cholesterol is causing altered membrane dynamics. These alterations have been shown by the lead authors of the collaborative research project to induce relocation of various membrane proteins and are involved in the development of diabetic retinopathy. Furthermore, in this context inhibition of sEH has been shown to inhibit diabetic retinopathy and proposed as target for prevention of one of the leading causes of blindness in the developed world.
De novo fatty acid biosynthesis in humans is accomplished by a multidomain protein, the type I fatty acid synthase (FAS). Although ubiquitously expressed in all tissues, fatty acid synthesis is not essential in normal healthy cells due to sufficient supply with fatty acids by the diet. However, FAS is overexpressed in cancer cells and correlates with tumor malignancy, which makes FAS an attractive selective therapeutic target in tumorigenesis. Herein, we present a crystal structure of the condensing part of murine FAS, highly homologous to human FAS, with octanoyl moieties covalently bound to the transferase (MAT) and the condensation (KS) domain. The MAT domain binds the octanoyl moiety in a novel (unique) conformation, which reflects the pronounced conformational dynamics of the substrate binding site responsible for the MAT substrate promiscuity. In contrast, the KS binding pocket just subtly adapts to the octanoyl moiety upon substrate binding. Besides the rigid domain structure, we found a positive cooperative effect in the substrate binding of the KS domain by a comprehensive enzyme kinetic study. These structural and mechanistic findings contribute significantly to our understanding of the mode of action of FAS and may guide future rational inhibitor designs.
Protein quality control (PQC) machinery is in charge of ensuring protein homeostasis in the cell, i.e. proteostasis. Chaperones assist polypeptides throughout their maturation until functionality is achieved. This process might be disrupted in the presence of mutations or external damaging agents that affect the folding and stability of proteins. In this case, proteins can be efficiently recognized and targeted for degradation in a controlled manner. Ubiquitylation refers to the covalent attachment of one or more ubiquitin moieties to faulty proteins, thus triggering their degradation by the 26S proteasome.
More than 30% of proteins need cofactor molecules. Lack of cofactors renders proteins non-functional. We wanted to understand how the PQC deals with wild-type proteins in the absence of their cofactors. Several studies have indicated the importance of the riboflavin-derived cofactor FAD in the stability of individual flavoproteins, and hence we assumed that loss of flavin should mediate a targeted degradation of this group of proteins. Indeed, our mass spectrometry experiments showed that flavoproteome levels decreased under riboflavin starvation. The oxidoreductase NQO1 was used as a model enzyme to further investigate the mechanism of flavoproteome targeting by the PQC. We showed that cofactor loading determines ubiquitylation of NQO1 by the co-chaperone CHIP, both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, subtle changes in the C-terminus of NQO1 in the absence of FAD seemed to be crucial for this recognition event. ApoNQO1 interactome differed from holoNQO1. Chaperones and degradation factors were enriched on NQO1 upon cofactor withdrawal, probably to support maturation and prevent aggregation of the enzyme.
Loss of protein folding and stability, even to a small extent, can enhance the aggregating behavior of proteins. Proper loading with FAD reduced the co-aggregation of NQO1 with Aβ1-42 peptide. We assumed that the flavoproteome might represent aggregating-prone species under riboflavin deprivation. Supportingly, reversible apoNQO1 aggregates were observed in vivo in the absence of cofactor. General amyloidogenesis in vivo also increased under these conditions, apparently as a result of flavoproteome destabilization. In this context, we think that our data might have important implications considering the onset and development of conformational diseases.
This work has shed some light on the therapeutic implications of riboflavin deficiency as well. The sensitivity of melanoma cells towards the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) increased under riboflavin starvation. Subsequent analyses indicated that a complex metabolic reorganization, mostly affecting proliferation and energy metabolism, occurs in response to starvation. What we suggest to call “flavoaddiction” can be understood as the dependence of melanoma cells on the flavoproteome structural and functional intactness to survive chemotherapy. Understanding this cellular reprogramming in detail might reveal new possibilities for future therapies.
Transport mechanism of a multidrug resistance protein investigated by pulsed EPR spectroscopy
(2019)
In human several diseases result from malfunctions of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) systems, which form one of the largest transport system superfamily. Many ABC exporters contain asymmetric nucleotide-binding sites (NBSs) and some of them are inhibited by the transported substrate.1 For the active transport of diverse chemically substrates across biological membranes, ABC transport complexes use the energy of ATP binding and subsequent hydrolysis. In this thesis, the heterodimeric ABC exporter TmrAB2,3 from Thermus thermophilus, a functional homolog of the human antigen translocation complex TAP, was investigated by using pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR/DEER) spectroscopy. In the presence of ATP, TmrAB exists in an equilibrium between inward- and outward-facing conformations. This equilibrium can be modulated by changing the ATP concentration, showing asymmetric behaviour in the open-to-close equilibrium between the consensus and the degenerate NBSs. At the degenerate NBS the closed conformation is more preferred and closure of one of the NBSs is sufficient to open the periplasmic gate at the transmembrane domain (TMD).3 By determining the temperature dependence of this conformational equilibrium, the thermodynamics of the energy coupling during ATP-induced conformational changes in TmrAB were investigated. The results demonstrate that ATP-binding alone drives the global conformational switching to the outward-facing state and allows the determination of the entropy and enthalpy changes for this step. With this knowledge, the Gibbs free energy of this ATP induced transition was calculated. Furthermore, an excess of substrate, meaning trans-inhibition of the transporter is resulting mechanistically in a reverse transition from the outward-facing state to an occluded conformation predominantly.3 This work unravels the central role of the reversible conformational equilibrium in the function and regulation of an ABC exporter. For the first time it is shown that the conformational thermodynamics of a large membrane protein complex can be investigated. The presented experiments give new possibilities to investigate other related medically important transporters with asymmetric NBSs or other similar protein complexes.
Multidomain enzymes, such as fatty acid synthases (FASs) or polyketide synthases (PKSs), play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of important natural products. They have a high significance in the development of new pharmaceuticals and various research approaches focus on the engineering of these proteins. For example, human type I FAS is an interesting therapeutic target. Owing to its importance in lipogenesis, upregulation of human type I FAS expression has been observed in numerous cancers. Type I FAS is also regarded as important target in antiobesity treatment. Both multidomain enzyme classes - FASs and PKSs - show high structural and functional similarities. Particularly animal type I FAS is most relevant as evolutionary precursor of the PKS family. Therefore, the well characterized FASs are suitable model proteins for the poorly characterized PKSs, to gain deeper understanding in these megasynthases.
Furthermore, fatty acids are considered to be strategically important platform chemicals accessible through sustainable microbial approaches. The recently acquired structural information on FASs provides an excellent understanding of the molecular basis of fatty acid synthesis. The specific understanding of chain-length control, the characterization of a multitude of substrate-specific thioesterases, and the emerging tools and means for metabolic engineering have fostered targeted approaches for modulating chain length. There is large interest in short-chain fatty acids, since these compounds are biotechnologically valuable platform chemicals and biofuel precursors, and attempts on the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids have been reported during the last years.
Primary focus of this thesis lies on the animal type I FASs, which exhibit large conformational variety, as seen in electron microscopy and high-speed atomic force microscopy. Conformational dynamics facilitate productive protein-protein interactions between catalytic domains within the enzyme and aid acyl carrier protein (ACP)-mediated substrate shuttling during the catalytic cycle of fatty acid biosynthesis. To gain deeper insight into the fundamental processes of ACP-mediated substrate shuttling and the underlying conformational dynamics, spectroscopic methods like Förster resonance energy transfer and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy shall be employed. These spectroscopic methods demand site-specific labeling of proteins with fluorophore or spin labels, which can be accomplished with the amber codon suppression technology. Through amber codon suppression, a non-canonical amino acid (ncAA) with an orthogonal functional group is incorporated site-specifically into the protein sequence, which can be used in chemoselective reactions for protein labeling.
This thesis is at the forefront of employing the technology of amber codon suppression for addressing complex biological questions on megasynthases. The successful production of ncAA-modified FASs is challenging. With the aim of incorporating ncAAs into the multidomain 540 kDa large murine FAS, we by far exceed boundaries of documented application of amber codon suppression. Most of the proteins that are reported by Liu & Schultz in applications of amber codon suppression are in the range of 30kDa - for example the TE domain of human FAS. In the same review, the largest protein amber codon suppression was applied to is a potassium channel with roughly 80 kDa. Thus, to the best of my knowledge no protein exceeding 100 kDa has been used in amber codon suppression so far.
In this thesis a low-complex, well-plate based reporter assay is presented, based on an ACP-GFP fusion protein for fast and efficient screening of ncAA incorporation. Reliability and applicability of the reporter assay is demonstrated by successful upscaling to larger protein constructs and increased expression scale.
As outlined in this thesis, we have carefully set up methods for the modification of murine FAS and made several achievements:
(i) We have created our own toolbox with a multitude of suppressor plasmids and various orthogonal pairs. pACU and pACE plasmids are compatible for fast exchange of cassettes, and cloning procedures are optimized for modification of synthetases by site-directed mutagenesis. (ii) We have organic synthesis of several ncAAs stably running in the lab and synthesis of other ncAAs can be established when required. Therefore, extensive screening at moderate costs is possible. (iii) We have established a reporter assay for screening our own library of vectors for amber codon suppression and for optimizing incorporation of ncAAs. (iv) We successfully incorporated ncAAs into subconstructs and full-length murine FAS, and collected initial promising results for the application of these proteins in spectroscopic methods. Thus, laying the foundation for future studies to address fundamental questions of the ACP-mediated substrate shuttling and other conformational dynamics of these enzymes.
Many processes in living cells involve interaction and cooperation of multiple proteins to fulfill a specific function. To understand biological processes in their full complexity, it is not sufficient to only identify the molecules being involved but also to understand the kinetic aspects of a reaction. Mass spectrometry (MS) is a very powerful tool which allows to precisely identify the molecules of a reaction. Usually this is done with tandem-MS experiments for purpose of de-novo peptide sequencing. However, since this involves protein digestion, a statement of the in-vivo constitution of non-covalently bound protein complexes is not possible. In order to detect an intact protein complex it is necessary to analyze the biological system softly and in a near-native environment with native MS. Native MS allows the non-destructive analysis of these non-covalent protein complexes as well as to detect their components. However, up to now native MS does not offer a possibility to resolve the timing of the constitution of protein complexes on a fast time-scale. Therefore, the progress of reactions on fast time-scales is invisible. However, a method which delivers both types of information - identification of the components of a protein complex, as well as time-resolving their interaction - would be of high interest.
A suitable ionization technique for native MS is laser-induced liquid-bead ion desorption (LILBID). LILBID employs well-defined droplets which are irradiated by IR laser pulses to generate gas phase ions. The not-continuous, repetitive nature of ion generation offers itself to the development of a time-resolved (TR) native MS system which is able to investigate protein complexes on a fast time scale. The LILBID-droplets can serve as reaction vessels if they are levitated in an electrodynamic Paul-trap. This new setup would allow sample manipulation and MS analysis on precise and fast reaction time-scales. The first part of this dissertation presents the construction and characterization of a setup for TR-LILBID-MS.
An example for a complex biological system is the self-assembly of beta-amyloid (Aβ). This small peptide is the major component in plaques related to Alzheimer’s disease. Clinically relevant is especially the 42 amino acid peptide Aβ42 which aggregates from monomers to oligomers through to fibrils. The oligomers are the neurotoxic species in this process and thus of high interest. Nevertheless, standard analytical techniques are unable to detect those oligomers which makes MS an optimal tool to study the oligomerization process of Aβ with the focus on disease relevant oligomers. TR-LILBID-MS allows to follow the oligomerization of Aβ enabling to study molecules which influence this kinetic. Combining MS with ion-mobility spectrometry adds an additional dimension - the collision cross section - to the mass-to-charge ratio obtained from MS. Therewith structural alterations induced by ligands can be correlated to differences in the aggregation kinetic. This allows to draw a picture of the aggregation process of Aβ for the development of disease-relevant small oligomers on a molecular level.
The endosteal bone marrow niche and vascular endothelial cells provide sanctuaries to leukemic cells. In murine chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) CD44 on leukemia cells and E-selectin on bone marrow endothelium are essential mediators for the engraftment of leukemic stem cells (LSC). We hypothesized that non-adhesion of CML-initiating cells to E-selectin on the bone marrow endothelium may lead to superior eradication of LSC in CML after treatment with imatinib than imatinib alone. Indeed, here we show that treatment with the E-selectin inhibitor GMI-1271 in combination with imatinib prolongs survival of mice with CML via decreased contact time of leukemia cells with bone marrow endothelium. Non-adhesion of BCR-ABL1+ cells leads to an increase of cell cycle progression and an increase of expression of the hematopoietic transcription factor and protooncogene Scl/Tal1 in leukemia-initiating cells (LIC). We implicate SCL/TAL1 as indirect phosphorylation target of BCR-ABL1 and as a negative transcriptional regulator of CD44 expression. We show that increased SCL/TAL1 expression is associated with improved outcome in human CML. These data demonstrate the BCR-ABL1-specific, cell-intrinsic pathways leading to altered interactions with the vascular niche via the modulation of adhesion molecules - a strategy therapeutically exploitable in future.
Krebs ist und wird voraussichtlich auch in näherer Zukunft eine der häufigsten Todesursachen weltweit bleiben. Trotz vielversprechenden Fortschritten in Therapeutik und Diagnostik bedarf es noch weiterer Forschung, um die vielfältigen molekularen Mechanismen zu entschlüsseln, welche dem Verlauf von malignen Tumorerkrankungen bestimmen und zu beeinflussen vermögen. Das RNA-Bindeprotein Hu antigen R (HuR) reguliert Genexpression auf posttranskriptioneller Ebene, indem es durch Bindung an Ziel mRNAs Einfluss auf deren Abbau, Lokalisation oder Translationseffizienz nimmt. Darüber hinaus zeigte sich in den letzten Jahren, dass HuR diese Prozesse auch indirekt durch Interaktion mit regulatorischen RNAs beeinflusst. In Krebszellen lässt sich häufig eine erhöhte Aktivität von HuR beobachten, welche in Verbindung mit verschiedenen tumorigenen Prozessen gebracht wird. Unter anderem trägt HuR zur Deregulation des Zellzyklus bei, indem es die Expression der Cycline A2, B1, D1 und E1 erhöht. Weiterhin unterstützt HuR das Tumorwachstum durch Regulation von proangiogenen Faktoren wie VEGF, IL8 und COX2. Da HuR generell eine prominente Rolle bei der Regulation von Immunantworten, sowohl in Immunzellen selbst als auch in solidem Gewebe einnimmt, wurde HuR in der Vergangenheit häufig auch mit der Ausbildung des inflammatorischen Tumormikromilieus in Verbindung gebracht, jedoch ist die Datenlage in dieser Hinsicht bis heute uneindeutig. Obwohl eine Großzahl an Zytokinen und inflammatorischen Faktoren prinzipiell als HuR Zielgene beschrieben sind, gibt es nur für die wenigsten dieser Proteine entsprechende Untersuchungen in Tumorzellen.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, den Einfluss von HuR in Tumoren auf die Rekrutierung von Makrophagen zu evaluieren. Hierfür bot sich als in vitro Modell die Brustkrebszelllinie MCF-7 an, da diese unter entsprechenden Kultivierungsbedingungen dreidimensionale Sphäroide bildet. Solch ein Sphäroidmodell bietet sich als Kompromiss zwischen der klassischen zweidimensionalen Zellkultur an, welche zwar höchst artifiziell, jedoch leicht zu handhaben und zu kontrollieren ist, und den physiologischeren, aber gleichzeitig experimentell unzugänglicheren und speziesfremden Tiermodellen. Mittels lentiviraler Transduktion wurde ein small hairpin RNA (shRNA) vermittelter stabiler Knockdown von HuR in MCF-7 erzielt, welcher zu vermindertem Zellwachstum führte, jedoch keinen weiteren Einfluss auf die Bildung von Sphäroiden hatte. Um die initiale Suche nach HuR-regulierten, potenziell relevanten Faktoren möglichst breit und unvoreingenommen zu halten, wurde die Expression von 174 Zytokinen in Wildtyp- und HuR-knockdown Sphäroiden mittels eines Protein Arrays untersucht. Überraschenderweise zeigte der Großteil der veränderten Proteins einen negativen Zusammenhang mit HuR, welches eigentlich eher als positiv regulierendes Protein beschrieben ist. Bemerkenswerterweise befand sich unter den mit am stärksten regulierten Faktoren das Chemokin CCL5 (auch RANTES genannt), welches einerseits als einer der beiden zentralen Faktoren für die Makrophageninfiltration in Brustkrebs gilt, andererseits bisher noch nicht in Verbindung mit HuR gebracht wurde.
Im Folgenden untersuchte ich zuerst den mechanistischen Hintergrund dieser Regulation. Da diese sich auch in adhärenten Zellrasen zeigte, wechselte ich für die entsprechenden Experimente zu zweidimensionaler Zellkultur. Eine negative regulatorische Funktion von HuR wird meist in Verbindung mit verminderter Translation von Zielfaktoren gebracht. Da die mRNA Level von CCL5 dem Effekt auf Proteinebene entsprachen, konnten entsprechende Mechanismen als Grund für die veränderten CCL5 Level ausgeschlossen werden. Desweiteren blieb die mRNA Stabilität ungeachtet der HuR Level konstant; dabei zeigte sich zudem, dass mRNA Abbau generell keinen relevanten Einfluss auf die Expression von CCL5 in MCF-7 hatte. Da diese Ergebnisse auf eine transkriptionelle Regulation hindeuteten, untersuchte ich im Folgenden den Einfluss von HuR auf die Promoteraktivität von CCL5. Hierfür isolierte ich zunächst die CCL5-Promoterregion aus genomischer DNA von MCF-7 Zellen und inserierte diese dann in einen zuvor promoterlosen Luciferase-Expressionsvektor. In den folgenden Reporteranalysen zeigte sich, dass HuR tatsächlich einen negativen Einfluss auf die Promoteraktivität von CCL5 ausübt. Durch sukzessive Verkürzung ließ sich der entscheidende DNA-Bereich auf die letzten 140 Nukleotide vor dem Transkriptionsstartpunkt eingrenzen. Dieser Bereich enthält vier prominente und sehr gut charakterisierte regulatorische Abschnitte: zwei benachbarte NF-κB Bindestellen sowie je ein Interferon-stimulated Response Element (ISRE) und ein C/EBPβ Erkennungsmotiv. Während das C/EBP Element keine funktionelle Relevanz in den Reporteranalysen hatte, reduzierte sich durch Deletion sowohl der ISRE als auch der NF-κB Elemente die Promoteraktivität um mehr als 50%, allerdings nur im ISRE-Deletionskonstrukt unter Nivellierung des HuR-abhängigen Unterschiedes. Somit ließ sich der Einfluss von HuR auf die CCL5 Promoteraktivität vollständig und ausschließlich auf das ISRE zurückführen. Im Gegensatz zu dem in Tumorzellen häufig basal überaktiven NF-κB Signalweg sind die kanonischen, ISRE-assoziierten Typ I Interferon Signalkaskaden und ihre vermittelnden Transkriptionsfaktoren, die sogenannten Interferon Regulatory Factors (IRFs) nicht konstitutiv überaktiviert. Eine Sonderstellung nehmen dabei die Faktoren IRF1 und IRF2 ein, da sie, für Proteine abseits der Stimulus-getriebenen ISRE-Interferon Achse, auch als konstitutive Transkriptionsfaktoren beschrieben sind, wobei IRF2 in diesem Kontext als IRF1-Antagonist und somit Transkriptionsrepressor fungiert. Überraschenderweise ließ sich mittels Chromatin Immunopräzipitation eine Assoziation von IRF1 mit dem CCL5 Promoter nur in Wildtyp-, jedoch nicht in HuR-knockdown Zellen nachweisen. Im Gegensatz dazu ergaben mRNA Expressionsanalysen der Tumor-relevanten IRFs, dass die CCL5 Induktion in HuR-depletierten Zellen mit einer allgemeinen, jedoch niedrigschwelligen Erhöhung von Typ I Interferon-assoziierten Signalen einhergeht. Interessanterweise korrelierte Interferon β zwar mit CCL5 auf mRNA Ebene, jedoch hatte eine Blockade des Interferon-α/β Rezeptors in HuR-depletierten Zellen keinen akuten Effekt auf CCL5. Umgekehrt zeigte sich auch keine erhöhten CCL5 Level in Wildtypzellen unter Kokultur mit HuR-knockdown Zellen, wie es bei parakriner Induktion durch Interferon β zu erwarten wäre. Ebenso konnte alternatives ISRE Signaling durch einen Komplex aus unphosphoryliertem Stat1 und IRF9, wie es in vitro unter länger anhaltender Niedriglevel Exposition mit Interferon β beobachtet wurde, ausgeschlossen werden. Um sicher zu stellen, dass diese Erhöhung kein sequenzabhängiges off-target Artefakt ist, wie es in der Vergangenheit für einzelne small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) beobachtet wurde, wurde eine entsprechende Aktivierung von IRF3 und damit des IRF3/IRF7 Aktivierungsweges untersucht und ausgeschlossen. Zusätzlich konnte durch Tests unterschiedlicher shRNA Sequenzen sowie Zellsysteme demonstriert werden, dass die CCL5 Aktivierung tatsächlich ein spezifischer und in einer größeren Bandbreite an Krebszelllinien unterschiedlicher Herkunft, darunter Brust- und Lungenkarzinom, Glioblastom- sowie Melanom- Zelllinien, reproduzierbarer Effekt von HuR-Defizienz ist.
Da CCL5 als eines der zentralen Chemokine bei der Rekrutierung von Monozyten/Makrophagen in Tumore beschrieben ist, stellte sich die Frage, ob HuR mit diesem Vorgang in Verbindung zu bringen ist. Brusttumore weisen oft eine hohe Zahl von Tumor-assoziierten Makrophagen auf, welche von eingewanderten Blutmonozyten abstammen. Ein Einfluss von HuR auf diesen Vorgang in vitro konnte mittels einer Kokultur von Sphäroiden mit zuvor frisch aus Humanblut isolierten Primärmonozyten nachgewiesen werden. Hierbei wiesen HuR-knockdown Sphäroide trotz ihres geringeren Durchmessers eine erhöhte Anzahl von Monozyten/Makrophagen auf. Da sich in diesen Zellen weder Proliferation noch relevante Apoptose zeigte, ließ sich die erhöhte Anzahl auf verstärkte Einwanderung in das Sphäroid zurückführen. Hierbei erwies sich der direkte Zellkontakt zwischen Monozyten und Tumorzellen als erforderlich, da Monozyten keine unterschiedliche Chemotaxis gegenüber entsprechenden Sphäroidüberständen zeigten. Dass die erhöhte Infiltration in HuR-defizienten Sphäroiden tatsächlich auf CCL5 zurückzuführen ist, konnte in Kokulturexperimenten durch Inhibierung von CCL5 gezeigt werden. Unterstütztend wurde ein Zusammenhang zwischen HuR, CCL5 und Tumor assoziierten Makrophagen in silico unter Zuhilfenahme des TCGA Datensets für Estrogenrezeptor-positive Brusttumore untersucht. Im Einklang mit meinen Ergebnissen zeigte sich eine negative Korrelation zwischen HuR und CCL5. Außerdem ließ sich ein negativer Zusammenhang zwischen HuR und einer Makrophagensignatur feststellen, während CCL5 wie erwartet mit dieser Signatur positiv korrelierte.
Zusammenfassend zeigte sich in dieser Arbeit, dass HuR eine Rolle bei der zellulären Zusammensetzung des inflammatorischen Tumor-Mikromilieus spielt. Der Verlust von HuR in Tumorzellen führte zu einer erhöhten Expression des Chemokins CCL5. Dies ließ sich in Brust- und Lungenkarzinom-, Glioblastom- sowie Melanom- Zelllinien beobachten. In Brustkrebszellen zeigte sich, dass diese Regulation auf verstärkte Transkription, vermittelt durch ein ISRE innerhalb des CCL5 Promoters, zurückzuführen ist. Funktionell konnte die erhöhte CCL5 Produktion in HuR-defizienten Tumorsphäroiden in Verbindung mit verstärkter Infiltration von Monozyten/Makrophagen gebracht werden. Unterstützend zeigte sich auch bei einer in silico Analyse von Estrogenrezeptor-positiven Brusttumoren eine negative Korrelation zwischen HuR und CCL5, was mit einer entsprechend veränderten Makrophagensignatur einherging. Im Hinblick auf derzeit diskutierte Ansätze, das Wachstum von Tumoren mittels HuR Blockade zu inhibieren, sind meine Ergebnisse potenziell von therapeutischer Relevanz. Basierend auf meiner Arbeit sollte dabei in zukünftigen Studien näher untersucht werden, wie sich Inhibierung von HuR in Tumoren auf die Zusammensetzung und Funktion des Tumormikromilieus auswirkt und daraus resultierende Effekte auf das Tumorwachstum in Relation zu der allgemein wachstumsfördernden Rolle von HuR in Tumorzellen gesetzt werden.