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An essential part of the animal survival strategy comprises the ability to control body movement and coordinate long-term navigational strategies, in order to maintain locomotion towards a nutrition source and stay in its vicinity. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) this function is carried out by neuronal circuits, that vary their activity in response to diverse environmental condition.
This comprises different classes of neurons, acting together in a sensory, signaling and modulatory system to control body posture and induce behavioral responses. For this reason, one particular goal in the field of neuroscience research is to elucidate the mechanisms of how neuronal circuits integrate multiple sensory cues to navigate the environment. Aim of this study was to analyze the function of a neuronal network comprising the interneurons AVK, as well as the identification of signaling molecules, controlling body posture during food related locomotory behavior. This should be achieved by establishing optogenetic approaches, which provide a non inversive and temporally precise control of neuronal activity and drives the activation or silencing of individual neurons, to alter the neuronal basis of behavior. Animals exposed to food perform a dwelling-like behavior, characterized by a slowing of locomotion with a reduced crawling distance and an irregular movement, accompanied by a high frequency of pauses, reversals and directional changes. Upon food-removal, they initiate a local-search behavior with the same behavioral characteristics, but with a more pronounced sinusoidal movement. After a prolonged period of unsuccessful food finding, animals exhibited long runs with reduced pauses, reversals and turnings, increasing their maximal covered distance, indicated as dispersal behavior. Acute photoinhibition of AVK neurons, mediated by cell-specific expression of halorhodopsin (NpHR) caused the animals to perform a dwelling-like locomotory state with increased bending angles, as seen during local-search behavior. Thus, food-induced behavioral effects are mimicked by the optogenetic manipulation of AVK interneurons.
In this study, signaling molecules were ascertained by cell specific mRNA profiling of AVK neurons, mediating these behavioral responses. It was able to demonstrate, that flp-1, coding for a FMRFamidelike neuropeptide, is one of the genes with the highest distribution in AVK. In the absence of food, AVK neurons continuously release the FMRFamide-like neuropeptide FLP-1 to inhibit a subset of target motoneurons, leading the animals to maintain a low body curvature to promote dispersing behavior.
Conversely, if AVK was inhibited by NpHR or the presence of food, less FLP-1 was secreted to the body fluid, indicated by reduced intracellular fluorescence levels of mCherry-tagged FLP-1 proteins in the scavenger cells. The search of a FLP-1 receptor was successful by in vitro investigation on G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and neuropeptide ligands, revealing NPR-6 to be activated by FLP-1 neuropeptides, but with a low potency. Expression pattern of the NPR-6 receptor indicated receptor localization in in the VC ventral cord and SMB head motoneurons, as well as in a subset of other neurons required for chemosensation and feeding. AVK interneurons are highly coupled to SMB head motoneurons, forming electrical synapses composed of the gap junction protein subunits UNC-7 and UNC-9. Elimination of SMB or gap junction genes using cell ablation and RNA interference, respectively, phenocopied effects of AVK inhibition on bending angles. Furthermore, this study was able to demonstrate that these neurons get inhibited during FLP-1 transmission to the NPR-6 receptor, which was required to mediate AVK effects on crawling behavior. Consequently, photoinhibition of AVK caused disinhibition of VC and SMB neurons, in order to enhance sinusoidal movement and to induce a local-search related locomotory behavior.
Thereby, FLP-1 neuropeptide transmission is the preferred used signaling pathway over direct gap junction coupling. Additional neuropeptides and receptors were identified to be essential downstream to AVK neurons to mediate effects on body curvature and locomotory behavior as well. The high-potency FRPR-7 receptor was shown to mediate FLP-1 peptide effects on undulatory motion during swimming in a liquid environment, rather than crawling locomotion on a solid surface. This result suggests that the receptor NPR-6 is required for FLP-1 peptide effects on bending and crawling locomotion, whereas conversely the receptor FRPR-7 is addressed by FLP-1 peptides to exclusively regulate swimming behavior. The FRPR-7 receptor is expressed in the AIM and NSM motoneurons, which are suggested to be the primary neuronal candidates mediating swimming behavior. Furthermore, this study provides evidence, that FRPR-7 acts in the DVC interneuron to control spontaneous reversal behavior, most probably by inhibitory FLP-1 signaling from the AVK neurons. Among other neuropeptides, the FMRFamide-like peptide FLP-26 binds with higher affinity to NPR-6 receptors than FLP-1 peptides. FLP-26 peptides are expressed in the SMB motoneurons, where they are able to further potentiate FLP-1 inhibitory effects by simultaneous binding to NPR-6.
...
Background and Purpose: The cyclic nucleotides cAMP and cGMP are ubiquitous second messengers regulating numerous biological processes. Malfunctional cNMP signalling is linked to diseases and thus is an important target in pharmaceutical research. The existing optogenetic toolbox in Caenorhabditis elegans is restricted to soluble adenylyl cyclases, the membrane-bound Blastocladiella emersonii CyclOp and hyperpolarizing rhodopsins; yet missing are membrane-bound photoactivatable adenylyl cyclases and hyperpolarizers based on K+ currents.
Experimental Approach: For the characterization of photoactivatable nucleotidyl cyclases, we expressed the proteins alone or in combination with cyclic nucleotide-gated channels in muscle cells and cholinergic motor neurons. To investigate the extent of optogenetic cNMP production and the ability of the systems to depolarize or hyperpolarize cells, we performed behavioural analyses, measured cNMP content in vitro, and compared in vivo expression levels.
Key Results: We implemented Catenaria CyclOp as a new tool for cGMP production, allowing fine-control of cGMP levels. We established photoactivatable membrane-bound adenylyl cyclases, based on mutated versions (“A-2x”) of Blastocladiella and Catenaria (“Be,” “Ca”) CyclOp, as N-terminal YFP fusions, enabling more efficient and specific cAMP signalling compared to soluble bPAC, despite lower overall cAMP production. For hyperpolarization of excitable cells by two-component optogenetics, we introduced the cAMP-gated K+-channel SthK from Spirochaeta thermophila and combined it with bPAC, BeCyclOp(A-2x), or YFP-BeCyclOp(A-2x). As an alternative, we implemented the B. emersonii cGMP-gated K+-channel BeCNG1 together with BeCyclOp.
Conclusion and Implications: We established a comprehensive suite of optogenetic tools for cNMP manipulation, applicable in many cell types, including sensory neurons, and for potent hyperpolarization.
Biologischen Systemen liegen Mechanismen zugrunde, die bis heute nicht vollständig aufgeklärt sind. Für die Untersuchung eignen sich externe Trigger, die eine Regulation von außen auf das System erlauben und Prozesse gezielt steuerbar machen. Eine Möglichkeit ist das System unter optische Kontrolle zu bringen, d.h. durch Licht eine externe Steuerung zu implementieren, was von einem internen Chromophor aufgenommen wird. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden drei individuelle Projekte vorgestellt, die alle dieses Prinzip auf unterschiedliche Weise anwenden.
RNAs haben eine Vielzahl an verschiedenen Funktionen in der Zelle, die von der Proteinsynthese bis zur Genregulation variieren. Im ersten Projekt wurde der Photoschalter Spiropyran im Kontext von RNA eingesetzt. Mit dem Ziel das Derivat PyBIPS kovalent an ein Oligonukleotid zu binden und damit die Hybridisierung eines Duplexes zu steuern, wurden Strukturmotive gesucht, an die der Photoschalter postsynthetisch gebunden werden kann. Dabei soll die sterisch anspruchsvolle Spiropyran-Form die Watson-Crick-Basenpaarung stören und die planare, konjugierte Merocyanin-Form in den Duplex, zur zusätzlichen Stabilisierung, interkalieren. In Vorarbeiten von Clara Brieke wurde festgestellt, dass erstens nur PyBIPS, nach kovalenter Verknüpfung, noch vollständig photochemisch aktiv ist und zweitens eine Herstellung über Festphasensynthese nur in schlechter Ausbeute realisierbar ist. Ausgehend davon wurde PyBIPS an die drei nicht-nukleosidischen Linker, Aminoglykol, D-Threoninol und Serinol, postsynthetisch über eine Amidbindung angebracht, die zuvor über Oligonukleotidfestphasensynthese in 2´-OMe-RNA eingebaut wurden.
In der photochemischen Charakterisierung konnte gezeigt werden, dass PyBIPS, gebunden an alle drei Motive, noch photochemisch aktiv ist und im Vergleich zu ungebundenem PyBIPS stabiler ist gegenüber Photolyse. In Untersuchungen im Doppelstrang im Wedge Motiv, d.h. im Gegenstrang befindet sich kein Nukleotid gegenüber dem Photoschalter, wurde ein ähnliches Verhalten festgestellt. Zusätzlich zur charakteristischen Merocyanin-Bande bei 550 nm ist ein zweites, rotverschobenes Absorptionsmaximum entstanden, das die gleichen Eigenschaften besitzt. In Schaltzyklen wurde festgestellt, dass eine Isomerisierung bis 660 nm möglich ist, was eine Anwendung im therapeutischen Fenster zwischen ca. 600 und 1000 nm von Blut ermöglichen würde. Das Auftreten der zweiten Bande hängt stark vom Linker und dem Baustein im gegenüberliegenden Strang ab. Es wird vermutet, dass sich das, sonst nicht-bevorzugte, TTT-Isomer der Merocyanin-Form, durch Stabilisierung durch die Umgebung im Oligonukleotid ausbildet.
Zur Untersuchung, inwiefern die Isomerisierung des Photoschalters die Duplexstruktur beeinflusst, wurden Schmelzpunktstudien und Fluoreszenzmessungen zur KD-Bestimmung durchgeführt, ohne dass eine Veränderung zu erkennen war. In einer größeren NMR-Studie, in Kooperation mit Tom Landgraf (Arbeitsgruppe Prof. Dr. Harald Schwalbe) wurde der Fokus darauf-gelegt mehr Informationen über die strukturelle Integrität zu erhalten. Es findet eine Störung der benachbarten Basenpaarungen durch den Photoschalter statt, jedoch kann die Kraft der Isomerisierung des Photoschalters nicht übertragen warden. Der Einfluss war zunächst geringer als erwartet, was in anderen Anwendungen überprüft warden muss.
Im zweiten Projekt steht das Membranprotein OmpG aus E. Coli K12 im Fokus. Proteine besitzen viele verschiedene funktionelle Gruppen, die für selektive Biokonjugation genutzt werden können in einer Reihe von Anwendungen. OmpG gehört zur Gruppe der Porine, die in der äußeren Membran von Gram-negativen Bakterien sitzen und die seltene ß-Fassstruktur ausbilden. Die Pore besitzt einen großen Innendurchmesser ohne Selektivität. Das Molekül wurde bereits intensiv auf seine Struktur, insbesondere Loop 6, der pH-abhängig die Pore verschließt, untersucht. In Vorarbeiten von Grosse et al. wurde der Loop entfernt, sodass ein ruhiger Kanal entstanden ist, der ein optimales Modellsystem darstellt. Außerdem wurden in der Pore zwei Cysteine, die auf gegenüberliegenden Seiten auf halber Höhe des Kanals sitzen, eingeführt. An die Thiolgruppen wurden photolabile Schutzgruppen angebracht, die erst den Kanal blockieren und nach Abspaltung durch Licht wieder freigeben. Dazu wurde jeweils ein 7-Diethylaminocumarin (DEACM) postsynthetisch angebracht.
Der Linker am Cumarin-Alkohol stellt dabei einen Kompromiss dar, da er zum einen selektiv mit der Thiolgruppe des Cysteins reagieren soll, gleichzeitig aber noch photo-induziert wieder abspalten muss. Durch Belichtung findet eine Hydrolyse des Esters unter Abspaltung des Alkohols statt, der einen Carbonsäurerest am Thiol in der Pore zurück lässt. In spannungsabhängigen Einzelkanal-messungen, durchgeführt von Dr. Philipp Reiß (Universität Marburg), konnte gezeigt werden, dass die zwei DEACM Modifikationen eine Reduktion der Leitfähigkeit bewirkten und durch Licht abgespalten und aus dem Kanal entfernt werden konnten. Dabei war außerdem zu erkennen, dass die Leitfähigkeit aufgrund der Carboxylreste über das Niveau von unmodifiziertem OmpG steigt.
...
Die vorliegende Dissertation stellt eine Methode zur Löslichkeitsbestimmung vor, die für die Anwendung im Rahmen von BCS-Biowaiver Monografien entwickelt wurde. Der Methode und dem dafür konzipierten Studienprotokoll liegt das Prinzip der „Minimallöslichkeit“ zugrunde. Damit lässt sich einfach, kosteneffizient und wissenschaftlich verlässlich feststellen, ob ein Arzneistoff „hochlöslich“ gemäß den BCS-Biowaiver Richtlinien der Gesundheitsbehörden FDA, EMA und WHO ist und sich dementsprechend generische Produkte des Arzneistoffs grundsätzlich für das BCS-Biowaiver Zulassungsverfahren eignen.
Dieses Verfahren für die Zulassung von Generika erlaubt die Beurteilung der Bioäquivalenz eines festen generischen Arzneimittels zur peroralen Anwendung auf Basis von in vitro-Freisetzungsuntersuchungen anstatt von in vivo-Studien wie z.B. pharmakokinetischen Studien am Menschen und erleichtert dadurch eine Marktzulassung sowohl durch Zeit- als auch Kosteneinsparung. Die Anwendung des Verfahrens ist von Vorteil, um die Verfügbarkeit von qualitativ hochwertigen, generischen (und damit kostengünstigen) Arzneimitteln zu erhöhen. Dies ist besonders wünschenswert für die Verfügbarkeit von gemäß der Weltgesundheitsorganisation essenziellen Arzneistoffen und unter denen gerade von solchen, die zur Bekämpfung von Krankheiten mit nur wenigen und/oder teuren therapeutischen Alternativen benötigt werden.
Entstanden ist die Löslichkeitsbestimmungsmethode im Rahmen von zwei Projekten, die beide zu diesem Ziel einer guten globalen Gesundheitsversorgung beitragen: die Erstellung der Biowaiver Monografien von Proguanilhydrochlorid (ein Malaria-Prophylaktikum) und Cefalexinmonohydrat (ein Antibiotikum aus der Gruppe der Cephalosporine) setzt die Publikationsreihe „Biowaiver Monograph Series“ der FIP Focus Group „Bioclassification/Biowaiver“ fort. Jede Monografie gibt eine umfassende wissenschaftliche Empfehlung zur Eignung eines Wirkstoffs der WHO „Model List of Essential Medicines“ und seiner generischen Produkte für das BCS-Biowaiver Verfahren hinsichtlich aller regulatorisch geforderten Aspekte ab. Proguanilhydrochlorid (BCS Klasse III – „hochlöslich“ und nicht „hoch permeabel“) und Cefalexinmonohydrat (BCS Klasse I – „hochlöslich“ und „hoch permeabel“) sind beide für dieses Zulassungsverfahren geeignet.
Im Zuge des anderen Projektes wurde die Löslichkeit und anschließend die BCS Klasse von Wirkstoffen bestimmt, die der 16. und 17. Version der WHO „Model List of Essential Medicines“ neu hinzugefügt wurden. Neun von 16 untersuchten Wirkstoffen, die in feste, perorale Arzneimittel formuliert werden können, sind im Hinblick auf ihre BCS Klasse für das eine Zulassung per BCS-Biowaiver geeignet. Eine umfangreichere Empfehlung könnte im Rahmen einer Biowaiver Monografie gegeben werden.
Die experimentelle Bestimmung der Löslichkeit über einen pH-Wert-Bereich von 1-6,8 war essenzieller Bestandteil beider Projekte, da Literaturdaten zur Löslichkeit der Wirkstoffe nicht oder nur unvollständig vorlagen. Die entwickelte Methode basiert auf einer im Kleinmaßstab angesetzten „Shake-Flask“-Methode zur Bestimmung der thermodynamischen Löslichkeit, wird jedoch in einem Zeitrahmen von 24 Stunden durchgeführt. Sie nutzt die höchste Dosis der Wirkstoffe als Substanzmenge, um zu bestimmen, ob dieser „hochlöslich“ gemäß den BCS-Biowaiver Richtlinien ist oder nicht. Die Methode bzw. das dazugehörige Studienprotokoll beinhalten Empfehlungen zu den einzelnen Schritten der Durchführung, der Auswahl der Medien und Herausforderungen wie Präzipitation (Fallbeispiel: Proguanilhydrochlorid) und Zersetzungsreaktionen (Fallbeispiel: Cefalexinmonohydrat). Löslichkeitsdaten, die mit dieser Methode erhoben werden, können für eine Zulassung per BCS-Biowaiver bei den Gesundheitsbehörden eingereicht werden, aber auch für ein Vorab-Screening genutzt werden, dass „hochlösliche“ Arzneistoffe aus einer Vielzahl von Substanzen herauszufiltern soll, um nähere Untersuchungen im Rahmen einer Biowaiver Monografie anzuschließen.
Photolabile protecting groups are widely used to trigger oligonucleotide activity. The ON/OFF‐amplitude is a critical parameter. An experimental setup has been developed to identify protecting group derivatives with superior caging properties. Bulky rests are attached to the cage moiety via Cu‐catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition post‐synthetically on DNA. Interestingly, the decrease in melting temperature upon introducing o‐nitrobenzyl‐caged (NPBY‐) and diethylaminocoumarin‐cages (DEACM‐) in DNA duplexes reaches a limiting value. NMR spectroscopy was used to characterize individual base‐pair stabilities and determine experimental structures of a selected number of photocaged DNA molecules. The experimental structures agree well with structures predicted by MD simulations. Combined, the structural data indicate that once a sterically demanding group is added to generate a tri‐substituted carbon, the sterically less demanding cage moiety points towards the neighboring nucleoside and the bulkier substituents remain in the major groove.
The ligand-sensing transcription factor Nurr1 emerges as a promising therapeutic target for neurodegenerative pathologies but Nurr1 ligands for functional studies and therapeutic validation are lacking. Here pronounced Nurr1 modulation by statins for which clinically relevant neuroprotective effects are demonstrated, is reported. Several statins directly affect Nurr1 activity in cellular and cell-free settings with low micromolar to sub-micromolar potencies. Simvastatin as example exhibits anti-inflammatory effects in astrocytes, which are abrogated by Nurr1 knockdown. Differential gene expression analysis in native and Nurr1-silenced cells reveals strong proinflammatory effects of Nurr1 knockdown while simvastatin treatment induces several neuroprotective mechanisms via Nurr1 involving changes in inflammatory, metabolic and cell cycle gene expression. Further in vitro evaluation confirms reduced inflammatory response, improved glucose metabolism, and cell cycle inhibition of simvastatin-treated neuronal cells. These findings suggest Nurr1 involvement in the well-documented but mechanistically elusive neuroprotection by statins.
Unc-51-like kinase 4 (ULK4) is a pseudokinase that has been linked to the development of several diseases. Even though sequence motifs required for ATP binding in kinases are lacking, ULK4 still tightly binds ATP and the presence of the co-factor is required for structural stability of ULK4. Here, we present a high-resolution structure of a ULK4-ATPγS complex revealing a highly unusual ATP binding mode in which the lack of the canonical VAIK motif lysine is compensated by K39, located N-terminal to αC. Evolutionary analysis suggests that degradation of active site motifs in metazoan ULK4 has co-occurred with an ULK4-specific activation loop, which stabilizes the C helix. In addition, cellular interaction studies using BioID and biochemical validation data revealed high confidence interactors of the pseudokinase and armadillo repeat domains. Many of the identified ULK4 interaction partners were centrosomal and tubulin-associated proteins and several active kinases suggesting interesting regulatory roles for ULK4.
Unc-51-like kinase 4 (ULK4) is a pseudokinase that has been linked to the development of several diseases. Even though sequence motifs required for ATP binding in kinases are lacking, ULK4 still tightly binds ATP and the presence of the cofactor is required for structural stability of ULK4. Here we present a high-resolution structure of a ULK4-ATPγS complex revealing a highly unusual ATP binding mode in which the lack of the canonical VAIK motif lysine is compensated by K39, located N-terminal to αC. Evolutionary analysis suggests that degradation of active site motifs in metazoan ULK4 has co-occurred with an ULK4 specific activation loop, which stabilizes the C-helix. In addition, cellular interaction studies using BioID and biochemical validation data revealed high confidence interactors of the pseudokinase and armadillo repeat domains. Many of the identified ULK4 interaction partners were centrosomal and tubulin associated proteins and several active kinases suggesting new roles for ULK4.
Highlights: Structure of the ULK4 ATP complex reveals a unique ATP binding mode.
Disease associated mutations modulate ATP binding and ULK4 stability
Degradation of active site motifs co-occurred in evolution with an ULK4 specific activation loop
BioID suggests a role of ULK4 regulating centrosomal and cytoskeletal functions,
Formulation scientists have developed a toolkit of strategies that can improve the solubility and subsequent bioavailability of poorly soluble candidates. Amorphous formulations are especially appealing due to the significant improvement in solubility the amorphous form can provide, but must be stabilized for effective performance (Timpe, 2007).
2. The Importance of Drug Polymer Interactions in Precipitation Inhibition
Polymeric “precipitation inhibitors” have seen widespread usage in the literature (Warren, 2010). The precipitation inhibition effect of polymers on precipitations is related to interference with nucleation and crystal growth (Xu, 2013). Many techniques have been reported in the literature to predict these interactions, however, they are not suitable to screening due to API and time resources required, which are not amenable to early stage pharmaceutical development.
3. Mesoporous Silica: An Emerging Formulation Technology
Mesoporous silicon dioxide has emerged in recent years as a new option for stabilizing the amorphous form. Upon impregnation of the silica with a concentrated drug solution, the drug can be molecularly adsorbed and locally and sterically confined, preventing recrystallization (Ditzinger, 2018). Upon administration of mesoporous silica formulations to the body the amorphous formulation generates supersaturation which must be stabilized using precipitation inhibitors (Guzman, 2007).
4. Co-incorporation: A New Method to Combine Precipitation Inhibitors with Mesoporous Silica
There has been no systematic study of how best to incorporate precipitation inhibitors into mesoporous silica formulations. The current standard practice involves combining inhibitors in a physical mixture with the drug-loaded silica, either by pestle and mortar or overhead stirring. Due to the lack of a defined protocol, there is uncertainty about how reliably the precipitation inhibitor is combined with the drug-loaded silica on a batch to batch basis. In this work, a novel co-incorporated formulation of glibenclamide and the precipitation inhibitor, HPMCAS, onto mesoporous silica was described. By co-incorporating the precipitation inhibitor, the formulation significantly outperformed the commonly applied simple physical blend due to the formation of drug-polymer interactions in the solid state.
5. In Silico Pharmaceutics: A New Method to Select Precipitation Inhibitors for Mesoporous Silica
An approach that can incorporate understanding of the drug-polymer interactions with a quick and efficient screening process would be very useful. The COnductor like Screening MOdel for Real Solvents (COSMO-RS) is a quantum mechanical theory, which can be used to derive thermodynamic properties of interest. (Klamt, 1993, 1995, 2003). We proposed excess mixing enthalpies of drug and polymer could be calculated using the COSMO-RS theory. This new approach was applied to screen precipitation inhibitors for three model compounds, all of which showed a strong positive correlation between the rank assigned based on the calculated free enthalpy of mixing and the overall formulation performance.
6. Conclusion
This body of work aimed to improve the processes underpinning the design and development of mesoporous silica with precipitation inhibitors. Firstly, this involved two extensive literature reviews in the area of solubility enhancement formulation technologies and precipitation inhibition. Secondly, a mechanistic rational and experimental approach was developed to improve the formulation of precipitation inhibitors with mesoporous silica, the “co-incorporation” approach significantly improved process efficiency and formulation performance. Finally, combining insights from the aforementioned review, and learnings from the mechanistic analysis of the “co-incorporation” approach, an in silico screening protocol was developed to calculate the enthalpy of interaction between drug and polymer, to identify the most optimal precipitation inhibitor for a given formulation.
Necroptosis is an immunogenic form of programmed cell death characterized by plasma membrane accumulation of activated mixed lineage kinase domain-like (MLKL) that eventually leads to membrane disruption and release of danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Necroptotic cell death is tightly controlled by checkpoints, including compartmentalization as well as post-translational modifications (PTMs), like phosphorylation and ubiquitination of receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIPK) 1, RIPK3 and MLKL. Removal of plasma membrane-located activated MLKL via endocytosis or exocytosis can counteract necroptosis, but up till now, the exact mechanisms by which necroptosis is regulated downstream of MLKL activation and oligomerization are not fully understood.
Ubiquitination is a key post-translational modification that regulates various cellular processes including cell survival and cell death signaling via ubiquitination of RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL. M1-linked (linear) poly-ubiquitination is mediated exclusively by the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC) which critically regulates cell fate and immune signaling via death receptors such as TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1).
In this study, we demonstrate that M1 poly-Ubiquitin (poly-Ub) increases during necroptosis which can be blocked by inhibition of LUBAC activity with the small-molecule HOIL-1-interacting protein (HOIP) inhibitor HOIPIN-8 or by loss of LUBAC catalytic subunit HOIP. Intriguingly, HOIPIN-8, as well as the HOIP inhibitor gliotoxin, and HOIP knockdown effectively prevent TNFα/smac mimetic/zVAD.fmk-induced necroptotic cell death in cells of human origin, without affecting necroptotic RIPK1 and RIPK3 phosphorylation, necrosome formation and oligomerization of phosphorylated MLKL. We demonstrate that HOIPIN-8 treatment inhibits MLKL translocation to intracellular membranes and accumulation in plasma membrane hotspots as well as MLKL exocytosis. We further confirm that HOIPIN-8 treatment suppresses necroptotic cell death in primary human pancreatic organoids (hPOs). Using time-lapse imaging and live/dead staining, we demonstrate loss of organoid structure and hPO cell death induced by smac mimetics and caspase inhibitors, thus providing a novel platform to investigate necroptosis in near physiological settings. Inhibition of LUBAC activity with HOIPIN-8 prevents hPO collapse and extends cell viability. Of note, loss of the M1 Ub-targeting deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) OTU DUB with linear linkage specificity (OTULIN) and cylindromatosis (CYLD) in human cell lines does not affect necroptosis induction and HOIPIN-8-mediated rescue of necroptosis. Intriguingly, inhibition of LUBAC activity with HOIPIN-8 does not block necroptotic cell death in murine cell lines.
Using massive analyses of cDNA ends (MACE)-seq-based global transcriptome analysis we confirm that necroptosis induces a pro-inflammatory cytokine profile which is dependent on LUBAC function and necroptotic signaling. Loss of LUBAC activity prevents the MLKL-dependent production and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines.
Finally, we identify Flotillin-1 and -2 (FLOT1/2) as putative targets of necroptosis-induced M1 poly-Ub. Ubiquitin-binding in ABIN and NEMO (UBAN)-based pulldowns of M1 poly-ubiquitinated proteins revealed enrichment of FLOTs after necroptosis induction which is dependent on LUBAC activity and can be blocked with necroptosis inhibitors Nec-1s, GSK’872 and NSA, targeting RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL, respectively. Of note, loss of FLOT1/2 potentiates necroptosis suppression induced by LUBAC inhibition with HOIPIN-8.
Together, these findings identify LUBAC-mediated M1 poly-Ub as an important mediator of necroptosis and identify FLOTs as novel putative targets of LUBAC-mediated M1 poly-Ub during necroptosis. In addition, by modeling necroptosis in primary human organoids, we further expand the spectrum of experimental models to study necroptosis in human cellular settings.
The KMT2A (MLL) gene rearrangements (KMT2A-r) are associated with a diverse spectrum of acute leukemias. Although most KMT2A-r are restricted to nine partner genes, we have recently revealed that KMT2A-USP2 fusions are often missed during FISH screening of these genetic alterations. Therefore, complementary methods are important for appropriate detection of any KMT2A-r. Here we use a machine learning model to unravel the most appropriate markers for prediction of KMT2A-r in various types of acute leukemia. A Random Forest and LightGBM classifier was trained to predict KMT2A-r in patients with acute leukemia. Our results revealed a set of 20 genes capable of accurately estimating KMT2A-r. The SKIDA1 (AUC: 0.839; CI: 0.799–0.879) and LAMP5 (AUC: 0.746; CI: 0.685–0.806) overexpression were the better markers associated with KMT2A-r compared to CSPG4 (also named NG2; AUC: 0.722; CI: 0.659–0.784), regardless of the type of acute leukemia. Of importance, high expression levels of LAMP5 estimated the occurrence of all KMT2A-USP2 fusions. Also, we performed drug sensitivity analysis using IC50 data from 345 drugs available in the GDSC database to identify which ones could be used to treat KMT2A-r leukemia. We observed that KMT2A-r cell lines were more sensitive to 5-Fluorouracil (5FU), Gemcitabine (both antimetabolite chemotherapy drugs), WHI-P97 (JAK-3 inhibitor), Foretinib (MET/VEGFR inhibitor), SNX-2112 (Hsp90 inhibitor), AZD6482 (PI3Kβ inhibitor), KU-60019 (ATM kinase inhibitor), and Pevonedistat (NEDD8-activating enzyme (NAE) inhibitor). Moreover, IC50 data from analyses of ex-vivo drug sensitivity to small-molecule inhibitors reveals that Foretinib is a promising drug option for AML patients carrying FLT3 activating mutations. Thus, we provide novel and accurate options for the diagnostic screening and therapy of KMT2A-r leukemia, regardless of leukemia subtype.
The scope of this thesis is to elaborate on the use cases of the EEG in pain research. It has been submitted as a cumulative dissertation, meaning that the main part of this thesis has been previously published in international peer-reviewed journals. The first part of this thesis begins with an introduction which describes the general methodoligcal considerations and theoretical background information that is needed to perform pain research using the EEG. Then, I will give a summary of the results of all three studies and the subsequently published manuscripts. The discussion will give an outlook on two ongoing projects and elaborate how the methodology that has been compiled throughout my time as a PhD student can be further applied to scientific problems in pain research. I will conclude with the possibilities and the limitations of the EEG in pain research. The second part of this thesis consists of three publications that cover three individual studies, of which I am the lead/first author. These publications describe different use cases for the EEG in pain research. The first publication lays out the methodological backbone of this thesis, analyzing the exact EEG parameters that are needed to achieve the results in the following projects. Then, I present two additional studies. The first study describes the usefulness of pain-related evoked signatures after standardized noxious stimulation in the EEG in patients undergoing general anesthesia. The second study outlines differences in the pain processing of elite endurance athletes versus a normally active control group. Furthermore, it outlines how the function of the endogenous pain modulatory system can be measured in the EEG using CPM. All studys are discussed individually as per the journal guidelines.
The ribosomal S1 protein (rS1) is indispensable for translation initiation in Gram-negative bacteria. rS1 is a multidomain protein that acts as an RNA chaperone and ensures that mRNAs can bind the ribosome in a single-stranded conformation, which could be related to fast recognition. Although many ribosome structures were solved in recent years, a high-resolution structure of a two-domain mRNA-binding competent rS1 construct is not yet available. Here, we present the NMR solution structure of the minimal mRNA-binding fragment of Vibrio Vulnificus rS1 containing the domains D3 and D4. Both domains are homologues and adapt an oligonucleotide-binding fold (OB fold) motif. NMR titration experiments reveal that recognition of miscellaneous mRNAs occurs via a continuous interaction surface to one side of these structurally linked domains. Using a novel paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) approach and exploring different spin-labeling positions within RNA, we were able to track the location and determine the orientation of the RNA in the rS1–D34 bound form. Our investigations show that paramagnetically labeled RNAs, spiked into unmodified RNA, can be used as a molecular ruler to provide structural information on protein-RNA complexes. The dynamic interaction occurs on a defined binding groove spanning both domains with identical β2-β3-β5 interfaces. Evidently, the 3′-ends of the cis-acting RNAs are positioned in the direction of the N-terminus of the rS1 protein, thus towards the 30S binding site and adopt a conformation required for translation initiation.
This doctoral thesis deals with the structural and dynamical NMR characterization of biomolecules, covering a broad range of proteins, from small peptides to large GPCRs proteins. This work consists of two projects, which are presented in chapter II and III. Chapter II is focused on the structural screening of peptides and small proteins ranging from 14 to 71 amino acids, while chapter III describes the structure and light dynamics of the disease relevant rhodopsin G90D mutant. The main method used to investigate both types of proteins is NMR spectroscopy. Both chapters comprise individual general introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion sections, and a final conclusion paragraph.
‘Chapter I: Methodological aspects of protein NMR spectroscopy’ presents an overview of different NMR methods developed for the rapid characterization of protein structure and dynamics. Multidimensional NMR, which is routinely used in structural biology, is indispensable for protein structure determination in solution. However, detailed information with resolution at the atomic level is time consuming and requires weeks of expensive measurement time, followed by the manual data analysis. Therefore, the development of time-saving NMR techniques is highly required for screening studies of a large amount of proteins, and can be also helpful for studying unstable biomolecules, as their short lifetime often restricts the experimental procedure.
This chapter covers the two main approaches to accelerate a multidimensional NMR experiment: fast-pulsing techniques that aim to reduce the duration of an individual measurement, and non-uniform sampling technique (NUS), which was developed to reduce the overall number of increments in virtual time domains. A combination of both approaches, fast-pulsing and non-uniform sampling, allows speeding up the measurement time by 2-3 orders of magnitude. Furthermore, recently developed software called TA (targeted acquisition) combines various time-saving approaches, including fast-pulsing, non-uniform sampling and targeted acquisition. Targeted acquisition algorithm records a set of multidimensional NMR spectra in semi-interleaved incremental mode. This provides the ability to monitor the quality of the recorded spectra in real-time and therefore enables the completion of the experiments after the desired quality is achieved. Using this approach will greatly reduce the measurement time without losing important structural information. The implemented automated FLYA assignment further contributes to the rapid and simplified readout of the chemical shift assignment progress of the TA program. During this doctoral dissertation, the scientific collaboration with the TA software developer Prof. Vladislav Orekhov (Sweden) took place, and resulted in the successful establishing of this new NMR technology in the Schwalbe laboratory. TA is now routinely applied in Prof. Schwalbe group for the structure elucidation of small proteins.
‘Chapter II: Rapid NMR and biophysical characterization of small proteins’ describes the structural analysis of peptides and small proteins, which were recently identified within the framework of the Priority Program (SPP 2002). Due to technical limitations in detections of small systems and strict assumptions concerning the smallest size of the gene that can be translated, small open reading frames (sORFs) were excluded from the automated gene annotation for a very long time. Thanks to the newly developed computational and experimental approaches, the ability to identify and detect the small proteins consisting of less than approximately 70 amino acids sparked a growing scientific interest by microbiologist. In the past years, hundreds of new short protein sequences were discovered. Although some peptides were found to be involved in diverse essential biological processes, the functional elucidation of a large number of recently discovered peptides and small proteins remains a challenging task. It is well established that the structure of proteins is often linked to their function. However, the size of small constructs often restricts the possible diversity of secondary structure elements that might be adopted by a protein. Furthermore, as was shown for intrinsic discorded proteins (IDPs), the absence of a well-defined three-dimensional structure does not necessarily mean lack of function. Moreover, peptides, which are initially unstructured in the isolated form can fold in a stable structured conformation upon interaction with their biological partners. Solution state NMR spectroscopy is perfectly amenable for the structural characterization of systems of this size. It provides a rapid readout about the conformational state of small peptides unambiguously, distinguishing between folded, molten globule and unstructured conformations.
During this doctoral thesis the workflow protocol for fast screening of peptides and small proteins was established and applied to 20 candidates ranging from 14 to 71 amino acids, which were identified and selected by six microbiological groups, all members of the Priority Program on small proteins (SPP2002) funded by the German research foundation (DFG). The screening protocol includes sample preparation and biochemical characterization. Peptides containing less than 30 amino acids were synthesized by solid phase synthesis (SPPS), while small proteins containing more than 30 amino acids were heterologously expressed in E. coli.
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Fragment-based screening has evolved as a remarkable approach within the drug discovery process both in the industry and academia. Fragment screening has become a more structure-based approach to inhibitor development, but also towards development of pathway-specific clinical probes. However, it is often witnessed that the availability, immediate and long-term, of a high quality fragment-screening library is still beyond the reach of most academic laboratories. Within iNEXT (Infrastructure for NMR, EM and X-rays for Translational research), a EU-funded Horizon 2020 program, a collection of 782 fragments were assembled utilizing the concept of “poised fragments” with the aim to facilitate downstream synthesis of ligands with high affinity by fragment ligation. Herein, we describe the analytical procedure to assess the quality of this purchased and assembled fragment library by NMR spectroscopy. This quality assessment requires buffer solubility screening, comparison with LC/MS quality control and is supported by state-of-the-art software for high throughput data acquisition and on-the-fly data analysis. Results from the analysis of the library are presented as a prototype of fragment progression through the quality control process.
tRNAs are L-shaped RNA molecules of ~ 80 nucleotides that are responsible for decoding the mRNA and for the incorporation of the correct amino acid into the growing peptidyl-chain at the ribosome. They occur in all kingdoms of life and both their functions, and their structure are highly conserved. The L-shaped tertiary structure is based on a cloverleaf-like secondary structure that consists of four base paired stems connected by three to four loops. The anticodon base triplet, which is complementary to the sequence of the mRNA, resides in the anticodon loop whereas the amino acid is attached to the sequence CCA at the 3′-terminus of the molecule. tRNAs exhibit very stable secondary and tertiary structures and contain up to 10% modified nucleotides. However, their structure and function can also be maintained in the absence of nucleotide modifications. Here, we present the assignments of nucleobase resonances of the non-modified 77 nt tRNAIle from the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. We obtained assignments for all imino resonances visible in the spectra of the tRNA as well as for additional exchangeable and non-exchangeable protons and for heteronuclei of the nucleobases. Based on these assignments we could determine the chemical shift differences between modified and non-modified tRNAIle as a first step towards the analysis of the effect of nucleotide modifications on tRNA’s structure and dynamics.
Focused electron and ion beam induced deposition (FEBID/FIBID) methods have gained significant attention in recent years because of their unique ability for the maskless fabrication of arbitrary three-dimensional shapes. Both techniques enable material deposition down to the nanoscale for applications in materials science and condensed matter physics. However, the number of suitable precursor molecules, especially for high purity deposits, is usually still very limited to date. Additionally, both the FEBID and FIBID process are very complex when assessed in detailed and the development of process-optimize, tailored precursor molecules is not yet possible.
In the first part of this work hexacarbonyl vanadium (V(CO)6) and dimanganese decacarbonyl (Mn2(CO)10) are investigated for their use in FEBID in order to complement the already existing data on transition metal carbonyl precursors. In addition, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) has been carried out to compare compositional differences for electron induced and purely thermal processes. FEBID using V(CO)6 resulted in the formation of a vanadium (oxy)carbide material with a V:C ratio of approx. 0.6-0.9. The material shows a temperature-dependent normalized electrical conductance typical for granular metals in agreement with TEM analysis. Additionally, characterization of the crystalline fractions reveals a cubic VC1-xOx phase in agreement with the phase observed in CVD thin films. Thermal decomposition using CVD yielded material of higher purity with V:C ratios of 1.1-1.3. In contrast, an insulating material with approx. 40 at% Mn is obtained for FEBID using Mn2(CO)10 as precursor with very similar compositions being observed for CVD thin films.
The second part of this work deals with the deposition of defined alloy materials by focused charged particle beam deposition. Three silyl substituted transition metal carbonyl complexes have been synthesized and tested for FEBID, FIBID and CVD. The three precursors investigated were: H3SiMn(CO)5, H3SiCo(CO)4, and H2Si(Co(CO)4)2. FEBID experiments with the manganese derivative show the selective loss of silicon, and metal/metalloid contents of up to 49 at%. Contrary, material derived from both cobalt derivatives did retain the 1:1 and 2:1 Co:Si ratios respectively, resulting in metal/metalloid contents of up to 62 at%. Temperature-dependent normalized electrical conductance measurements of as-grown and post-growth electron beam irradiated samples reveal behavior typical for granular metals except for the as-grown CoSi material which is located on the insulating side of the metal-insulator transition. Ga+-FIBID revealed H2Si(Co(CO)4)2 to be a very suitable precursor, retaining the predefined Co:Si ratio in the deposits, while significant loss of silicon was observed for H3SiCo(CO)4 derived deposits. Contrary to FEBID high metal/metalloid contents of up to 90 at% are obtained. Additionally, temperature dependent electrical properties of dicobalt silicide and the expected ferromagnetic behavior have been observed for the Co2Si-FIBID material. Further analysis enables the proposition of different dominating decomposition channels in FEBID and FIBID based on microstructural features such as bubble formation in FIBID materials.
Through its role in intron cleavage, tRNA splicing endonuclease (TSEN) plays a critical function in the maturation of intron-containing pre-tRNAs. The catalytic mechanism and core requirement for this process is conserved between archaea and eukaryotes, but for decades, it has been known that eukaryotic TSENs have evolved additional modes of RNA recognition, which have remained poorly understood. Recent research identified new roles for eukaryotic TSEN, including processing or degradation of additional RNA substrates, and determined the first structures of pre-tRNA-bound human TSEN complexes. These recent discoveries have changed our understanding of how the eukaryotic TSEN targets and recognizes substrates. Here, we review these recent discoveries, their implications, and the new questions raised by these findings.
The most versatile tool for visualizing endogenous RNA is molecular beacons (MBs). MBs are modified oligonucleotides that consist of a stem-loop structure equipped with a fluorophore and a quencher at the opposite ends. They only give a fluorescent signal when hybridized to the target RNA. Here we present our recent efforts to enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of RNA visualization by refining MBs.
We first asked if we could refine MBs to visualize defined subcellular populations of RNA in living neurons. To achieve this, we utilize visible light-activatable Q-dye MBs to allow only a subcellular fraction to be activated. Here, the fluorophore at the 5’-end was linked to a second quencher via a photolabile coumarin protecting group. Therefore, the MB only gives a fluorescent signal, when activated with visible light and hybridized to the target. This architecture allowed local activation of a hybridized subpopulation in a defined area of the cell. Knowing the exact origin of the activated RNA, we were able to increase the available monitoring time for neuronal mRNA from several minutes (literature known MBs) to more than 14 hours.
We next asked if it would be possible to gain spatiotemporal control over where the MB hybridization events occur. Therefore, we developed photo-tethered MBs where two phosphates in the loop backbone are covalently linked to each other via two photocages. This prevents the MB from hybridization to the target RNA. Only when light is applied, the photo-tethers are cleaved, and the inherent hybridization function of the MB is activated. This architecture allowed us to control the hybridization of photo-tethered MBs in primary cultured neurons.
Locomotion, the way animals independently move through space by active muscle contractions, is one of the most apparent animal behaviors. However, in many situations it is more beneficial for animals to actively prevent locomotion, for instance to briefly stop before reorienting with the aim of avoiding predators, or to save energy and recuperate from stress during sleep. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying such locomotion inhibition still remain elusive. So, the aim of this study was to utilize the practical genetic model organism Caenorhabditis elegans to efficiently tackle relevant questions on how animals are capable of suppressing locomotion.
Nerve cells, mostly called neurons, are known to control locomotion patterns by activating some and inhibiting other muscle groups in a spatiotemporal manner via local secretion of molecules known as neurotransmitters. This study particularly focuses on whether neuropeptides modulate such neurotransmission to prevent locomotion. Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that are secreted by specific neurons and that act in the brain by activating G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) expressed in other target neurons. They can act as hormones, neuromodulators or neurotransmitters. DNA sequences coding for neuropeptides and their cognate receptors are similar across diverse species and thus indicate evolutionary conservation of their molecular signaling pathways. This could potentially also imply that regulatory functions of specific neuropeptides are also similar across species and are thus meaningful to unravel more general mechanisms for instance underlying locomotion inhibition.
Specifically, we find that the modulatory interneuron RIS constitutes a dedicated stop neuron of which the activity is sufficient to initiate rapid locomotion arrest in C. elegans while maintaining its body posture. Similar to its known function in larval sleep, RIS requires RFamide neuropeptides encoded by the flp 11 gene for this activity, in addition to GABA. Furthermore, we find that spontaneous calcium activity transients in RIS are compartmentalized and correlated with locomotion stop. These findings illustrate that a single neuron can regulate both stopping and sleeping phenotypes.
Secondly, we show that C. elegans RPamide neuropeptides encoded by nlp-22 and nlp-2 regulate sleep and wakefulness, respectively. We unexpectedly find that these peptides activate gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-like receptors dose dependently and we highlight their sequence resemblance to other bilaterian GnRH-like neuropeptides. In addition, we show that these receptors are expressed in distinct subsets of neurons that are associated with motor behavior. Finally, we show that nlp 22 encoded peptides signal through GNNR 6 receptors to regulate larval sleep and that nlp 2 encoded peptides require both GNRR 3 and GNRR 6 receptors to promote wakefulness.
In sum, we find that locomotion inhibition in C. elegans is regulated by multiple, but evolutionary conserved RFamide and GnRH-like RPamide neuropeptidergic signaling pathways.
This thesis reports on the results obtained by expression photoactivatable adenylyl cyclase from Beggiatoa spp. (bPAC) in cholinergic neurons from Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and the characterization of the role of a single neuron, RIS, during locomotion in the adult animal.
Pharmacological activation of adenylyl cyclases through Forskolin is known to induce increased neuronal output in diverse model organisms through a protein kinase A (PKA) dependent mechanism. Nevertheless, pharmacological assays are not spatially restricted, do not allow for precise and acute activation nor to cessation of the signal. Thus, an optogenetic approach for was selected trough the expression of photoactivatable adenylyl cyclase from Beggiatoa spp. (bPAC) in cholinergic neurons of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). This model organism was chosen due to its transparency, ease of maintenance, fast generation cycles as well as for being an eutelic animal. Further, its genome has been fully sequenced and the connectome of the neuronal network is known, thus allowing for precise analysis of neuronal function. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms governing neuronal functions are well conserved up to primates. Mainly two optogenetical tools were applied, bPAC and the light gated cation channel channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2).
Behavioral assays of bPAC photostimulation in cholinergic neurons recapitulated previous work performed with the photoactivatable adenylyl cyclase from Euglena gracilis (EuPACa), in which swimming frequency and speed on solid substrate were increased. Electrophysiological recordings of body wall muscle (BWM) cells by Dr. Jana F. Liewald showed that bPAC photoactivation led to an increase in miniature postsynaptic current (mPSC) rate and, in contrast to ChR2 invoked depolarization, also amplitude. Analysis of mutants deficient in neuropeptidergic signaling (UNC- 31) via electrophysiology performed by Dr. Jana F. Liewald showed that the increase in mPSC amplitude due to bPAC photoactivation requires neuropeptide release. This was confirmed by co-expression of bPAC with the neuropeptide marker NLP-21::Venus and subsequent fluorescence analysis of release, exploiting the fact that released neuropeptides are ultimately degraded by scavenger cells (coelomocytes). These were enriched with NLP-21::Venus after bPAC photostimulation, but no fluorescence could be observed in the UNC-31 mutants.
Additional analysis of the electrophysiological data performed by myself showed no modulation of mPSC kinetics dues to neuropeptidergic release induced by bPAC. Hence, neuropeptide release and action sites were in the cholinergic neurons, the latter including cholinergic motoneurons.
Dr. Szi-chieh Yu provided electron microscopy images of high pressure frozen, bPAC or ChR2 expressing animals. These were tagged by myself for automatic analysis of ultrastructural properties of the cholinergic presynapse, also during photoactivation of both optogenetic tools. Photoactivation of both induced a reduction of synaptic vesicles, with ChR2 showing a more severe effect. In contrast to ChR2, though, bPAC also reduced the amount of dense core vesicles (DCV), the neuropeptide transporters. Additionally, long bPAC photoactivation as well as ChR2 photoactivation led to the appearance of large vesicles (LV), presumably in response to the increased SV fusion rate. bPAC photostimulation also induced an increase in SV size, not observed after ChR2 photostimulation. In UNC-31 mutants, bPAC photostimulation could not lead to the SV size increase, a further argument for the presynaptic effect of the released neuropeptide. Additional analysis of electrophysiology paired with pharmacology, performed by Dr. Jana F. Liewald, showed that mPSC amplitude increase requires the function of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter.
A further effect observed in the ultrastructure of bPAC photostimulated cholinergic presynapses was a shift in the distribution of SV regarding the dense projection. An analysis of cAMP pathway mutants showed that synapsin is required for bPAC induced behavior effects. Synapsin is known to mediate SV tethering to the cytoskeleton. Here, I show evidence for a new role of synapsin in controlling the availability of DCVs for fusion and thus, in neuropeptidergic signaling.
In the second part of my thesis I characterized the function of the GABAergic interneuron RIS in the neuronal network of C. elegans. RIS was shown to induce lethargus, a sleep-like state, during all larval molts, but its function in the adult animal was not yet described. Specific RIS expression of ChR2 achieved by a recombinase based system allowed to acutely depolarize the neuron during locomotion, which led to an acute behavioral stop. Diverse signal transduction pathway mutants were analyzed showing that the phenotype was induced by neuropeptidergic signaling. Through mutagenesis followed by whole genome sequencing data analysis as well as analysis of RIS specific RNA sequencing data further narrowed the signal transduction pathway to mediate the locomotion stop behavior. Since the neuropeptide and, to some extent, the neuron are conserved across nematodes, an argument is outlined in favor of the conservation of this sleep-like state.
In addition, since ChR2 could induce neuropeptidergic signaling from RIS, secretion of vesicles is regulated by variable pathways depending on the neuronal identity. Nevertheless, expression of bPAC in RIS allowed to optogenetically increase the probability of short stops, as observed by expression of a calcium sensor (GCaMP) in RIS and analysis of its intrinsic activity in the adult animal.
From the leaf exudate of Aloe lateritia ENGLER the C-glucosyl com pounds homonataloin, aloeresin A and aloesin (synon. aloeresin B) were isolated together with the anthraquinone nataloeem odin-8-methylether and spectroscopically identified. Hom onataloin, widely distributed in Aloe species, was separated into homonataloin A and B by combined TLC and DCCC. In their 1 D and 2D 1H NMR spectra only the shifts of the 2′-hydroxyl protons of both glucosyl residues differ significantly, indicative of 10 S (A) resp. 10 S (B) configurations. In both com pounds the anthrone is in β-position of the D-glucopyranosyl, as determined by the large coupling constants of the anomeric protons. The 13C NMR signals are unambiguously assigned by the use of DEPT, APT and gated-decoupling methods. Only the chemical shifts of C -11 and C -14 show significant differences between both diastereomers due to the adjacent 2′-sugar hydroxyls. The two homonataloins differ mostly in optical rotation and circulardichroism due to different configurations at C - 10 of the anthrone part. The absolute configurations of the diastereomers are determined by correlation of their CD spectra with the CD spectra of the structural analogues 7-hydroxyaloins A and B, which shows that hom onataloin A is the 10 S, 1′S-compound and that homonataloin B has 10 R, 1′S-configuration.
The absolute configurations of the diastereomeric 10-hydroxyaloins, which may be regarded as parent structures for other naturally occurring oxanthrone-C-glucosyls, have been established as 10R, 16 R (A) and 10 S, 16 R (B) by an X-ray structure analysis of the A-octaacetyl derivative (C 16 is the anomeric glucosyl carbon atom). The determination was confirmed by CD spectroscopic comparison with the structural analogues aloins A and B, which should prove useful for making future configurational assignments within this class of compounds. A conformational analysis by the use of a molecular modeling method based on force-field calculations reveals the presence of an extra- and an intra-form, the extra-form of which is energetically preferred.
In Vorarbeiten wurde gezeigt, dass der Kaliumkanal Slack an der Verarbeitung neuropathischer Schmerzen funktionell beteiligt ist und dass das klassische Neuroleptikum Loxapin Slack-abhängig neuropathisches Schmerzverhalten im Mausmodell lindert (Lu et al. 2015).
Ausgehend von Loxapin als Leitstruktur wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit im FluxOR™ Kaliumkanal-Assay an Slack-transfizierten HEK-Zellen insgesamt 68 neue Loxapin-Derivate gescreent. Hierbei wurden 23 Substanzen mit Slack-aktivierenden Eigenschaften identifiziert, von denen VHP93, VH408 und VH425 weiter in vivo untersucht wurden. Dabei zeigten Mäuse nach systemischer Gabe von VHP93 ein reduziertes Verhalten in einem Modell für neuropathische Schmerzen. Dem gegenüber wurde durch VH408 das Verhalten im neuropathischen Schmerzmodell nicht beeinflusst.
Des Weiteren konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass durch eine Slack-Aktivierung nicht nur neuropathisches Schmerzverhalten gehemmt wird, sondern auch die Kratzreaktionen im Chloroquin-Modell des Histamin-unabhängigen Juckreizes reduziert werden können.
Neben Slack wurde in dieser Arbeit auch die Gewebsexpression und funktionelle Bedeutung des eng mit Slack verwandten Kaliumkanals Slick charakterisiert. Expressionsanalysen ergaben, dass Slick überwiegend in dünn myelinisierten A-delta-Fasern und inhibitorischen Interneuronen im Dorsalhorn des Rückenmarks lokalisiert ist. Tierexperimentelle Untersuchungen zeigten, dass Slick-Knockout-Mäuse ein erhöhtes Schmerzverhalten nach thermischer Stimulation aufwiesen. Außerdem wurde bei Slick-Knockout-Mäusen in der späten Phase des Capsaicin- und Formalin-Tests ein signifikant erhöhtes Leckverhalten verzeichnet. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit liefern somit Hinweise auf eine funktionelle Beteiligung von Slick bei der Detektion von Hitzeschmerzen und bei der TRPV1- und TRPA1-vermittelten Schmerzantwort. Zusammengefasst zeigen diese Daten, dass Slick vorrangig an der Verarbeitung thermischer und chemischer Noxen beteiligt ist und dabei eine antinozizeptive Funktion ausübt.
Inflammation or injury to the somatosensory nervous system may result in chronic pain conditions, which affect millions of people and often cause major health problems. Emerging lines of evidence indicate that reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anion or hydrogen peroxide, are produced in the nociceptive system during chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain and act as specific signaling molecules in pain processing. Among potential ROS sources in the somatosensory system are NADPH oxidases, a group of electron-transporting transmembrane enzymes whose sole function seems to be the generation of ROS. Interestingly, the expression and relevant function of the Nox family members Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4 in various cells of the nociceptive system have been demonstrated. Studies using knockout mice or specific knockdown of these isoforms indicate that Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4 specifically contribute to distinct signaling pathways in chronic inflammatory and/or neuropathic pain states. As selective Nox inhibitors are currently being developed and investigated in various physiological and pathophysiological settings, targeting Nox1, Nox2, and/or Nox4 could be a novel strategy for the treatment of chronic pain. Here, we summarize the distinct roles of Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4 in inflammatory and neuropathic processing and discuss the effectiveness of currently available Nox inhibitors in the treatment of chronic pain conditions.
Die vorliegende Arbeit mit dem Titel Multiphoton Processes and Photocontrol of Biochemical Reaction Pathways befasst sich mit verschiedenen Strategien zur Implementierung von optischer Kontrolle in biochemisch relevanten Systemen. Auf systemischer Ebene wurde einerseits die Licht-getriebene Natriumpumpe Krokinobacter Eikastus Rhodopsin 2 (KR2) vor dem Hintergrund optogenetischer Anwendungen untersucht, und andererseits die Optimierung der wichtigsten photochemischen Parameter von photolabilen Schutzgruppen (PPG, engl. photolabile protecting group) angestrebt. Von der technisch-photophysikalischen Seite wurde ein weiterer Fokus auf den Aktivierungs- und Deaktivierungsschritt gelegt. Hierbei wurden vor allem Mehrphotonen-Prozesse betrachtet, die entweder durch simultane Absorption zweier Photonen zu einer spezifischen hoch-energetischen Anregung führen, oder durch sequentielle Absorption eine sukzessive Aktivierung und Deaktivierung eines Systems bewerkstelligen können. Auch wenn der Schwerpunkt dieser schriftlichen Arbeit auf den spektroskopischen Ergebnissen liegt, waren alle hier diskutierten Projekte stark kollaborativ und umfassten eine große Bandbreite verschiedener Techniken. Dies spiegelt den interdisziplinären Charakter vieler aktueller Fragestellungen in der photochemischen Forschung wider, die - in vielen Fällen - letztlich auf medizinische oder pharmazeutische Fortschritte abzielen.
Zunächst wurde die lichtgetriebene Natriumpumpe KR2 untersucht, die durch ihre mögliche Anwendung als optogenetisches Werkzeug bekannt wurde. In einer vergleichenden Studie der Natrium- und Protonenpumpmodi von KR2 konnten wichtige mechanistische Prinzipien für die Funktionalität des Proteins identifiziert werden. Dazu gehört die direkte Beteiligung spezifischer Strukturmerkmale wie die Aminosäure N112 und/oder der ECL1-Domäne am Ionen-Translokationsweg, sowie das enge Zusammenspiel zwischen dem Retinal und seinem Gegenion D116. Gleichzeitig bot diese IR-Studie einen der ersten mechanistischen Einblicke in den Protonenpump-Photozyklus in KR2, der deutlich weniger erforscht war. In Zusammenarbeit mit dem Arbeitskreis Glaubitz wurden die strukturellen Veränderungen des Chromophors und seiner Umgebung während der verschiedenen Photointermediate mittels DNP-verstärkter Festkörper-NMR und optischer Spektroskopie näher untersucht. Hier trugen zeitaufgelöste IR-Messungen in der HOOP (engl. hydrogen out of plane)-Moden-Region dazu bei, die dynamischen Veränderungen der Chromophorkonfiguration und -Verdrillung zu verfolgen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Retinal im O-Intermediat tatsächlich zu seiner all-trans-Konfiguration reisomerisiert wird, aber im Vergleich zu seiner Dunkelzustandskonfiguration deutlich stärker verdreht vorliegt.
Dies wurde auch durch die Ergebnisse im nahen UV-Bereich bestätigt, welcher bei der Charakterisierung von mikrobiellen Rhodopsinen oft ausgelassen wird. Die neu gefundene Signatur erwies sich als SBS (engl. second bright state) der 13-cis-Konfiguration des Retinals, die mit der Bildung des O-Intermediats in KR2 verschwindet. Neben der offensichtlichen Verwendung als spektraler Marker wurde der SBS-Übergang auch bezüglich seiner Anwendbarkeit für optische Kontrollexperimente untersucht. Ähnlich wie beim BLQ (engl. blue light quenching)-Effekt war es möglich, den KR2-Dunkelzustand durch Anwendung von fs-Pulsen im nahen UV - ausgehend von einem photostationären Zustand - zu regenerieren. Durch Variation der Probenbedingungen war es möglich, gezielt K (pH~5) oder M (pH~9) anzusteuern, was sich auch in unterschiedlichen Deaktivierungs-Dynamiken äußerte. Diese Ergebnisse können zusammen mit dem hier vorgeschlagenen experimentellen Konzept als Grundlage für komplexere Multiphotonen-Sequenzen im Zusammenhang optogenetischer Fragestellungen verwendet werden.
Im Gegensatz zu den recht großen und komplexen Photorezeptoren bieten unter anderem PPGs einen feineren Weg, um biochemische Reaktionen gezielt zu steuern und auszulesen. In diesem Zusammenhang sind zwei Eigenschaften von großer Bedeutung: Einerseits die Fähigkeit der PPG, Photonen bestimmter Wellenlängen zu absorbieren, und andererseits die Effizienz der gewünschten photochemischen Reaktion. Der letztgenannte Aspekt wurde unter der Hypothese untersucht, dass die Verringerung der konkurrierenden Deaktivierungskanäle in PPGs zu einer höheren Quantenffizienz der Freisetzung führt. Dies wurde an DEACM-basierten Modellverbindungen getestet, die systematisch modifiziert wurden, um verschiedene Deaktivierungsprozesse des angeregten Zustands zu identifizieren. Durch das Hinzufügen eines zusätzlichen sechsgliedrigen Rings wurde die Freisetzungsausbeute im Vergleich zu DEACM um das 2- bis 3-fache erhöht. Dies konnte durch eine weitere Planarisierung des Systems mit einer zusätzlichen Doppelbindung an der C6-Position sogar noch weiter verbessert werden (bis zu einem Faktor von 5-6). Die Anregung des Cumarin-Rückgrats führt zu einem lokal-angeregten Zustand, der sich im Gleichgewicht mit einem Ladungstransferzustand befindet. In Abhängigkeit der lokalen Umgebung, die vor allem durch die Protizität und Polarität des Lösungsmittels bestimmt wird, wird der Ladungstransfercharakter eher stabilisiert oder gar destabilisiert. Die Ladungsverschiebung führt auch zu einer Abschwächung der spaltbaren C-C-Bindung, die eine Voraussetzung für die Freisetzungsreaktion ist. Darüber hinaus wurde gezeigt, dass der mit der Freisetzungsreaktion verbundene zusätzliche Zerfallskanal zu einer mehr als 2-fachen Verringerung der Lebensdauer des angeregten Zustands in den funktionalisierten PPGs führt. Diese Eigenschaft ist ein vielversprechender photophysikalischer Indikator für die Freisetzung der Abgangsgruppe, der durch spektroskopische oder - mit zusätzlicher räumlicher Auflösung - auch durch mikroskopische Techniken wie in der Fluoreszenzlebensdauer-Mikroskopie ausgelesen werden könnte...
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a highly prevalent disease cluster worldwide. It requires polypharmacological treatment of the single conditions including type II diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia, as well as the associated comorbidities. The complex treatment regimens with various drugs lead to drug-drug interactions and inadequate patient adherence, resulting in poor management of the disease. Multi-target approaches aim at reducing the polypharmacology and improving the efficacy. This review summarizes the medicinal chemistry efforts to develop multi-target ligands for MetS. Different combinations of pharmacological targets in context of in vivo efficacy and future perspective for multi-target drugs in MetS are discussed.
Super-resolution optical fluctuation imaging (SOFI) is a super-resolution microscopy technique that overcomes the diffraction limit by analyzing intensity fluctuations of statistically independent emitters in a time series of images. The final images are background-free and show confocality and enhanced spatial resolution (super-resolution). Fluorophore photobleaching, however, is a key limitation for recording long time series of images that will allow for the calculation of higher order SOFI results with correspondingly increased resolution. Here, we demonstrate that photobleaching can be circumvented by using fluorophore labels that reversibly and transiently bind to a target, and which are being replenished from a buffer which serves as a reservoir. Using fluorophore-labeled short DNA oligonucleotides, we labeled cellular structures with target-specific antibodies that contain complementary DNA sequences and record the fluctuation events caused by transient emitter binding. We show that this concept bypasses extensive photobleaching and facilitates two-color imaging of cellular structures with SOFI.
Living matter is defined by metastability, implying a tightly balanced synthesis and turnover of cellular components. The first step of eukaryotic protein degradation via the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) leads to peptides, which are subsequently degraded to single amino acids by an armada of proteases. A small fraction of peptides, however, escapes further cytosolic destruction and is transported by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lysosomes. The ER-resident heterodimeric transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a crucial component in adaptive immunity for the transport and loading of peptides onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules. Although the function of the lysosomal resident homodimeric TAPL-like (TAPL) remains, until today, only loosely defined, an involvement in immune defense is anticipated since it is highly expressed in dendritic cells and macrophages. Here, we compare the gene organization and the function of single domains of both peptide transporters. We highlight the structural organization, the modes of substrate binding and translocation as well as physiological functions of both organellar transporters.
Ribonucleic acid oligonucleotides (RNAs) play pivotal roles in cellular function (riboswitches), chemical biology applications (SELEX-derived aptamers), cell biology and biomedical applications (transcriptomics). Furthermore, a growing number of RNA forms (long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs) but also RNA modifications are identified, showing the ever increasing functional diversity of RNAs. To describe and understand this functional diversity, structural studies of RNA are increasingly important. However, they are often more challenging than protein structural studies as RNAs are substantially more dynamic and their function is often linked to their structural transitions between alternative conformations. NMR is a prime technique to characterize these structural dynamics with atomic resolution. To extend the NMR size limitation and to characterize large RNAs and their complexes above 200 nucleotides, new NMR techniques have been developed. This Minireview reports on the development of NMR methods that utilize detection on low-γ nuclei (heteronuclei like 13C or 15N with lower gyromagnetic ratio than 1H) to obtain unique structural and dynamic information for large RNA molecules in solution. Experiments involve through-bond correlations of nucleobases and the phosphodiester backbone of RNA for chemical shift assignment and make information on hydrogen bonding uniquely accessible. Previously unobservable NMR resonances of amino groups in RNA nucleobases are now detected in experiments involving conformational exchange-resistant double-quantum 1H coherences, detected by 13C NMR spectroscopy. Furthermore, 13C and 15N chemical shifts provide valuable information on conformations. All the covered aspects point to the advantages of low-γ nuclei detection experiments in RNA.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Untersuchungen an zwei verschiedenen Retinalproteinen durchgeführt. Das erste analysierte Retinalprotein, Channelrhodopsin 2, wurde hauptsächlich auf die Beziehung zwischen Retinalisomerisierung und Photozyklus bzw. Funktionalität untersucht. Hierfür wurde das Chromophor all-trans Retinal durch verschiedene, sterisch anspruchsvolle, Retinalanaloga ersetzt. Das 9,12-Phenylretinal wurde bereits in BR erfolgreich eingesetzt, um die Isomerisierung des all-trans Retinals zum 13-cis Retinal in der Bindetasche zu verhindern und die Funktionalität des Proteins zu stoppen. In ChR2 hingegen kann das Phenylretinal nach Lichtanregung isomerisieren und ein Photoprodukt bilden, welches anschließend einen modifizierten Photozyklus durchläuft. In diesen Photozyklus zerfällt das erste Photoprodukt P1' sehr schnell und bildet ein zusätzliches Intermediat, Px, welches zeitlich zwischen dem P1' und P2' Intermediat liegt und eine grundzustandsähnliche Absorptionsbande besitzt. Im Vergleich zum Wildtyp läuft der modifizierte Photozyklus schneller ab als im Wildtyp und das Protein behält seine Funktion. Ein weiteres Retinalanalogon ist das trans-locked Retinal, welches sich als schwierig in das Protein einzubauen erwies. Dies resultierte in zwei verschiedenen Absorptionsbanden, wobei nicht klar war, welche die mit dem korrekt eingebauten Retinal war. Beide Banden wurden in Ultrakurzzeitexperimenten angeregt, hierbei stellte sich heraus, dass die bathochrom verschobene Spezies das korrekt eingebaute Retinal besitzt, da diese auch eine Schwingungsfeinstruktur, wie auch der Wildtyp, zeigt. Das trans-locked Retinal kann ChR2 erfolgreich an der Isomerisierung hindern und zeigt nach dem Zerfall des angeregten Zustandes keine Photoprodukt-Bildung.
Bei dem zweiten Retinalprotein, welches in dieser Arbeit untersucht wurde, handelt es sich um Krokinobacter eikaustus rhodopsin 2. Zuerst wird in dieser Arbeit die Primärreaktion des Proteins untersucht. Diese wurde unter verschiedenen Salzbedingungen, welche wichtig für die spätere Funktion des Proteins sind, jedoch auch Einfluss auf die Ultrakurzzeitdynamik des Proteins nehmen, analysiert. Der angeregte Zustand des Proteins zerfällt biexponentiell, wobei die erste Komponente den reaktiven Pfad und die langsamere Komponente den nicht-reaktiven Pfad beschreibt. Der reaktive Pfad bildet innerhalb einiger hundert Femtosekunden das bathochrom verschobene, isomerisierte J Intermediat, welches durch Kühlprozesse auf der unteren Pikosekundenzeitskala in das K Intermediat übergeht. Beim nicht-reaktiven Pfad zerfällt der angeregte Zustand innerhalb einiger Pikosekunden und geht in den Grundzustand über, ohne dass eine Isomerisierung des Retinals stattfindet. Sind Na+ oder K+ Ionen in der Lösung anwesend, sind diese Prozesse gleich schnell. In Abwesenheit dieser Ionen wird der nicht-reaktive Pfad stärker populiert und zerfällt langsamer. Das gleiche salzabhängige Verhalten konnte mit der Mutante H30A gezeigt werden. Die Aminosäure H30 sitzt im Interface zweier Oligomere in der Nähe der extrazellulären Na+ Bindestelle. Durch die Mutation von Histidin zu Alanin, wird das Protein fast ausschließlich zu einer Na+-Pumpe und pumpt kaum noch Protonen. Die Ultrakurzzeitdynamik bleibt jedoch unbeeinflusst davon und unterscheidet sich nicht vom Wildtyp. Neben dem normalen all-trans Retinal wurden auch hier, wie schon für Channelrhodopsin 2, Retinalanaloga im Wildtyp untersucht, hier hauptsächlich unter dem Aspekt der Farbanpassung. Die hier verwendeten Analoga waren das A2 Retinal und das MMA Retinal (MMAR), die beide durch die Erweiterung des -Systems zum Grundzustand rotverschobene Absorptionsspektren aufweisen. Das A2 Retinal besitzt eine weitere Doppelbindung und das MMAR zwei weitere Doppelbindungen im -Jonen Ring im Vergleich zum Retinal. Das MMAR hat zusätzlich noch eine weitere Methylamino-Gruppe. Durch das größere -System hat das MMAR auch die größere Rotverschiebung im Spektrum. Beide Retinalanaloga zeigen sehr breite ESA Banden und isomerisieren nur zu einem geringen Prozentsatz, die Hauptpopulation der angeregten Moleküle geht über den nicht-reaktiven Pfad zurück in den Grundzustand.
Der Photozyklus von KR2 wurde ebenfalls untersucht. Hierbei wird unter anderem das Verhalten des Proteins unter verschiedenen pH- und Salzbedingungen analysiert. Hierbei konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Dynamik des Natrium-Pump-Zyklus unabhängig vom pH Wert ist. In einem pH Bereich zwischen 6 und 9.5 ändern sich die Lebenszeiten des Zyklus nicht signifikant, jedoch wird die Amplitude des O Intermediats, welches als Indikator für den (nicht Protonen) Ionentransport genutzt wird, bei niedrigem pH Wert geringer. Die geringere Amplitude weist auf einen geringeren Na+-Transport hin. Dies liegt an der Kompetition der zu transportierenden Ionen, in diesem Fall Na+ und H+. Ist die H+ Konzentration viel höher als die Na+ Konzentration, so fängt das Protein an H+ zu pumpen. Unter physiologischen Bedingungen handelt es sich bei KR2 jedoch um eine reine Na+-Pumpe. Sind Kalium-Ionen bei pH 9.5 anwesend, so zeigt das Protein wie auch beim Natrium-Pump-Zyklus ein starkes O Intermediat, was darauf hindeutet, dass auch K+ transportiert werden kann. Dies konnte von Dr. Janina Sörmann (Arbeitsgruppe Bamberg, MPI für Biophysik Frankfurt) auch in elektrophysiologischen Messungen gezeigt werden. Bisher wurde in der Literatur davon ausgegangen, dass K+ vom Wildtyp nicht transportiert werden kann. Um die Photozyklusdynamik des Natrium-Pumpzyklus besser verstehen zu können, wurde die Temperaturabhängigkeit des Photozkylus mit Hilfe der Target Analysis untersucht. Hierbei stellte sich heraus, dass das simple sequentielle Modell K -> L -> M -> O -> GS die besten Fitresultate liefert, obwohl viele verschiedene Modelle mit Verzweigungen oder Rückraten ebenfalls getestet wurden. Resultat der Target Analysis sind unter anderem die Evolution Associated Difference Spectra (EADS). Diese beinhalten die Differenzspektren der einzelnen Zustände, welche um das Grundzustandsbleichen korrigiert werden können, um die Evolution Associated Spectra (EAS) zu bilden. Durch Entfaltung dieser EAS (auf der Energieskala) konnten die Reinspektren der einzelnen Photointermediate K, L, M und O berechnet werden. Auffällig hierbei war, dass das M Intermediat eine geringere Blauverschiebung als erwartet aufwies, was höchstwahrscheinlich an der Elektrostatik in der Retinal-Bindetasche liegt. Durch die Entfaltung der Spektren konnten ebenfalls die Gleichgewichte, welche zu schnell sind, um in der Target Analysis aufgelöst zu werden, bestimmt werden. Die K, L und M Intermediate stehen, je nach Temperatur, in verschiedenen Gleichgewichten zueinander, während das O Intermediat, keine Gleichgewichte eingeht und nur separiert von den anderen Intermediaten auftaucht. Dies bedeutet, dass sich zwischen M und O Intermediat ein unidirektionaler Schritt im Photozyklus befinden muss. Dieser hängt wahrscheinlich mit dem Na+-Transport zusammen, da das Ion beim Übergang vom M zum O aufgenommen und an der Schiffbase vorbei transportiert werden muss.
Um den Photozyklus besser untersuchen zu können, wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine Anlage zur transienten Blitzlichtphotolyse aufgebaut und die bestehende Breitband-Blitzlichtphotolyse automatisiert und verbessert. Hierfür wurden mithilfe von MATLAB und LABVIEW verschiedene Programme zur Datenakquisition, -verarbeitung und -analyse geschrieben. Für die transiente Blitzlichtphotolyse musste ein Datenreduzierungsprogramm entwickelt werden, um die mehrere Gigabyte großen Datensätze auf eine verarbeitbare Größe, mit gleichzeitiger Verbesserung des Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhältnisses, zu bringen. In der Breitband-Blitzlichtphotolyse konnte ein Pulsverzögerungsgenerator als zentrale Steuereinheit aller Komponenten der Breitband-Blitzlichtphotolyse eingesetzt und programmiert werden, um das Messverfahren zu automatisieren. Anschließend musste noch ein neues Datenverarbeitungsprogramm geschrieben werden, welches die Daten für die anschließende Analyse zusammenstellt und vorbereitet. Die neuen Programme gewähren einen reibungslosen Anschluss an die Analysesoftware OPTIMUS, welche in der Arbeitsgruppe genutzt wird.
Licht ist ein wertvolles Werkzeug zur Regulation biochemischer Reaktionsabläufe. Denn die Applikation von Licht erlaubt eine sehr präzise Einflussnahme auf den Ort und den Startzeitpunkt der zu untersuchenden Reaktionen. Als nichtinvasives Medium bietet die Lichtkontrolle bei der Wahl einer geeigneten Anregungswellenlänge den Vorteil nur minimal in einen lebenden Organismus einzugreifen. Um eine solche lichtbasierte Kontrolle für biologische Anwendungen zu realisieren, ist die Anwesenheit einer lichtsensitiven Verbindung nötig. Ein Konzept der lichtsensitiven Verbindungen ist die sogenannte photolabile Schutzgruppe. Im Allgemeinen handelt es sich hierbei um einen Chromophor der temporär an ein Biomolekül angebracht wurde, um dessen biologische Aktivität zu unterdrücken.
In dieser Arbeit wurde dieses Konzept auf das Antibiotikum Puromycin angewendet, welches durch das synthetische Anbringen der Cumarin-Schutzgruppe DEACM in seiner biologischen Aktivität behindert und durch einen Lichtpuls wieder freigesetzt wurde. DEACM st eine photolabile Schutzgruppe mit breitem Anwendungsspektrum, da es im Vergleich zu anderen Cumarin-Derivaten vorteilhafte photophysikalische Eigenschaften aufweist. Zum einen ist durch den 7-Diethylamino-Substituenten das Absorptionsmaximum dieser Verbindung um etwa 20 nm bathochrom verschoben. Zum anderen zeichnet sich dieses Derivat durch einen erheblich erhöhten Extinktionskoeffizienten aus, sodass eine Freisetzungsreaktion mit einer geringeren Lichtdosis induziert werden kann, was weniger Stress für die Zellen in lebenden Systemen bedeutet.
Die antibiotische Wirkung von Puromycin beruht auf der strukturellen Ähnlichkeit zum5'-Ende von Tyrosyl-tRNA, wodurch sich das Antibiotikum kondonunspezifisch während der Translation der Proteinsynthese an das Ribosom anlagern kann. Anschließend wird die naszierende Polypeptidkette auf das Puromycin transferiert. Da diese neue Bindung unter biologischen Bedingungen nicht spaltbar ist, führt dies zu einer verfrühten Freisetzung des Polypeptid-Puromycin-Fragments. Schließlich ist die Proteinsynthese vollständig abgebrochen.
Die Motivation zur photoinduzierten Kontrolle von Puromycin besteht in der Vielzahl an biologischen Applikationsmöglichkeiten, da die lichtregulierte Freisetzung der biologischen Aktivität als Trigger für sich anschließende biochemische Abläufe verwendet werden kann. Durch das hier gezeigte System kann in Kombination mit anderen Techniken (z.B. NMR) die posttranslationale Proteinfaltung beobachtet werden, welche als hochgradig komplexer Prozess bisher nicht verstanden ist. Eine weitere Motivationsgrundlage ist die Anwendung von DEACM-puromycin in Nervenzellen. Hier kann durch die Photofreisetzung die Proteinsynthese in den Dendriten der Neuronen beobachtet werden, wodurch Rückschlüsse auf neurodegenerative Krankheiten möglich sein sollten, wie z.B. Alzheimer-Krankheit. In dieser Arbeit konnte in-vitro nachgewiesen werden, dass die antibiotische Wirkung von Puromycin mittels Licht kontrollierbar ist. Aus der photophysikalischen Grundcharakterisierung ging hervor, dass DEACM-puromycin einen hohen Extinktionskoeffizienten bei Wellenlängen größer als 380 nm aufweist. Folglich kann zur Induktion der Photolyse eine geringere Lichtdosis mit energiearmer Strahlung als bei dem Vorläufersystem NVOC-puromycin verwendet werden, angesichts dessen ist das hier vorgestellte DEACM-puromycin für Anwendungen in Zellen zu empfehlen.
Über die Kombination von quantenchemischen Rechnungen und spektroskopischen Methoden konnten die frühen Schritte der Freisetzungsreaktion bestimmt und quantifiziert werden. Zudem zeigte sich ein Einfluss der Lösungsmittelzusammensetzung auf die Uncaging-Schritte. In Gegenwart eines protischen Lösungsmittels wird der zum Uncaging in Konkurrenz stehende Prozess der Fluoreszenz unterdrückt, wodurch die Freisetzungsschritte effektiver werden. Zudem führt die Präsenz von Protonen zu einer Stabilisierung des ionischen Intermediates, sodass die Bildung dessen beschleunigt ablaufen kann. Die Spaltung der photolabilen Schutzgruppen vom Puromycin findet mit einer Rate von 0,71*10^8 s-1 statt, welche im Vergleich zu Vorgängersystem um eine Größenordnung größer ist. Die Wiederherstellung der biologischen Aktivität resultiert aber erst nach einem anschließenden Decarboxylierungsschritt. Mithilfe von IR-Messungen konnte die Decarboxylierung beobachtet und daraus die Quantenausbeute zu 2,5% determiniert werden. Die so bestimmte Quantenausbeute entspricht etwa dem Zweifachen von NVOC-puromycin, sodass die hier untersuchte Verbindung eindeutig als das effizientere System zu betrachten ist. Die hier beschriebenen Ergebnisse zeigen, dass DEACM-puromycin vorteilhafte photophysikalische Eigenschafen aufweist, die diese Verbindung zu einem wertvollen Hilfsmittel für eine Vielzahl von lichtkontrollierten Untersuchungen in biologischer Umgebung macht. Zudem wurden Einblicke in den Reaktionsmechanismus gegeben, die das Verständnis der photolytischen Spaltung von Carbamat-geschützten Cumarinen erstmals auf der ultrakurzen Zeitskala ermöglicht.
Die Entwicklung von neuartigen, funktionellen Materialien ist eine komplexe Aufgabe, da die Gesamteffizienz der zu entwickelnden Materialien von einer Vielzahl von Faktoren abhängt. Während die auf einer molekularen Ebene durchgeführte Funktionalisierung via chemischer Reaktionsführung genauso wichtig ist wie die makromolekulare Anordnung, kann die Frage nach einer geeigneten Verbesserung von gegenwärtigen Materialien nicht nur auf einer dieser beiden Ebenen beantwortet werden. Die in dieser Arbeit präsentierten Ergebnisse basieren auf der mirkoskopischen aber auch markoskopischen Betrachtung von neuartigen, funktionellen Nanomaterialien und den daraus gewonnenen Erkenntnissen. Das übergeordnete Ziel ist dabei das Verständnis und die Charakterisierung von Ladungsseparationsprozessen und die daraus resultierende Erzeugung von elektrischen Strömen in organischen photovoltaischen Materialien.
Die relevanten Ladungsseparationsprozesse werden oft im Kontext der Dissoziation von Exzitonen, gebundenen Elektron-Loch Paaren, beschrieben, welche innerhalb der Donordomäne eines beliebigen Donor-Akzeptor-Materials erzeugt werden. Dabei ist der Prozess der Exzitonengenerierung abhängig von der Nanomorphologie des entsprechenden Materials, typischerweise so genannten Bulk-Heterojunctions. Dahingehend ist es notwendig, die Effekte von intermolekularen Wechselwirkungen sowohl mittels quantenmechanischer als auch dynamischer Methoden zu betrachten. Um alle relevanten Zeitskalen und Prozesse zu betrachten ist es weiterhin notwendig, auf sowohl eine deterministische Darstellung im Rahmen von quantendynamischen Methoden als auch statistischen Methoden zurückzugreifen.
Um die oft ultraschnellen und kohärenten Exzitonendissoziationsprozesse zu untersuchen wurde eine Kombination aus high-level ab initio Methoden und zeitabhängiger Dichtefunktionaltheorie (TDDFT) angewandt, um geeignete Modellhamiltonians zu parametrisieren, welche schließlich mittels der Multi-Configurational Time-Dependent Hartree (MCTDH) und der Multilayer (ML-MCTDH) variante propagiert wurden. Die MCTDH Methode hat sich als geeignete Methode erwiesen um eine voll quantendynamische Beschreibung von bis zu 100 Freiheitsgraden durchzuführen; die ML-MCTDH Methode erlaubt gar bis zu 1000 Freiheitsgrade quantendynamisch zu behandeln. Die Parametrisierung der Modellhamiltonians, auf welchen die quantendynamische Behandlung basiert, wurde dabei für kleine, jedoch repräsentative Fragmente durchgeführt. Die geeignete Wahl dieser Fragmente sollte sicherstellen, dass zum einen alle relevanten intermolekularen als auch intramolekularen Wechselwirkungen enthalten sind, jedoch gleichzeitig eine möglichst akkurate Beschreibung mittels high-level elektronenstrukturtheoretischer Methoden in gegebener Zeit möglich ist.
Mit Hilfe dieser Methodenkombination wurden zwei Arten von funktionellen organischen Materialien untersucht. Das erste untersuchte System ist ein neuartiges Donor-Akzeptor System, bestehend aus selbstorganisierenden Oligothiophen-Perylenediimid Dimeren, welche in der Gruppe von S. Haacke und S. Mery der Universität Straßburg synthetisiert und spektroskopisch untersucht wurden. Die quantendynamischen Simulationen an diesem System sollten die Ergebnisse der experimentellen, zeitaufgelösten pump-probe Spektroskopie validieren und die dürftige Effizienz im Hinblick auf eine effektive Ladungstrennung erklären. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass nach der Exzitonendissoziation Elektron und Loch auf räumlich benachbarten Donor- und Akzeptorfragmenten lokalisiert werden, was schließlich zu einem Rekombinationsprozess führen wird. Das zweite untersuchte System ist eine Kombination von Poly(3-Hexylthiophen-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) als Elektronendonor und [6,6]-Phenyl-C61 Butansäure Methyl-Ester (PCBM) als Elektronenakzeptor, welches schon hinreichend stark in diversen theoretischen und experimentellen Studien untersucht wurde. Aufbauend auf einem Gittermodell, welches in unserer Gruppe entwickelt wurde, wurde das Modellsystem um Charge Transfer Exzitonen in der Donordomäne erweitert. Die Bedeutung von solchen Charge Transfer Exzitonen in regioregulären Oligothiophenaggregaten ist ein aktuelles Thema in der Wissenschaft, sowohl in experimentellen aber auch theoretischen Abhandlungen. Neben der theoretischen Beschreibung zur Entstehung solcher Charge Transfer Exzitonen liegt ein besonderes Augenmerk auf dem Einfluss dieser predissoziierten Elektron-Loch Paaren auf die Ladungsseparationsdynamik zwischen Donor und Akzeptor sowie die Generierung von freinen Ladungsträgern. Dieser Aspekt der Ladungsseparation in einem P3HT-PCBM System wurde in dieser Art und Weise in dieser Arbeit zum ersten mal untersucht.
Neben dem zuvor erwähnten Donor-Akzeptor System erster Generation der Universität Straßburg wurde eine zweite Variante dieses Systems entwickelt, welches sich bei bisherigen experimentellen Untersuchungen als wesentlich effizienter erwies. Der interessante Prozess der Ladungsseparation ist dabei allerdings auf einer Zeitskala von mehreren hundert Pikosekunden angesiedelt, sodass kinetische Monte Carlo Methoden verwendet werden mussten um diese Prozesse zu modellieren. Dazu wurde ein Fortran90 Code entwickelt, welcher den First Reaction Method Algorithmus verwendet und explizite Delokalisationsprozesse behandelt, welche in dieser Form in kommerziellen Programmpaketen nicht enthalten ist. In vorangehenden Arbeiten konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Delokalisation von Exzitonen zu einer effektiven Herabsetzung der energetischen Barriere der Ladungsseparation führt und somit die Effizienz zur Stromumwandlung gesteigert werden konnte. Erste Simulationen mit diesem Code an idealisierten und zufällig generierten Donor-Akzeptor Morphologien lieferten realistische Werte für makroskopische Observablen wie Ladungsträgermobilitäten. Weiterhin wurden Simulationen einer coarse-grained Struktur zur zweiten Generation des Donor-Akzeptor Systems durchgeführt, ebenfalls mit Hinblick zur Untersuchung der Ladungsträgermobilität.
Protein biosynthesis is a conserved process, essential for life. Proteins are assembled from single amino acids according to their genetic blueprint in the form of a messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). Peptide bond formation is catalyzed by ancient ribonucleic acid (RNA) residues within the supramolecular ribosomal complex, which is organized in two dynamic subunits (Ramakrishnan, 2014). Each subunit comprises large ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and several dozens of peripheral proteins. mRNA translation has been divided into three phases, namely translation initiation, elongation and termination in biochemistry textbooks. During initiation, the ribosomal subunits assemble into a functional ribosome on an activated mRNA and acquire the first transfer RNA (tRNA), an adapter between the start codon on the mRNA and the N-terminal methionine of the protein (Hinnebusch and Lorsch, 2012). During elongation, the ribosome translocates along the mRNA exposing one codon after the other, and amino acids are delivered to the ribosome by the respective tRNAs, and attached to the nascent polypeptide chain. During termination, the polypeptide is released and the ribosome remains loaded with mRNA and tRNA at the end of the open reading frame for the translated gene (Hellen, 2018). Bacterial ribosomes are subsequently recycled by a specific ribosome recycling factor and the small ribosomal subunit is simultaneously consigned to initiation factors for a next round of translation – rendering bacterial translation as a cyclic process with an additional ribosome recycling phase. However, the process of ribosome recycling remained enigmatic in Eukarya and Archaea until the simultaneous discovery of the twin-ATPase ABCE1 as the major ribosome recycling factor. Strikingly, ABCE1 has initially been shown to participate in translation initiation (Nürenberg and Tampé, 2013). Thus, closing the translation cycle by revealing the detailed molecular mechanism of ABCE1 and its role for translation initiation are the two goals of this research.
Beyond the plenitude of well-studied translational GTPases, ABCE1 is the only essential factor energized by ATP, delivering the energy for ribosome splitting via two nucleotide-binding sites. Here, I define how allosterically coupled ATP binding and hydrolysis events in ABCE1 empower ribosome recycling. ATP occlusion in the low-turnover control site II promotes formation of the pre-splitting complex and facilitates ATP engagement in the high-turnover site I, which in turn drives the structural re- organization required for ribosome splitting. ATP hydrolysis and ensuing release of ABCE1 from the small subunit terminate the post-splitting complex. Thus, ABCE1 runs through an allosterically coupled cycle of closure and opening at both sites consistent with a processive clamp model. This study delineates the inner mechanics of ABCE1 and reveals why various ABCE1 mutants lead to defects in cell homeostasis, growth, and differentiation (Nürenberg-Goloub et al., 2018).
Additionally, a high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy (EM) structure of the archaeal post-splitting complex was obtained, revealing a central macromolecular assembly at the crossover of ribosome recycling and translation initiation. Conserved interactions between ABCE1 and the small ribosomal subunit resemble the eukaryotic complex (Heuer et al., 2017). The conformational state of ABCE1 at the post-splitting complex confirms the molecular mechanism of ribosome recycling uncovered in this study. Moving further along the reaction coordinate of cellular translation, I reconstitute the complete archaeal translation initiation pathway and show that essential archaeal initiation factors are recruited to the post-splitting complex by biochemical methods and cryo-EM structures at intermediate resolution. Thus, the archaeal translation cycle is closed, following its bacterial model and paving the way for a deeper understanding of protein biosynthesis.
In this thesis, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are used to study the interaction of different proteins with lipid bilayers. MD simulations can be used as a “computational microscope” to gain atomistic insights into the interactions between proteins and lipids that can barely be accessed in such detail by experimental methods. The different chapters of this thesis address the lipid sensing functionality of amphipathic helices (AHs) when bound to membranes, the folding of AHs at lipid-water interfaces as well as the conformational dynamics of the HIV-1 Env glycoproteins in viral-like and experimental bilayers. In the last chapter the possibilities to enhance the performance of MD simulations are explored, leading to a more efficient usage of computational resources.
Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common soft tissue sarcoma in early childhood. Despite recent advances in the treatment regimes of rhabdomyosarcoma, the 5-year survival is still alarmingly low for the more aggressive metastasizing alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma subtype. Novel treatment strategies are needed in order to increase the overall survival rate. Hallmarks of cancer include evade cell death induction and evade immune system surveillance. This is mediated in part by up-regulation of inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins. With the development of Smac mimetic compounds mimicking the endogenous IAP antagonist Smac, this tumor evasion mechanism became exploitable.
In this PhD thesis, a combinatory approach for a putative treatment option of RMS will be presented. Here, the Smac mimetic compound BV6 will be used as a pre-treatment of RMS cells. This leads to a sensitizing effect within the tumor cells, increasing the killing efficacy of natural killer (NK) cells.
Subtoxic concentrations of BV6 were chosen to sensitize RMS cells. To remodel the solid tumor characteristics of RMS, a multicellular RMS tumor spheroid culture model was used.
In both tumor spheroids and conventional monolayer cell culture BV6 induced the degradation of IAP proteins (cIAP1, cIAP2, in spheroids XIAP). Further, BV6 led to the activation of both, the canonical and non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathways.
This was demonstrated by an increased IκBα and p65 phosphorylation, and nuclear translocation of p-p65, indicative for an active canonical NF-κB signaling. On the other side, cIAP degradation led to the stabilization and accumulation of NIK and downstream partial degradation of p100 to p52 and its nuclear translocation, indicating non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway activity. A bulk RNA sequencing approach of BV6 treated RH30 cells validated the NF-κB signaling involvement and identified 182 differentially expressed genes. Among the interesting target genes are NFKBIA (IκBα),BIRC3 (cIAP2), NFKB2 (p100), CCL5 and SSTR2. SSTR2 was thoroughly validated as being up-regulated on a transcriptional and on protein level. Here, SSTR2A, one of the two alternative splicing variants, is up-regulated and opens a hypothetical targeted treatment strategy, as SSTR2 expression is not associated with RMS, but rather described with neuroendocrine tumor entities. In addition, CCL5 was thoroughly validated as a BV6 induced target. Again, the up-regulated mRNA transcription was validated by an increased translation and by increased secretion of CCL5. As CCL5 being associated as pro-migratory and activating of NK cells, CRISPR/Cas9 mediated CCL5 knock-out studies were performed to evaluate the influence of CCL5 within a BV6 pre-treatment and NK cell co-cultivation setting. It was shown that CCL5 knock-out does not rescue BV6 pre-treated RMS spheroids from NK cell attack and killing.
The previous mentioned transcriptional activity by BV6 stimulation was NIK mediated as knock-down of NIK reduced the mRNA transcription of several interesting genes.
However, NIK mediated down-stream signaling had no influence on the BV6 induced sensitizing effect towards NK cell mediated attack. A NIK knock-down had no rescue effect upon BV6 pre-treatment and NK cell co-treatment.
As cIAP proteins are present in receptor bound complexes, e.g. complex I at the TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1), a putative involvement of death receptors in general was evaluated.
Indeed, BV6 treatment of RMS cells could increase the surface presentation of DR5, a death receptor ligating TRAIL. Functionally, co-treatment of BV6 with TRAIL led to an additive cell death inducting effect. However, within the NK cell co-cultivation setting, addition of a neutralizing TRAIL anitbody could not rescue BV6 pre-treated RMS spheroids from NK cell killing. A similar effect was observed when neutralizing TNFα by adding Enbrel during the NK cell co-cultivation. BV6 sensitization of RMS spheroids seems to be independent of death receptors.
In addition to activating NF-κB, BV6 as a Smac mimetic is supposed to be able to release caspases bound by IAP proteins. Indeed, BV6 pre-treatment of RMS spheroids and co-cultivation with NK cells could cleave and thereby activate the executioner caspase-3. Further, treatment with a pan-caspase inhibitor, zVAD.fmk, could reduce the BV6 mediated sensitizing effect towards NK cell attack in RD spheroids.
Taken together, BV6 does induce a thoroughly validated NF-κB signaling pathway, leading to a NIK mediated transcriptional signature change. However, the NF-κB activation might not be responsible for the observed sensitization. Further, BV6 in combination with NK cells led to a seemingly death receptor independent, caspase dependent cell death induction of RMS spheroids. Although the mechanism remains partially con-cealed, a therapeutic benefit by combining a cell death sensitizing compound, i.e. BV6, with cytotoxic lymphocytes is evident.
Acinetobacter baumannii is a worldwide opportunistic pathogen responsible for nosocomial infections. One of the main factors contributing to multidrug resistance in A. baumannii is the upregulation of various chromosomally encoded or acquired efflux pumps, which expel toxic compounds out of the cells with high efficiency.
The resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND)-type efflux pump gene deletion strains ∆adeAB, ∆adeFG or ∆adeIJ and the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) chloramphenicol efflux pump gene deletion strain ∆craA of A. baumannii ATCC 19606 were created and a differential gene expression study was conducted via RT-qPCR. The expression of efflux pump genes adeB, adeG, adeJ, craA, and the outer membrane protein ompA were examined in the absence and presence of chloramphenicol. No significant up- or downregulation of these genes for any of these deletion strains in comparision to the wild-type strain in absence of the drug chloramphenicol.
In contrast, craA was significantly up-regulated in A. baumannii exposed to chloramphenicol, emphasizing the importance of CraA in chloramphenicol resistance. CraA is widely present in clinical isolates of A. baumannii. It is homologous to the well-studied multiple-drug efflux transporter MdfA from Escherichia coli (61% similarity), but surprisingly reported to be acting as a specific chloramphenicol transporter of A. baumannii (Roca et al., 2009).
The drug susceptibility assay done with A. baumannii ATCC 19606 ΔcraA showed that CraA could confer resistance towards phenicols (chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, and florfenicol), which was in line with the previous report. CraA was heterologously overproduced in E. coli BW25113 ∆emrE∆mdfA and its substrate specificity was determined by drug susceptibility assays and whole cell fluorescent dye uptake experiments. We observed that the substrate specificity of craA overexpressed in E. coli was more diverse and resembling that of the E. coli MdfA homolog. Apart from resistance towards phenicols (chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, and florfenicol), CraA also confer resistance towards monovalent cationic drugs (benzalkonium, TPP+, and ethidium), long dicationic drugs (dequalinium and chlorhexidine), fluoroquinolones (norfloxacin and ciprofoxacin) and anticancer drugs (mitomycin C). We showed that CraA is a drug/H+ antiporter by ACMA quenching in inverted CraA or CraA variant containing membrane vesicles.
To address the molecular determinants for multidrug binding and transport, 45 mostly single Ala-substitution variants of CraA were created. These include substitution variants for membrane-embedded proton-titratable residues (E38, D46, and E338) and residues predicted to be important for binding and transport of drug, as inferred from docking experiments on basis of a MdfA-derived CraA model. The combined results indicated a high degree of functional similarities between MdfA and CraA. The conserved titratable residues E26 and D34 (E38 and D46 in CraA) are important for transport in both these homologs. The CraA variant E38A is inactive against all tested drugs, but D46A is only inactive for some drugs, suggesting that only E38 is involved in H+-transport.
Another focus of this thesis is the three tetracycline transporters of A. baumannii strain AYE, TetA, TetG and TetA(A). Susceptibility assays involving tetracycline, minocycline, doxycycline and the last-resort antibiotic tigecycline were conducted on E. coli BW25113 ∆emrE∆mdfA overexpressing these transporters. TetA(A) was excluded from further study due to toxicity of the cells caused by protein overexpression. Both TetA and TetG confer resistance against tetracycline, minocycline and doxycycline. Although tigecycline was reported not to be recognized by tetracycline efflux pumps, we surprisingly found that TetA is able to transport tigecycline. The role of TetA in tigecycline efflux in A. baumannii was confirmed by conducting tigecycline susceptibility assays on A. baumannii.
We speculate that TetA embedded in the inner membrane acts in cooperation with RND-type tripartite systems that span the inner and outer membrane to extrude tigecycline from the periplasm across the outer membrane. A. baumannii ATCC 19606 ∆adeAB were indeed sensitive to tigecycline in comparison to wild-type strain. Deletion of adeIJ also leads to sensitivity to tigecycline, but less so compared to the DadeAB phenotype, while A. baumannii ATCC 19606 ∆adeFG did not show any difference compared to wild-type strain in tigecycline susceptibility. Differential gene expression analysis of the RND efflux pumps (adeB, adeG and adeJ) and tetA of A. baumannii strain AYE showed that the expression of tetA expression is significantly upregulated when tigecycline is present in the growth medium.
We conclude that craA encodes a broad-spectrum efflux pump rather than a specific chloramphenicol transporter. In A. baumannii, the synergistic effects with the outer membrane and/or the presence of other transporters could result in the discrepancy observed. Thus, the possibility of CraA in conferring multidrug resistance should not be overlooked, especially when it is up-regulated under antibiotic stress conditions.
Classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL) is one of the most common malignant lymphomas in Western Europe. The nodular sclerosing subtype of cHL (NS cHL) is characterised by a proliferation of fibroblasts in the tumour microenvironment, leading to fibrotic bands surrounding the lymphoma infiltrate. Several studies have described a crosstalk between the tumour cells of cHL, the Hodgkin- and Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells, and cancerassociated fibroblasts (CAF). However, to date a deep molecular understanding of these fibroblasts is lacking. Aim of the present study therefore was a comprehensive
characterisation of these fibroblasts. Moreover, only a few studies describe the interplay of HRS cells and CAF. The paracrine communication and direct interaction of these two
cellular fractions have been investigated within this study. Finally, the influence of a few HRS cells within a lymph node orchestrate the mere alteration of its architecture and
morphology. Gene expression and methylation profiles of fibroblasts isolated from primary lymph node suspensions revealed persistent differences between fibroblasts obtained from NS cHL and lymphadenitis. NS cHL derived fibroblasts exhibit a myofibroblastic - inflammatory phenotype characterised by MYOCD, CNN1 and IL-6 expression. TIMP3, an inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases, was strongly upregulated in NS cHL fibroblasts, likely contributing to the accumulation of collagen in sclerotic bands of NS cHL. Treatment by luteolin could reverse this fibroblast phenotype and decrease TIMP3 secretion. NS cHL fibroblasts showed enhanced proliferation when they were exposed to soluble factors released from HRS cells. For HRS cells, soluble
factors from fibroblasts were not sufficient to protect them from Brentuximab-Vedotin(BV) induced cell death. However, HRS cells adherent to fibroblasts were protected from BV-induced injury. The cHL specific interaction of both cell fractions reveals an initiation of inflammatory key regulators such as IL13 and IL4. Among important adhesion molecules known from literature the blocking of integrin beta 1 solely interrupted the adhesion of HRS cells to CAF. In summary, this study proves the stable reprograming of CAF phenotype and expression derived from NS cHL. It presents a suitable in vitro model for studying the interaction of HRS cells and CAF by paracrine factors and adherence. Most importantly the observations confirm the importance of fibroblasts for HRS cells´ inflammatory niche and cell survival associated with TIMP3 which probably acts as a major factor to the typical accumulation of fibrosis observed in NS cHL.
T-cell development is a highly dynamic and stepwise process comprimising T lineage commitment, T-cell receptor (TCR) gene rearrangements and subsequent selection. From a quantitative point of view, only a few hundred progenitor cells migrate from the bone marrow into the thymus. Developing thymocytes (termed double negative (DN), CD4-CD8-) can be further divided into DN1-4 cells based on the expression of CD25 and CD44. These developmental events are interspersed by proliferative bursts which ultimately lead to the generation of millions of double positive (DP, CD4+CD8+) thymocytes that then undergo selection. As a consequence, a proportion of naïve T-cells evolves to ensure adaptive, but not autoreactive immunity.
Previous studies of our lab focused on the quantification of thymus colonization and identified thymus entry to be dependent on expression of the chemokine receptors CCR7 and CCR9 (Krueger et al., 2010; Ziętara et al., 2015). CCR7/9 double knockout (DKO) mice are almost completely devoid of the most immature thymocyte populations (DN1 and DN2), but show near normal DN3 cellularity. Interestingly, a similar defect during early development but a virtually complete recovery of later stages and total thymocyte numbers was also observed in thymi of miR-17~92 deficient mice. Here, a failure of prethymic IL-7 signaling dampens early T-cell development (Regelin et al., 2015). For this reason, we hypothesized a tight regulation of thymocyte population size through alterations in the underlying cell cycle kinetics.
In this thesis, we employed in vivo single- and dual-nucleoside pulse labeling combined with determination of DNA replication over time in different WT thymocyte subsets at steady-state. Based on this, we assessed alterations in cell cycle kinetics of CCR7/9 and miR-17~92 defcicient mice and identified compensatory mechanisms of thymocytes on the level of cell cycle phase distribution and cell cycle speed. In addition, single-cell RNA sequencing helped to obtain information on cell cycle dynamics of early thymocyte subsets, exemplarily shown for WT and CCR7/9 DKO mice. Lastly, we performed cell cycle analyses in a model of endogenous thymic repair upon sublethal total body irradiation which provided insight into intrathymic cell cycle regulation as an adjustable system to re-establish normal thymus cellularity.
In the second part of the thesis, we addressed the role of miR-21 in the thymus. In various studies, we and others identified miRNAs as key posttranscriptional regulators of the immune system and especially for T-cell development (Regelin et al. 2015; Mildner et al. 2017; Li et al. 2007; Ebert et al. 2009; Ziętara et al. 2013; Schaffert et al. 2015). The dynamic expression of miR-21 during T-cell development (Neilson et al. 2007; Kirigin et al. 2012; Kuchen et al. 2010) prompted us to hypothesize that miR-21 has a regulatory function in the thymus. A miR 21-knockout mouse model allowed us to study the role of this miRNA for the development of T-cells in the thymus and the maintenance of T-cells in the periphery. In addition, we performed competitive bone marrow chimera experiments in the context of miR-21 deficiency and overexpression. Further insights were provided by exploring the function of miR-21 in negative selection in vivo as well as in T-cell differentiation in coculture experiments in vitro. To unravel implications of miR-21 to regulate cellular stress responses, we assessed the contribution of miR-21 in a model of endogenous regeneration of the thymus after sublethal irradiation. We could not provide evidence for a prominent role for miR-21 during T-cell development. Together, our experiments revealed that miR-21 is largely dispensable for physiologic T-cell development despite high and dynamic expression in the thymus (Kunze Schumacher et al., 2018). The apparent discrepancy between dynamic expression but lack of a regulatory function in the thymus led us to conclude that miR-21 is rather fine tuning T-cell responses than controlling a developmental event.
Molecular analysis of the ribosome recycling factor ABCE1 bound to the 30S post-splitting complex
(2020)
Ribosome recycling by the twin-ATPase ABCE1 is a key regulatory process in mRNA translation and surveillance and in ribosome-associated protein quality control in Eukarya and Archaea. Here, we captured the archaeal 30S ribosome post-splitting complex at 2.8 Å resolution by cryo-electron microscopy. The structure reveals the dynamic behavior of structural motifs unique to ABCE1, which ultimately leads to ribosome splitting. More specifically, we provide molecular details on how conformational rearrangements of the iron–sulfur cluster domain and hinge regions of ABCE1 are linked to closure of its nucleotide-binding sites. The combination of mutational and functional analyses uncovers an intricate allosteric network between the ribosome, regulatory domains of ABCE1, and its two structurally and functionally asymmetric ATP-binding sites. Based on these data, we propose a refined model of how signals from the ribosome are integrated into the ATPase cycle of ABCE1 to orchestrate ribosome recycling.
Lange ging man davon aus, dass die Physiologie der Thyroidhormone weitestgehend erforscht ist und nahm an, dass sämtliche Thyroidhormon-Wirkungen auf einer Bildung von L-Thyroxin (T4) und einer anschließenden Deiodierung zu Triiodthyronin (T3) beruhen, welches an die nukleären Thyroidhormon Rezeptoren (THRs) bindet. Über die THRs werden genomische Signalwege vermittelt, die während der Wachstums- und Entwicklungsphase essentiell sind. Beim Erwachsenen werden zudem vorwiegend katabole Stoffwechsel-Prozesse induziert. Jedoch zeigte sich in den letzten 20 Jahren, dass die Signalwege der Thyroidhormone komplexer sind als bisher angenommen. Vor allem die Metabolite des in der Schilddrüse gebildeten T4s, zeigen ein breites Interaktions-Profil mit anderen molekularen Zielstrukturen. Thyronamine, die decarboxylierten Thyroidhormon-Metabolite, binden beispielsweise den G-Protein-gekoppelten Trace Amine Associated Receptor 1 (TAAR1). Wird dieser Rezeptor aktiviert, kommt es innerhalb kürzester Zeit zu einem rapiden Abfall der Köpertemperatur, sowie zu einer akuten Bradykardie. Die durch oxidative Deaminierung gebildeten Iodthyroacetate Tetraiodthyroacetat (TETRAC) und Triiodthyroacetat (TRIAC) sind Antagonisten des Membran-Rezeptors Integrin αVβ3 und besitzen antiproliferative und pro-apoptotische Eigenschaften.
In dieser Arbeit sollte die Hypothese untersucht werden, ob Thyroidhormone neben diesen neuen zumeist nicht-genomischen Signalwegen, auch THR-unabhängige genomische Wirkmechanismen besitzen.
Mit Hilfe eines Gal4-Luciferase-Reportergen-Assays wurde in einem Screening die Aktivität einiger Thyroidhormone und Thyroidhormon-Metabolite an elf THR-ähnlichen Rezeptoren und den drei Retinoid X Rezeptor (RXR)-Subtypen untersucht. Es konnte detektiert werden, dass Thyroidhormone, vor allem TETRAC, potente Peroxisom-Proliferator-aktivierter Rezeptor (PPAR)γ-Agonisten sind, die zum Teil zusätzlich dessen Heterodimer-Partner RXR aktivieren können. Diese PPARγ- und RXR-Aktivität wurde zunächst mit Hilfe eines Coaktivator-Rekrutierungs-Assays, einer Isothermen Titrationskalorimetrie (ITC) und einer Kristallstrukturanalyse genauer charakterisiert. Zum einen konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass sowohl PPARγ, als auch RXR in artifizielleren Testsystemen durch Thyroidhormone aktiviert werden. Zum anderen konnte die für permissive Heterodimere, wie das PPARγ/RXR-Heterodimer, typische additive Transaktivierungs-Effizienz nach Bindung beider Heterodimer-Partner bestätigt werden. Außerdem zeigte die Untersuchung der Kristallstruktur von TETRAC und PPARγ, dass Thyroidhormone einen abweichenden Bindungsmodus im Vergleich zu anderen PPARγ Agonisten, wie den Glitazonen und entsprechende Fettsäuren oder Fettsäuremimetika, besitzen.
Die Evaluation der biologischen Relevanz der PPARγ/RXR-Heterodimer-Aktivierung ergab zudem, dass TETRAC, als potentester PPARγ-Agonist, in der Lage ist die Differenzierung von Präadipocyten zu Adipocyten zu induzieren. Außerdem wurde die mRNA-Expression wichtiger PPARγ-regulierter Gene in Hepatozyten trotz knockdown beider THR-Isoformen signifikant durch Thyroidhormone induziert.
Für eine erste Abschätzung einer möglichen physiologischen Relevanz der PPARγ/RXR-Aktivierung durch Thyroidhormone, wurde die Bildung von TETRAC nach Inkubation von Hepatozyten mit T4 quantifiziert. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass ausreichend TETRAC in den Hepatozyten gebildet werden kann, um PPARγ zu aktivieren. Auch in einem in vivo-Experiment, bei dem Mäusen ein mit Brom substituiertes T4-Analog (Br-T4) appliziert wurde, um Interferenzen mit der endogenen Thyroidhormon-Produktion zu verhindern, konnte gezeigt werden, dass die PPARγ-regulierte Genexpression in den Lebern der Tiere induziert wurde. Dies deutete auf eine physiologisch relevante Bildung von Br-TETRAC hin, da Br-TETRAC analog zu TETRAC eine hohe Bindungs-Aktivität an PPARγ besaß, während Br-T4 keine Aktivität an diesem Rezeptor aufwies.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit deuten darauf hin, dass Thyroidhormone neben den THR-vermittelten Effekten auch andere genomische Wirkmechanismen besitzen, indem sie das PPARγ/RXR-Heterodimer aktivieren. Diese biologische Aktivität könnte sowohl eine physiologische als auch eine pharmakologische Relevanz besitzen. Die beiden T4-Metabolite T3 und TETRAC sind in der Lage komplementäre Signalwege zu induzieren. Wird T4 deiodiert kommt es zur Bildung von T3, welches den THR aktiviert. Durch oxidative Deaminierung des T4s bildet sich TETRAC, das wiederum PPARγ bindet und aktiviert. Durch die vermehrte Bildung von TETRAC und anschließende Aktivierung von PPARγ könnte die katabole Wirkung der THR-Signalwege abgeschwächt werden und so eine Art negative Rückkopplung gewährleistet werden. Die physiologische Bedeutung der Interaktion von Thyroidhormonen mit PPARγ/RXR muss jedoch noch genauer untersucht werden.
Aber auch pharmakologisch könnte die Iodthyroacetat-Aktivität an PPARγ eine Rolle spielen. TETRAC könnte durch seinen individuellen Bindungsmodus als Leitstruktur für neue PPARγ-Partialagonisten mit verbessertem Nebenwirkungs-Profil dienen. Außerdem wird das Thyroidhormon-Derivat TRIAC schon jetzt als Leitstruktur für die Entwicklung von Thyroidhormon-Analoga mit THRβ-Selektivität verwendet. Durch die zusätzliche PPARγ-Aktivität könnte zukünftig ein dualer THRβ/PPARγ-Agonist bei Erkrankungen, die mit einer Insulinresistenz einhergehen, Verwendung finden.
Zusammenfassend stellt die Entdeckung der Aktivität von Thyroidhormonen an PPARγ und RXR einen weiteren Baustein im komplexen System der Thyroidhormone dar.
Polyketides are highly valuable natural products, which are widely used as pharmaceuticals due to their beneficial characteristics, comprising antibacterial, antifungal, immunosuppressive, and antitumor properties, among others. Their biosynthesis is performed by large and complex multiproteins, the polyketide synthases (PKSs). This study solely focuses on the class of type I PKSs, which arrange all their enzymatic domains on one or more polypeptides. Despite their high medical value, little is known about mechanistic details in PKSs.
One central domain is the acyl transferase (AT), which is present in all PKSs and channels small acyl substrates into the enzyme. More precisely, the AT loads the substrates onto the essential acyl carrier protein (ACP), which subsequently shuttles the substrates and all intermediates for condensation and modification to additional domains to build the final polyketide.
Some PKSs use their domains several times during biosynthesis and work iteratively – these are called iterative PKSs. Others feature several sets of domains, each being used only once during biosynthesis – these PKSs are called modular PKSs. All PKSs or PKS modules consist of minimum three essential domains to connect the acyl substrates. Three modifying domains are optional and can enlarge the minimal set. According to the domain composition, the acyl substrate is fully reduced, partly reduced, or not reduced at all. This variation of modifying domains accounts for the huge structural and therefore functional variety of polyketides.
Even though the structure of fatty acids is not exactly reminiscent of polyketides, their biosynthetic pathways are closely related. Fatty acid biosynthesis is carried out by fatty acid synthases (FASs), which share many similarities with PKSs. Both megasynthases feature the same domains, performing the same reactions to connect and modify small acyl substrates. In contrast to PKSs, FASs always contain one full set of modifying domains which is used iteratively, leading to fully reduced fatty acids.
The present thesis extensively analyzes the AT of different PKSs in its substrate selectivity, AT-ACP domain-domain interaction, and enzymatic kinetic properties. The following key findings are revealed through comparison: 1.) ATs of PKSs appear slower than the ones of FASs, which may reflect the different scopes of biosynthetic pathways. Fatty acids as essential compounds in all organisms are needed in high amounts for physiological functions, whereas polyketides as secondary metabolites only require basal concentrations to take effect. 2.) The slower ATs from modular PKSs do not load non-native substrates even in absence of the native substrates. This is different to the faster ATs from iterative PKSs and FASs, which indicates high substrate specificity solely for the ATs from modular PKSs and emphasizes their role as gatekeepers in polyketide synthesis. 3.) The substrate selectivity can emerge in either the first or the second step of the AT-mediated ACP loading and is not assured by a hydrolytic proofreading function.
Moreover, a mutational study on the AT-ACP interaction in the modular PKS 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS) shows that single surface point mutations can influence AT-mediated reactions in a complex manner. Data reveals high enzyme kinetic plasticity of the AT-ACP interaction, which was also recently demonstrated for the interaction in a type II FAS.
Based on these findings, the mammalian FAS is engineered towards a modular PKS-like as- sembly line with the long-term goal to rationally synthesize new products. Basically, three important aspects need to be considered: 1.) AT’s loading needs to be splitted in specific loading of a priming substrate by a priming AT and in specific loading of an elongation substrate by an elongation AT. 2.) FAS-based elongation modules need to be designed with varying domain compositions for introducing functional groups in the product. 3.) Covalent and non-covalent linkers need to be designed for connection of priming and elongation modules.
This study focuses on the first aspect, splitting loading of priming and elongation substrates. An elongation substrate-specific AT is installed in the mammalian FAS via domain swapping. Since ATs from modular PKSs were proven to be substrate specific, these are used to exchange the mammalian FAS AT. This work demonstrates that it is extremely challenging to create stable and functional chimeras, but first essential steps are taken. Proper domain boundaries for AT swapping are established and a stable chimera with 70 % wild type AT activity is created. However, this chimera is only of limited value for application in an elongation module due to the intrinsic slow turnover rate of the wild type AT. Using another PKS AT, a stable elongation module is designed and analyzed in its activity in combination with a priming module. These experiments demonstrate that the loading of priming substrates are successfully suppressed in the elongation module, but nonetheless only minor turnover rates are detected in the assembly line.
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