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Interferon-stimulated gene-15 (ISG15) is an interferon-induced protein with two ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domains linked by a short peptide chain, and the conjugated protein of the ISGylation system. Similar to ubiquitin and other Ubls, ISG15 is ligated to its target proteins with a series of E1, E2, and E3 enzymes known as Uba7, Ube2L6/UbcH8, and HERC5, respectively. Ube2L6/UbcH8 plays a literal central role in ISGylation, underscoring it as an important drug target for boosting innate antiviral immunity. Depending on the type of conjugated protein and the ultimate target protein, E2 enzymes have been shown to function as monomers, dimers, or both. UbcH8 has been crystalized in both monomeric and dimeric forms, but the functional state is unclear. Here, we used a combined approach of small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to characterize UbcH8′s oligomeric state in solution. SAXS revealed a dimeric UbcH8 structure that could be dissociated when fused with an N-terminal glutathione S-transferase molecule. NMR spectroscopy validated the presence of a concentration-dependent monomer-dimer equilibrium and suggested a backside dimerization interface. Chemical shift perturbation and peak intensity analysis further suggest dimer-induced conformational dynamics at ISG15 and E3 interfaces - providing hypotheses for the protein′s functional mechanisms. Our study highlights the power of combining NMR and SAXS techniques in providing structural information about proteins in solution.
Interferon-stimulated gene-15 (ISG15) is an interferon-induced protein with two ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domains linked by a short peptide chain, and the conjugated protein of the ISGylation system. Similar to ubiquitin and other Ubls, ISG15 is ligated to its target proteins with a series of E1, E2, and E3 enzymes known as Uba7, Ube2L6/UbcH8, and HERC5, respectively. Ube2L6/UbcH8 plays a literal central role in ISGylation, underscoring it as an important drug target for boosting innate antiviral immunity. Depending on the type of conjugated protein and the ultimate target protein, E2 enzymes have been shown to function as monomers, dimers, or both. UbcH8 has been crystalized in both monomeric and dimeric forms, but the functional state is unclear. Here, we used a combined approach of small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to characterize UbcH8’s oligomeric state in solution. SAXS revealed a dimeric UbcH8 structure that could be dissociated when fused with an N-terminal glutathione S-transferase molecule. NMR spectroscopy validated the presence of a concentration-dependent monomer-dimer equilibrium and suggested a backside dimerization interface. Chemical shift perturbation and peak intensity analysis further suggest dimer-induced conformational dynamics at ISG15 and E3 interfaces - providing hypotheses for the protein’s functional mechanisms. Our study highlights the power of combining NMR and SAXS techniques in providing structural information about proteins in solution.
The multistep-processes leading to the formation of tumors have been extensively studied in the past decades, leading to the identification of “hallmarks of cancer”. They are characteristic changes in biological processes that discriminate tumor cells from healthy cells. Increasing knowledge on the molecular structures associated with tumorigenesis allowed their specific inhibition in targeted anti-cancer therapy. However, successful targeted anti-cancer therapy is only available for a limited subset of diseases, so the continuous investigation of tumorigenic mechanisms is required to tackle the immense diversity of neoplastic entities.
AVEN and FUSE binding protein 1 (FUBP1) display the ability to regulate apoptosis and cell cycle progression. Thus, the proteins are associated with hallmarks of cancer (resisting cell death and uncontrolled proliferation). Indeed, aberrant expression of AVEN and FUBP1 could be demonstrated in multiple cancers. In contrast, there is only little knowledge on the physiological function of AVEN and FUBP1. The lack of knowledge results in part from the embryonic lethality of the homozygous knockout of Aven and Fubp1 in mouse models, limiting the gain of information by analyzing these animals.
In this study, I generated conditional Aven and Fubp1 knockout mice to investigate their physiological function.
By analyzing reporter mice expressing β-galactosidase under the control of the endogenous Aven promoter, I identified Aven promoter activity to be both tissue- and cell type-specific and dependent on the developmental stage. Detecting apoptotic cell death by immunohistochemistry did not reveal increased apoptosis in Aven knockout mice, suggesting a functional role of AVEN besides apoptosis inhibition during embryogenesis.
Basing on the significant Aven promoter activity detected in the adult brain and in the mammary gland, I generated and characterized conditional Aven knockout mice with Aven deletion restricted to cells within the brain or the mammary gland. AVEN depletion in these tissues was not embryonic lethal and the affected tissues displayed a normal histology.
Since aberrant Aven expression had been associated with hematologic malignancies, I also analyzed mice with an Aven knockout in the hematopoietic system. Depletion of AVEN in the blood cells had no effect on hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell frequencies. Consequently, AVEN seems to be dispensable for the maintenance and differentiation of stem, progenitor and mature blood cells, at least as far as the expression of particular differentiation markers was concerned.
As loss of AVEN in the analyzed tissues did not affect the viability of mice and did not produce any other obvious phenotype, the exact role of AVEN that is essential for embryo survival remains to be identified.
To study the oncogenic potential of AVEN, I investigated the role of AVEN in a mouse model for breast carcinogenesis. While AVEN expression seemed to be increased in breast tumors, tumor onset and progression were not altered in mice with depleted AVEN expression in the mammary gland. Consistently, Aven knockout tumor cells were neither less proliferative nor more prone to undergo apoptosis than Aven wildtype tumor cells. Cell culture experiments demonstrated that AVEN expression is upregulated by estrogen. Knockdown of AVEN in the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 slightly increased UV irradiation-induced apoptosis and accelerated metabolism. So while AVEN does not promote development or progression of breast tumors, enhanced AVEN expression in ER+ breast cancers might contribute to chemotherapy resistance.
To study the physiological role of FUBP1, I generated a conditional Fubp1 knockout mouse model. While the insertion of loxP sites into the Fubp1 locus was occasionally embryonic lethal, some mice with a cell type-specific deletion of Fubp1 in hematopoietic cells or EPO receptor expressing cells were born alive. In these mice, frequencies of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells as well as erythrocytes were unaltered. These results conflict with previous publications. However, compensating mechanisms might be responsible for the discrepancies between the observed phenotypes and reported FUBP1 function.
In cell culture studies, I could demonstrate that the previously reported upstream regulation of FUBP1 by TAL1 depended on an intact GATA motif in the FUBP1 promoter and that binding of GATA1 to the FUBP1 promoter increased during erythropoiesis.
To identify new FUBP1 target genes with relevance for erythropoiesis, I performed differential gene expression analysis in cells with wildtype and depleted FUBP1 expression. RNA-sequencing and PCR-arrays revealed only moderate differences in the expression of genes that are components of the EPO receptor signaling pathway as well as genes associated with apoptosis and proliferation of hematopoietic cells. By regulating the transcription of these genes, FUBP1 could contribute to efficient erythropoiesis.
Paramyxo- and pneumoviruses include many pathogens with great relevance for human and animal health. To identify common host factors involved in the Paramyxo- and Pneumoviridae life cycle as a basis for new insights in the biology of these viruses and the development of rationally designed therapeutics, genome scale siRNA screens with wild-type measles, mumps, and respiratory syncytial viruses in A549 cells, a human lung adenocarcinoma cell line, were performed. A comparative bioinformatics analysis yielded different members of the coatomer complex I, the translation factors ABCE1 and eIF3A, and several RNA binding proteins as cellular proteins with proviral activity for all three viruses. The strongest common hit, ABCE1, an ATP-binding cassette transporter member, was chosen for further study. We found that ABCE1 supports replication of all three viruses, confirming its importance for both virus families. While viral protein kinetics showed that ABCE1 knockdown resulted in a drastic decrease of MeV protein expression, viral mRNA kinetics are not directly affected by a reduction of ABCE1.
The impact of ABCE1 on viral and global cellular translation was investigated using both 35S metabolic labelling and non radioactive fluorescent protein labelling. ABCE1 knockdown strongly inhibited the production of MeV proteins, while only modestly affecting global cellular protein synthesis and showed that ABCE1 is specifically required for efficient viral, but not general cellular, protein synthesis, indicating that paramyxoand pneumoviral mRNAs may exploit specific translation mechanisms.
In a second approach the efficacy of the small-molecule polymerase inhibitor ERDRP-0519 against MeV was assessed in squirrel monkeys. Animals treated with the drug experienced less severe clinical disease compared to untreated controls, and this effect correlated with the onset of drug treatment.
We observed a reduction of levels of PBMC-associated viremia and virus release in the upper airways, illustrating effective inhibition of virus replication by the drug treatment. ERDRP-0519 drug treatment also alleviated MeV-induced immunosuppression. In addition to providing proof-of-concept for the support of MeV eradication efforts by preventing disease and transmission with a small-molecule polymerase inhibitor, this dissertation provides a novel perspective on cellular proteins that impact the replication of MeV, MuV and HRSV and highlights the role of ABCE1 as host factor that is required for efficient paramyxo- and pneumovirus translation.
Eukaryotische Zellen sind durch, aus Lipiddoppelschichten bestehenden, Membranen in Kompartimente mit unterschiedlichen Funktionen eingeteilt. Um einen Transport von Molekülen über die Membranen hinweg zu gewährleisten, werden Kanälen und Transporter benötigt. Eine Familie von Transportern sind die ATP-binding cassette (ABC) Transporter, die in allen Lebewesen, von Bakterien bis zum Menschen, vorkommen. Ein Mitglied dieser Familie ist der transporter associated with antigen processing-like (TAPL oder ABCB9). TAPL ist ein lysosomaler Polypeptidtransporter der per ATP-Hydrolyse Peptide von 6 – 59 Aminosäuren Länge vom Zytosol in das Lumen der Lysosomen transportiert. Hierbei kann TAPL, das ein Homodimer ist, in zwei funktionale Domänen geteilt werden. Der Teil des Komplexes, der für den Transport zuständig ist, wird als coreTAPL bezeichnet. Dieser beinhaltet die zytosolischen nucleotide binding domains (NBDs), die ATP binden und hydrolysieren können, und die Transmembrandomänen (TMDs), die Peptide binden und sie durch konformationelle Änderungen auf der anderen Membranseite freilassen. Die zweite Domäne ist eine N-terminale TMD, die als TMD0 bezeichnet wird. Dieser, aus vier Transmembranhelices (TMHs) bestehende Teil des Proteins, ist für die Lokalisation von TAPL in der lysosomalen Membran verantwortlich, sowie für die Interaktion mit den dort lokalisierten Membranproteinen LAMP-1 und LAMP-2. CoreTAPL ohne die TMD0s erreicht nicht die Lysosomen, sondern liegt in der Plasmamembran (PM) der Zelle vor. Die TMD0 hingegen benötigt coreTAPL nicht um korrekt in der lysosomalen Membran lokalisiert zu sein.
Die korrekte Lokalisation in der Zelle ist ein kritischer Punkt für ein Protein, um seine Funktion ausüben zu können. Die Transportprozesse vom Ort der Synthese des Proteins, dem Endoplasmatischem Reticulum (ER), zum Organell wo es seine Funktion ausüben soll, umfassen dutzende Proteine und Proteinkomplexe und ein komplexes Zusammenspiel zwischen Proteinen und den einzigartigen Lipidzusammensetzungen der Membranen verschiedener Organellen. Auf das Einfachste heruntergebrochen benötigt ein Transmembranprotein eine kurze Aminosäuresequenz auf der zytosolischen Seite, die Signalsequenz. Diese Sequenz wird von sogenannten Adapterproteinen erkannt, die wiederum andere Bestandteile der zellulären Maschinerie rekrutieren, die letztlich Vesikelbildung, Transport und Fusion mit der Zielorganelle vermitteln. Allerdings weisen nicht alle lysosomalen Transmembranproteine eine solche Signalsequenz auf, sondern besitzen unkonventionelle Zieldeterminanten, wie posttranslationale Modifikationen, oder sie interagieren mit anderen Proteinen, die wiederum die Interaktion mit den Adapterproteinen vermitteln.
The focus of this research was to understand the molecular mechanism that lies behind the insertion of tail-anchored membrane proteins into the ER membrane of yeast cells. State-of-art instruments such as LILBID, and Cryo-EM, combined with the introduction of direct electron detectors, were used to analyze the proteins that capture tail-anchored proteins near the ER membrane and help their releases from a chaperone, an ATPase named Get3. Get3 escorts TA proteins to the ER membrane, where both Get3 and the TA proteins interact sequentially to Get3 membrane bound receptors Get1 and Get2. Get1 and Get2 are homologs of mammalian WRB and CAML.
The native host was used to separately produce Get1, Get2, and the Get2/Get1 single chain constructs. The studies showed that when Get1 is expressed alone, Get1 does not seems to be located in the ER membrane but rather in microbodies like shape organelles (or peroxisome). Interestingly, Get1 seems to be located in the ER membrane when it is linked to Get2 as single chain construct.
The localization study of Get2/Get1 fused to GFP shows from the fluorescence intensity that Get2/Get1.GFP has a tube-like morphology or membrane-enclosed sacs (cisterna), implying that Get2/Get1 is actually targeted to the ER membrane and is likely functional. In other words, Get1 and Get2 stabilize each other in the ER membrane.
The expression of Get2/Get1 was found to be already optimum when expressed as single chain construct because the fluorescence counts did not improve when additives such as DMSO or histidine were added. However, when Get1 and Get2 are expressed separately, additives improve their protein production yield. In 1 liter culture, Get1 yield is increased by about 3 mg and Get2 by 1.8 mg. This can be explained by the space that Get1 and Get2 should occupy within the ER membrane as they must coexist with other membrane components to maintain the homeostasis of the cell. Hence, if there were no gain for single chain construct expression, it meant that Get2/Get1 was already well expressed on its own in ER membrane and has reached its optimum expression without the help of additives. The Get2/Get1 overexpression is more stable, tolerated and less toxic for the cells to express it at a high level.
DDM has proved to be the best detergent from the detergents tested to solubilize Get1, Get2, and Get2/Get1.
Thereafter, Get1, Get2 (data not shown), and Get2/Get1 were successfully purified in DDM micelles.
Furthermore, for the first time using LILBID, the actual study has shown that Get1 and Get2 are predominantly a heterotetramer (2xGet1 and 2xGet2) but higher oligomerization may exist as well.
Get3 binds to Get1 in a biphasic way with a specific strong binding of an affinity of 57 nM and the second of 740 nM nonspecific indicative of heterogeneity within the interaction between Get1 and Get3. This heterogeneity is caused by the presence of different conformation of either protein. However, in order to characterize a high-resolution structure model of a specific target one needs highly homogenous and identical molecules of the target protein or complex in solution. The homogeneity increases the chances of growing crystals during crystallography as the good homogeneity will likely generate a perfect packing of unit cells stack (also known as crystal lattice) in the three-dimensional spaces. The same truth goes for the single particles analysis Cryo-EM, especially for smaller complexes where having less or no conformation alterations of specific targets will enable the researcher to classify the particles in 2D and 3D, therefore improving the signal-to-noise-ratio that will ultimately lead to high-resolution structure determination.
Get1, Get2/Get1 and chimeric variants (tGet2/Get1, T4l.Get2/Get1, T4l.Get2.apocyte.Get1) were crystallized but none of the crystals could diffract due to heterogeneity.
This heterogeneity was not only occurring upon the binding of Get3 to its membrane receptors, but seems to be already present within the receptors themselves through possibly different conformation.
In this Ph.D. thesis, the heterogeneity of purified Get2 and Get1 as complex or individually in detergent is then, so far, the limiting factor for obtaining a high-resolution structure model of Get1 and Get2. As mentioned above, the heterogeneity observed was not due to the quality of the sample preparation but rather to the effect of different conformations that could have been native, or just because of the micelle used, as it was proven by the 3-D heterogeneity classification by Cryo-EM.
In general, crosslinking is one way to keep the integrity of protein complexes, however it appeared not to improve the sample quality when it was analyzed in micelles. Often the integrity of some membrane proteins is affected when they are solubilized and purified in detergents.
Finally, in this study, the structural map of Get2 and Get1 complex linked with chimeric protein T4 lysozyme and apocytochrome C b562RIL gene was obtained at 10 Å. However, this single chain construct has a density map corresponding to heterodimer species (one Get1 and Get2). Therefore, based on those data the tertiary structure of Get2/Get1 in micelle is poorly defined. It could be that the membrane extraction in DDM and the purification destabilizes the structure of the complex.
Zika-virus (ZIKV), a flavivirus mainly transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. The viral genome is surrounded by a nucleocapsid and a lipid bilayer, in which membrane and envelope proteins are embedded. ZIKV disease is mainly characterized by mild symptoms, such as fever, rash as well as pain in head and joints. However, after epidemics it caused in the Americas in 2015/16, ZIKV infections were also associated with severe neurological complications like the Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly in fetuses and newborns. So far there are no specific antiviral treatments or vaccines available against ZIKV. This strengthens the need for a detailed understanding of the viral life cycle and virus-host interactions.
The antiviral host factor tetherin (THN) is an interferon-stimulated protein and therefore part of the cellular innate immune response. It comprises an N-terminal cytoplasmic domain, followed by a transmembrane helix, an extracellular coiled-coil domain and a C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. Containing two sites for membrane insertion linked by a flexible structure, THN is able to integrate into the membrane of budding viruses, thereby attaching them to each other and to the cell membrane and preventing their further release and spread.
In this study, the crosstalk of ZIKV and THN was analyzed. Previous gene expression analyses by microarray and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) had revealed a strong upregulation of the BST2 gene encoding for THN in ZIKV-infected cells. However, this enhanced expression did not correlate with an enhanced THN protein level. On the contrary, the amount of THN in THN-overexpressing cells was after infection even heavily reduced. Furthermore, immunofluorescence analyses revealed a loss of THN membrane localization in these cells. By performing a cycloheximide assay, this loss could be traced back to a reduced protein half-life of THN in infected versus uninfected cells. Treatment with inhibitors of different protein degradation pathways as well as colocalization analyses with markers of several subcellular compartments indicated an involvement of the endo-lysosomal route. A knock-down of the ESCRT-0 protein HRS however prevented the sorting of THN for lysosomal degradation and led to a stabilization of THN protein levels. After HRS depletion, the release and spread of viral particles was reduced in THN-overexpressing compared to wildtype cells.
Taken together, the data obtained in this study revealed the potential of THN to restrict ZIKV release and spread. The enhanced degradation of THN in ZIKV-infected cells via the endo-lysosomal pathway could therefore be explained as an effective viral escape strategy. This could be circumvented by knockdown of the ESCRT-0 protein HRS, which highlighted HRS as a potential target for the development of antiviral treatments.
The Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus that causes high fever, rash, and recurrent arthritis in humans. The majority of symptoms disappear after about one week. However, arthritis can last for months or even years (in about 30% of cases), which makes people unable to work during this period. The virus is endemic in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indian Ocean islands, India, and Southeast Asia. It has additionally caused several large outbreaks in the last few years, affecting millions of people. The mortality rate is very low (0.1%), but the infection rates are high (sometimes 30%) and the number of asymptomatic cases is rare (about 15%). The first CHIKV outbreak in a country with a moderate climate was detected in Italy in 2007. Furthermore, the virus has spread to the Caribbean in late 2013. Due to climate change, globalization, and vector switching, the virus will most likely continue to cause new worldwide outbreaks. Additionally, more temperate regions of the world like Europe or the USA, which have recently reported their first cases, will likely become targets. Alarmingly, there is no specific treatment or vaccination against CHIKV available so far.
The cell entry process of CHIKV is also not understood in detail, and was thusly the focus of study for this project. The E2 envelope protein is responsible for cell attachment and entry. It consists of the domain C, located close to the viral membrane, domain A, in the center of the protein, and domain B, at the distal end, prominently exposed on the viral surface.
In this work, the important role of cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) for CHIKV cell attachment was uncovered. GAGs consist of long linear chains of heavily sulfated disaccharide units and can be covalently linked to membrane associated proteins. They play an important role in different cell signaling pathways. So far, solely cell culture passage has revealed an increased GAG-dependency of CHIKV due to mutations in E2 domain A, which was associated with virus attenuation in vivo. However, in this work it could be shown that cell surface GAGs promote CHIKV entry using non-cell culture adapted CHIKV envelope (Env) proteins. Transduction and infection of cell surface GAG-deficient pgsA-745 cells with CHIKV Env pseudotyped vector particles (VPs) and with wild-type CHIKV revealed decreased transduction and replication rates. Furthermore, cell entry and transduction rates of GAG-containing cells were also dose-dependently decreased in the presence of soluble GAGs. In contrast, transduction of pgsA-745 cells with CHIKV Env pseudotyped VPs was enhanced by the addition of soluble GAGs. This data suggests a mechanism by which GAGs activate CHIKV particles for subsequent binding to a cellular receptor. However, at least one GAG-independent entry pathway might exist, as CHIKV entry could not be totally inhibited by soluble GAGs and entry into pgsA-745 was, albeit at a lower rate, still possible. Further binding experiments using recombinant CHIKV E2 domains A, B, and C suggest that domain B is responsible for the GAG binding, domain A possibly for receptor binding, and domain C is not involved in cell binding. These results are in line with the geometry of CHIKV Env on the viral surface. They altogether reveal that GAG binding promotes viral cell entry and that the E2 domain B plays a central role for this mechanism.
As no vaccine against CHIKV has been approved so far, another goal of this project was to test new vaccination approaches. It has been published that a single linear epitope of E2 is the target of the majority of early neutralizing antibodies against CHIKV in patients. Artificial E2-derived proteins were created, expressed in E.coli, and successfully purified. They consisted of 5 repeats of the mentioned linear epitope (L), the surface exposed regions of domain A linked by glycine-serine linkers (sA), the whole domain B plus a part of the β-ribbon connector (B+), or a combination of these 3 modules. Vaccination experiments revealed that B+ was necessary and sufficient to induce a neutralizing immune response in mice, with the protein sAB+ yielding the best results. sAB+, as a protein vaccine, efficiently and significantly reduced viral titers in mice upon CHIKV challenge, which was not the case for recombinant Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA; MVA-CHIKV-sAB+), as a vaccine platform expressing the same protein. These experiments show that a small rationally designed CHIKV Env derived protein might, after optimization of some vaccination parameters, be sufficient as a safe, easy-to-produce, and cheap CHIKV vaccine.
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is a catechin found in green tea and was, in this work, found to inhibit the CHIKV life cycle at the entry state in in vitro experiments using CHIKV Env VPs and wild-type virus. EGCG was recently published to inhibit attachment of several viruses to cell surface GAGs, which is in line with the role for GAGs in CHIKV entry revealed in this work. EGCG might serve as a lead compound for the development of a small molecule treatment against CHIKV.
Riboswitches are regulatory RNA elements that undergo functionally important allosteric conformational switching upon binding of specific ligands. The here investigated guanidine-II riboswitch binds the small cation, guanidinium, and forms a kissing loop-loop interaction between its P1 and P2 hairpins. We investigated the structural changes to support previous studies regarding the binding mechanism. Using NMR spectroscopy, we confirmed the structure as observed in crystal structures and we characterized the kissing loop interaction upon addition of Mg2+ and ligand for the riboswitch aptamer from Escherichia coli. We further investigated closely related mutant constructs providing further insight into functional differences between the two (different) hairpins P1 and P2. Formation of intermolecular interactions were probed by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and NMR DOSY data. All data are consistent and show the formation of oligomeric states of the riboswitch induced by Mg2+ and ligand binding.
Synaptic transmission is a fundamental process that involves the transfer of information from a presynaptic neuron to a target cell through the release of neurotransmitters. The SV cycle is a complex series of events that enables the recycling of SVs, allowing for the sustained release of neurotransmitters. This process is mediated by a variety of proteins and enzymes, and its regulation is critical for maintaining proper synaptic function. Despite extensive research efforts, many aspects of the SV cycle and the underlying synaptic proteins remain poorly understood, highlighting the need for continued investigation into this important process. During this work, multiple aspects of synaptic transmission were studied by performing
behavioural, pharmacological, optogenetic, electrophysiological and ultrastructural assays on Caenorhabditis elegans. First, the role of two proteins (ERP-1 and RIMB-1) were analysed in the synaptic vesicle cycle. Second, a new optogenetic tool, the pOpsicle assay was described, which enables the direct visualization of synaptic vesicle (SV) release.
Activity-dependent bulk endocytosis (ADBE) enables the endocytosis of SV membrane and proteins in a fast manner during intense stimulation, resulting in bulk endosomes (also so-called large vesicles, LVs). Recycling proteins can be characterized by its site of action, whether they act at the plasma membrane (participating at the LV formation), or at the LV membrane (participating at the SV formation). ERP-1 (the C. elegans ortholog of Endophilin B) was recently identified as a possible SV recycling factor, its contribution to synaptic transmission has not been analysed before. During this project the function and possible cooperation of three proteins, ERP-1, UNC-57 (the C. elegans ortholog of Endophilin A) and CHC-1 (the C. elegans ortholog clathrin heavy chain) were studied, with a special emphasis of the site of action. It has been confirmed that these proteins participate together in synaptic vesicle recycling. Endophilins (ERP-1 and UNC-57) act both at the PM and the LV level, but while UNC-57 has been identified as the main player, ERP-1 rather has a minor role and acts as a back-up protein. CHC-1 functions the LV level in the first place, but it can compensate for the loss of UNC-57 and acts as a back-up protein at the PM.
RIM-binding protein is an evolutionarily conserved active zone protein, which interacts directly with RIM and N, P/Q, as well as L-type Ca2+ channels. RIM-BP and RIM have redundant functions in different model organisms including C. elegans, however, while the loss of UNC-10 (the C. elegans ortholog of RIM) led to drastic behavioural defects, the loss of RIMB-1 (the C. elegans ortholog of RIM-BP) led only to mild phenotypes. During this work the synaptic function of RIMB-1 and its interaction with UNC-10 and UNC-2 (C. elegans ortholog of the CaV2 1 subunit) were extensively investigated. It has been shown that RIMB-1 contributes to the precise localization of VGCCs in cooperation with UNC-10. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated, that RIMB-1 plays different roles in cholinergic and GABAergic neurons, thus it contributes to maintain a proper excitation/inhibition balance.
There are numerous available assays, which enable the indirect analysis of synaptic transmission, however, a tool, that enables the direct visualization of SV release, is highly desired. pOpsicle is a method which combines the optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic neurons with real-time visualization of SV release. A pH-sensitive fluorescence protein, pHuji, was inserted into the second intravesicular loop of the synaptic vesicle membrane protein, synaptogyrin (SNG-1). The fluorescence of pHuji is quenched inside the vesicles, but once they are released, the pH increases and pHuji can be detected. pOpsicle enables not only the direct visualization of SV exo-, and endocytosis events, but also the identification of putative SV recycling proteins.
Gram-negative Tripartite Resistance Nodulation and cell Division (RND) superfamily efflux pumps confer various functions, including multidrug and bile salt resistance, quorum-sensing, virulence and can influence the rate of mutations on the chromosome. Multidrug RND efflux systems are often characterized by a wide substrate specificity. Similarly to many other RND efflux pump systems, AcrAD-TolC confers resistance toward SDS, novobiocin and deoxycholate. In contrast to the other pumps, however, it in addition confers resistance against aminoglycosides and dianionic β-lactams, such as sulbenicillin, aztreonam and carbenicillin. Here, we could show that AcrD from Salmonella typhimurium confers resistance toward several hitherto unreported AcrD substrates such as temocillin, dicloxacillin, cefazolin and fusidic acid. In order to address the molecular determinants of the S. typhimurium AcrD substrate specificity, we conducted substitution analyses in the putative access and deep binding pockets and in the TM1/TM2 groove region. The variants were tested in E. coli ΔacrBΔacrD against β-lactams oxacillin, carbenicillin, aztreonam and temocillin. Deep binding pocket variants N136A, D276A and Y327A; access pocket variant R625A; and variants with substitutions in the groove region between TM1 and TM2 conferred a sensitive phenotype and might, therefore, be involved in anionic β-lactam export. In contrast, lower susceptibilities were observed for E. coli cells harbouring deep binding pocket variants T139A, D176A, S180A, F609A, T611A and F627A and the TM1/TM2 groove variant I337A. This study provides the first insights of side chains involved in drug binding and transport for AcrD from S. typhimurium.
Despite all advances in drug delivery, the limitations of the analytical technologies involved in the characterization of next-generation nanomedicines are still impeding further progress of an emerging market. Discriminating between different formulations and batches, drug release is one of the most important quality criteria in development and quality control of pharmaceutics. Unfortunately, there are only few methods available to sensitively measure this important parameter for nanosized carriers. With the development of the dispersion releaser (DR) technology our group has set up a dialysis-based technique that was tested with a number of nanocarrier and nanocrystal formulations such as liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles. By supporting formulation development with a more reliable methodology to assess the drug release from nanosized carriers, a first step has been made to improve future products.
Cyclic GMP (cGMP) is a second messenger that regulates numerous physiological and pathophysiological processes. In recent years, more and more studies have uncovered multiple roles of cGMP signalling pathways in the somatosensory system. Accumulating evidence suggests that cGMP regulates different cellular processes from embryonic development through to adulthood. During embryonic development, a cGMP-dependent signalling cascade in the trunk sensory system is essential for axon bifurcation, a specific form of branching of somatosensory axons. In adulthood, various cGMP signalling pathways in distinct cell populations of sensory neurons and dorsal horn neurons in the spinal cord play an important role in the processing of pain and itch. Some of the involved enzymes might serve as a target for future therapies. In this review, we summarise the knowledge regarding cGMP-dependent signalling pathways in dorsal root ganglia and the spinal cord during embryonic development and adulthood, and the potential of targeting these pathways.
LINKED ARTICLES
This article is part of a themed issue on cGMP Signalling in Cell Growth and Survival. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v179.11/issuetoc
Central cholinergic function and metabolic changes in streptozotocin‐induced rat brain injury
(2020)
As glucose hypometabolism in the brain is an early sign of Alzheimer´s dementia (AD), the diabetogenic drug streptozotocin (STZ) has been used to induce Alzheimer‐like pathology in rat brain by intracereboventricular injection (icv‐STZ). However, many details of the pathological mechanism of STZ in this AD model remain unclear. Here, we report metabolic and cholinergic effects of icv‐STZ using microdialysis in freely moving animals. We found that icv‐STZ at a dose of 3 mg/kg (2 × 1.5 mg/kg) causes overt toxicity reflected in body weight loss. Three weeks after STZ administration, histological examination revealed a high number of glial fibrillary acidic protein reactive cells in the hippocampus, accompanied by Fluoro‐Jade C‐positive cells in the CA1 region. Glucose and lactate levels in microdialysates were unchanged, but mitochondrial respiration measured ex vivo was reduced by 9%–15%. High‐affinity choline uptake, choline acetyltransferase, and acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activities in the hippocampus were reduced by 16%, 28%, and 30%, respectively. Importantly, extracellular acetylcholine (ACh) levels in the hippocampus were unchanged and responded to behavioral and pharmacological challenges. In comparison, extracellular ACh levels and cholinergic parameters in the striatum were unchanged or slightly increased. We conclude that the icv‐STZ model poorly reflects central cholinergic dysfunction, an important characteristic of dementia. The icv‐STZ model may be more aptly described as an animal model of hippocampal gliosis.
Protein kinases are key signalling molecules and transduce intracellular signals via the post-translational phosphorylation of substrate proteins, often other protein kinases. Dysregulation of this protein family has been linked to many diseases including neurodegenerative diseases, inflammation and cancer and amplifications of kinases play important roles as diagnostic biomarkers in a variety of cancers. Various strategies have been developed to treat dysregulated protein kinases. Most commonly, chemical small molecule inhibitors are used to modulate protein kinase activity in cancer cells. Many inhibitor and general research efforts have focused only on a small subset of protein kinases, resulting in a large portion of the kinome, the so-called “dark” kinome, remaining largely unexplored. As part of the strategy to develop inhibitors, it is crucial to understand the structure-activity-relationships (SAR) of small molecules to the activity towards the targets based on understanding small molecule-target affinities as determined by biophysical, biochemical, and cellular methods. However, not always do in vitro determined affinities, which are frequently used as basis for SAR considerations, correlate with the cellular affinity. For protein kinases in particular, it has been shown that the cellular concentration of the natural substrate adenosine-triphosphate (ATP) plays a critical role for the resulting small molecule affinity, as substrate and inhibitor frequently compete for the same binding site of the protein kinase. The cellular target engagement assay NanoBRET is a versatile assay that overcomes this problem and can be used to assess binding of a compound to the full-length protein kinase, in the presence of natural binding partners. Another important factor in inhibitor optimization is the selectivity of the molecule within the family of protein kinases. When comparing the selectivity profiles of small molecule kinase inhibitors in vitro and in cells, different profiles can be observed. Frequently, a compound, binds fewer protein kinases with high affinity in cells, indicating that cellular profiling of protein kinase inhibitors is necessary to understand the selectivity profile of an inhibitor.
The goal of this work was to understand cellular SARs of inhibitors for kinases and dark kinases in medicinal chemistry projects, and to understand the selectivity profiles of existing small molecules in cells, including already approved drugs and clinically used kinases inhibitors. The cellular potency and selectivity aspects guided optimization of the inhibitors towards selective small molecules ‘chemical probes’ or highly validated inhibitors with a narrow selectivity profile as part of ‘chemogenomic libraries’. One strategy to improve selectivity has been to use sterically restricted cyclic small molecules, called macrocycles, that allow fewer conformations of the molecule than their non-cyclic parent compound. In this thesis the dark kinase STK17A was investigated. Macrocyclization was used to develop a selective chemical probe molecule that is also selective in the cellular context. For another kinase, SIK2, a rational design approach was used to exclude off-targets bound by the lead structure, resulting in a chemical probe that selectively targets the SIK1/2/3 proteins. Assessing cellular potency of another series of inhibitors, a probe was developed for the PCTAIRE subfamily of the CDK kinases. This required co-expression of the binding partners of CDKs, the cyclins, in cells to obtain a functional assay. To identify new candidates for the neglected family of splicing kinases comprising the CLK, SRPK, DYRK and HIPK protein kinase subfamilies, a literature review was conducted, and the best small molecule candidates were compared for their target engagement in cells. This led to a series of small molecule inhibitors that may be used as a set or single agents to target the CLK proteins and SRPK proteins or in combination to target the remaining proteins. In search of new starting points for this subfamily of kinases, an initial screen with NanoBRET technology was performed using a library of over 2000 inhibitors, and new starting points were identified. Additionally, a set of clinical and approved small molecule kinase inhibitors was assessed for their selectivity in cells. Several highly selective molecules were identified that were much less selective in in vitro approaches. The set of data allowed for a comprehensive comparison of cellular potencies with published data using in vitro binding, in vitro activity and data obtained from cell lysates and identified several protein kinases that would need to be investigated in cells...
Cell-free-synthesized voltage-gated proton channels: Approaches to the study of protein dynamics
(2018)
We often only realize how important health is when diseases manifest themselves through their symptoms and, ultimately, in a diagnosis. Over time, we suffer from many diseases starting with the first childhood disease to colds to gastrointestinal infections. Most diseases pass harmlessly and symptoms fade away. However, not all diseases are so harmless. Alzheimer’s disease, breast cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and colorectal cancer usually cause severe illness with high mortality rates. In pharmaceutical research, efforts are therefore being made to determine the molecular basis of them in order to provide patients with potential relief and, at best, healing. A special group of regulators, involved in the previously mentioned diseases, are voltage-gated proton channels. Thus, the understanding of their structure, function, and potential drug interaction is of great importance for humanity.
Voltage-gated proton channels are localized in the cell membrane. As their name indicates, they are controlled by voltage changes. Depolarization of the cell membrane induces conformational changes that open these channels allowing protons to pass through. Here, the transfer is based on a passive process driven by a concentration gradient between two individual compartments separated by the cell membrane. Voltage-gated proton channels are highly selective for protons and show a temperature- and pH-dependent gating behavior. However, little is known about their channeling mechanism. Previous experimental results are insufficient for understanding the key features of proton channeling.
In this thesis, for the first time, the cell-free production of voltage-sensing domains (VSD) of human voltage-gated proton channels (hHV1) and zebrafish voltage-sensing phosphatases (DrVSP) is described. Utilizing the cell free approach, parameters concerning protein stability, folding and labeling can be easily addressed. Furthermore, the provision of a membrane mimetic in form of detergent micelles, nanodiscs, or liposomes for co-translational incorporations of these membrane proteins is simple and efficient. Both VSDs were successfully produced up to 3 mg/ml. Furthermore, the cell-free synthesis enabled for the first time studies of lipid-dependent co-translational VSD insertions into nanodiscs and liposomes. Cell-free produced VSDs were shown to be active, and to exist mainly as dimers. In addition, also their activation was stated to be lipid-dependent, which has not been described so far. Solution-state NMR experiments were performed with fully and selectively labeled cell-free produced VSDs. With respect to the development of potential drug candidates, I could demonstrate the inhibition of the VSDs by 2-guanidinobenzimidazole (2GBI). Determined KD values were comparable to literature data for the human construct. For the first time, a low affinity for 2GBI of the zebrafish VSD could be described.
In future, the combination of a fast, easy and cheap cell-free production of fully or selectively labeled VSDs and their analysis by solution state NMR will enable structure determinations as well as inhibitor binding studies and protein dynamic investigations of those proteins. The results of these investigations will serve as a basis for example for the development of new drugs. In addition, a detailed description of the lipid-dependent activity might be helpful in controlling the function of voltage-gated proton channels in cancer cells and thereby reducing their growth or disturbing their cell homeostasis in general.
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a predominant class of cell-surface receptors in eukaryotic life. They are responsible for the perception of a broad range of ligands and involved in a multitude of physiological functions. GPCRs are therefore of crucial interest for biological and pharmaceutical research. Molecular analysis and functional characterisation of GPCRs is frequently hampered by challenges in efficient large-scale production, non-destructive purification and long-term stability. Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) provides new production platforms for GPCRs by extracting the protein synthesis machinery of the cell in an open system that allows target-oriented modulations of the synthesis process and direct access to the nascent polypeptide chain. CFPS is fast, reliable and highly adaptable. Unfortunately, highly productive cell-free synthesis of GPCRs is often opposed by low product quality. This thesis was aimed to adapt and improve some of the new possibilities for the cell-free production of GPCRs in high yield and quality for structural and pharmaceutical analysis. An E. coli based CFPS system was applied to synthesise various turkey and human Beta-adrenergic receptor (Beta1AR) derivatives as well as human Endothelin receptors type A and B (ETA and ETB) constructs. Both receptor families are important drug targets and pharmacologically addressed in the treatment of several cardiovascular diseases. CF-synthesis was mainly performed in presence of nanodiscs (ND), which are reconstituted high density lipoprotein particles forming discoidal bilayer patches with a diameter varyring from 6 to approx. 15 nm. The supplementation of ND in the CF-synthesis reaction caused the co-translational solubilisation of the freshly synthesised GPCRs. The fraction of the solubilised GPCR that was correctly folded was analysed by the competence to bind its ligand alprenolol or Endothelin-1, respectively. Both the solubilisation efficiency and the ability to fold in a ligand binding competent state was strongly affected by the lipid composition of the supplied ND. Best results were generally achieved with lipids having phosphoglycerol headgroups and unsaturated fatty acid chains with 18 carbon atoms. Furthermore, thermostabilisation by introduction of point mutations had a large positive impact on the folding efficiency of both Beta1AR and ETB receptor. Formation of a conserved disulphide bridge in the extracellular region was additionally found to be crucial for the function of the ETB receptor. Disulphide bridge formation could be enhanced by applying a glutathione-based redox system in the CFPS. Further improvements in the quality of ETB receptor could be made by the enrichment of heat-shock chaperones in the CF-reaction. Depending on the receptor type and DNA-template, roughly 10 – 30 nmol (350 – 1500 µg) of protein could be synthesised in 1 ml of CF-reaction mixture. After the applied optimisation steps, the fractions of correctly folded receptor could be improved by several orders of magnitude and were finally in between 35% for the thermostabilised turkey Beta1AR, 9% for the thermostabilised ETB receptor, 6.5% for the non-stabilised ETB receptor, 1 - 5% for non-stabilised turkey Beta1AR and for human Beta1AR isoforms and 0.1% for ETA receptor. Therefore, between 2 and 120 µg of GPCR could be synthesised in a ligand binding competent form, depending on the receptor and its modifications. Correctly folded turkey Beta1AR and ETB receptors were thermostable at 30°C and could be stored at 4°C for several weeks after purification. Yields of the thermostabilised turkey Beta1AR were sufficient to purify the receptor in a two-step process by ligand-binding chromatography to obtain pure and correctly folded receptor in the lipid bilayer of a ND. Furthermore, a lipid dependent ligand screen could be demonstrated with the turkey Beta1AR and significant alterations in binding affinities to currently in-use pharmaceuticals were found. The established protocols are therefore suitable and highly competetive for a variety of applications such as screening of GPCR ligands, analysis of lipid effects on GPCR function or for the systematical biochemical characterisation of GPCRs. Most promising for future approaches appears to address the suspected bottlenecks of intial insertion of the GPCR-polypeptide chain in the ND bilayer and the thermal stability of the receptors. Nevertheless, the estabilised protocols for the analysed targets in this thesis are already highly competitive to previously published production protocols either in cell-based or cell-free systems with regard to yield of functional protein, speediness and costs. Moreover, the direct accessibility and other general characteristics of cell-free synthesis open a large variety of possible applications and this work can therefore contribute to the molecular characterisation of this important receptor type and to the development of new pharmaceuticals.
Food allergies are defined as an adverse health effect arising from a specific immune response that occurs reproducibly on exposure to a given food. The prevalence of food allergies has increased in the past decade. Epidemiologic studies involving controlled food challenges for the diagnosis of food allergies indicated that between 1 % to 10.8 % of the population have immunemediated non-toxic food hypersensitivity.
Despite the increasing prevalence, no curative treatment has been established for food allergies so far except the complete avoidance of the elicited food. To establish safe and effective immunotherapy for food allergies, it is of crucially importance to elucidate pathological mechanism of such diseases.
Food allergies are classified into IgE-mediated and non-IgE mediated (T-cell mediated) allergies, depending on the immunologic pathways and the role of the IgE on the pathogenesis of the disease. Allergic enteritis (AE) is a gastrointestinal form of food allergy. It is classified as non-IgE-mediated food allergy. However, patients with AE often develop IgE and high levels of IgE have been associated with development of persistent AE. The gastrointestinal symptoms of AE are nonspecific, resulting in the fact that a broad differential diagnoses including diagnostic approaches for allergic diseases are necessary to rule out other gastrointestinal pathologies. Biopsies of patients with allergic enteritis have shown infiltration of inflammatory cells (e.g. mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and T cells) in the lamina propria, disruption of intestinal villi, edema, and presence of goblet cells in the intestine...
MKK7 (MEK7) is a key regulator of the JNK stress signaling pathway and targeting MKK7 has been proposed as a chemotherapeutic strategy. Detailed understanding of the MKK7 structure and factors that impact its activity is therefore of critical importance. Here, we present a comprehensive set of MKK7 crystal structures revealing insights into catalytic domain plasticity and the role of the N-terminal regulatory helix, conserved in all MAP2Ks, mediating kinase activation. Crystal structures harboring this regulatory helix revealed typical structural features of active kinase, providing exclusively a first model of the MAP2K active state. A small molecule screening campaign yielded multiple scaffolds, including type-II irreversible inhibitors a binding mode that has not been reported previously. We also observed an unprecedented allosteric pocket located in the N-terminal lobe for the approved drug ibrutinib. Collectively, our structural and functional data expand and provide alternative targeting strategies for this important MAP2K kinase.
Metastatic rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is one of the most challenging tumor entities in pediatric oncology caused by treatment resistances and immune escape. Novel chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) immunotherapies as specific, effective and safe treatment provide antitumor cytotoxicity by soluble factors and ligands/receptor signals. Besides its intrinsic potential as innate immune cell the ErbB2-sprecific CAR-engineered natural killer (NK)-92 cell line NK-92/5.28.z also provides CAR-mediated cytotoxicity, resulting in a high lytic capacity against 2D and 3D RMS cell structures in vitro. Also in a xenograft model using immune deficient NOD/Scid/IL2Rγ-/- (NSG) mice inhibited NK-92/5.28.z the tumor growth as long as the cells were administered and therefore prolonged the survival of the animals. The NK-92/5.28.z were distributed by the blood circulation and subsequently infiltrated the tumor tissue. Due to the malignant origin of the NK-92 cell line the cells must be irradiated prior to the use in patients. While the irradiation hampered the proliferation of NK-92/5.28.z cells, the cytotoxicity against RMS cells in vitro is retained for at least 24 hours. In the xenograft model irradiated NK-92/5.28.z cells inhibited the tumor growth but to a lower extent than untreated cells, as irradiated cells have only a limited life span in vivo no durable persistence and remission was achieved. Therefore, combinatorial approaches were focused and while blocking of the PD-1/PD-L1 axis did not resulted in a significantly enhanced tumor cell lysis, the combinatorial treatment with proteasome inhibitor bortezomib exhibited a significant enhanced cytotoxicity against RMS cells at least in vitro. Bortezomib itself induces caspase mediated apoptosis and also the upregulates the expression of TRAIL receptor DR5. The corresponding ligand TRAIL is expressed on the surface of the NK-92/5.28.z and pursuing experiments with purified TRAIL and bortezomib revealed a synergism. NK-92/5.28.z as an off-the-shelf product is therefore feasible for the therapy of metastatic RMS, but it might be necessary to support the cytotoxicity by additive agents like proteasome inhibitor bortezomib to archive durable remission.
Another cell population suitable for RMS CAR-immunotherapy are cytokine induced killer (CIK) cells, a heterogenous cell population generated from autologous PBMCs consisting of T, NK and T-NK cells. Lentivirally transduced ErbB2-specific CAR-CIK cells were previously shown to inhibit the tumor engraftment in a RMS xenograft model. However, lentiviral transduced adoptive immunotherapies bear risks for the transfer in patients, therefore the Sleeping Beauty Transposon System (SBTS) as a non-viral method, which integrates the CAR coding DNA by a cut-and-paste mechanism from a minicircle (MC) into the CIK cells genome is more feasible for the generation of CAR-CIK cells. The Sleeping beauty transposase mRNA and the MC were transferred in the cell by nucleofection, different factors influence the transfection efficiency and viability of the CIK cells in this harsh procedure. In preliminary experiments with MC Venus, a MC encoding eGFP, the highest transfection efficiency with the best proliferative capacity was achieved with cells on day 3 of CIK culture and without the addition of autologous monocytes as feeder cells. For the CAR construct the protocol was further improved by adjusting crucial factors, for this construct the best results were achieved on day 0, without irradiated PBMCs as feeder cells and cultivation in X-Vivo10 medium supplemented with human fresh frozen plasma. The X-Vivo10 medium enhanced the percentage of NK- and T-NK cells significantly compared to CAR-CIK cells cultured in RPMI. Since the gene transfer by SBTS resulted in CAR-CIK cells stably expressing a CAR in all subpopulations, resulting in a significantly enhanced cytotoxicity against RMS cells in vitro, these cells were compared to lentiviral transduced CAR-CIK cells in vitro and in vivo. While the SBTS CAR-CIK cells were superior to viral CAR-CIK cells in 2D short-term assays, the viral cells showed higher lytic capacity in 3D spheroid long-term assays. In a RMS xenograft model lentiviral CAR-CIK cells significantly prolonged the survival of mice and persisted, whereas SBTS CAR-CIKs did not favor the overall survival compared to untreated controls and also did not persist. Phenotypic analysis revealed a highly cytotoxic CD8+ and late effector memory dominant phenotype for SBTS CAR-CIK cells supporting short-term cytotoxicity but also more prone for exhaustion, while viral CAR-CIK cells showed a more balanced phenotype for memory and cytotoxicity. Therefore, the SBTS is feasible for the ErbB2-CAR gene transfer in CAR-CIK resulting in a stable CAR-expression with high short-term cytotoxicity, but these cells are also more prone to exhaustion and the protocol might be adapted further to prevent this limitation for in vivo application.
This work underlines the hard-to-treat characteristics of metastatic RMS, but also shows some approaches for further evaluation like the combination of NK-92/5.28.z cells with bortezomib and the feasibility of the generation of CAR-CIK cells via SBTS.
Supersaturating formulations are widely used to improve the oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. However, supersaturated solutions are thermodynamically unstable and such formulations often must include a precipitation inhibitor (PI) to sustain the increased concentrations to ensure that sufficient absorption will take place from the gastrointestinal tract. Recent advances in understanding the importance of drug-polymer interaction for successful precipitation inhibition have been encouraging. However, there still exists a gap in how this newfound understanding can be applied to improve the efficiency of PI screening and selection, which is still largely carried out with trial and error-based approaches. The aim of this study was to demonstrate how drug-polymer mixing enthalpy, calculated with the Conductor like Screening Model for Real Solvents (COSMO-RS), can be used as a parameter to select the most efficient precipitation inhibitors, and thus realise the most successful supersaturating formulations. This approach was tested for three different Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) II compounds: dipyridamole, fenofibrate and glibenclamide, formulated with the supersaturating formulation, mesoporous silica. For all three compounds, precipitation was evident in mesoporous silica formulations without a precipitation inhibitor. Of the nine precipitation inhibitors studied, there was a strong positive correlation between the drug-polymer mixing enthalpy and the overall formulation performance, as measured by the area under the concentration-time curve in in vitro dissolution experiments. The data suggest that a rank-order based approach using calculated drug-polymer mixing enthalpy can be reliably used to select precipitation inhibitors for a more focused screening. Such an approach improves efficiency of precipitation inhibitor selection, whilst also improving the likelihood that the most optimal formulation will be realised.
The intriguing (μ-hydrido)diboranes(4) with their prominent pristine representative [B2H5]− have mainly been studied theoretically. We now describe the behavior of the planarized tetraaryl (μ-hydrido)diborane(4) anion [1H]− in cycloaddition reactions with the homologous series of heterocumulenes CO2, iPrNCO, and iPrNCNiPr. We show that a C=O bond of CO2 selectively activates the B−B bond of [1H]−, while the μ-H ligand is left untouched ([2H]−). The carbodiimide iPrNCNiPr, in contrast, neglects the B−B bond and rather adds the B-bonded H− ion to its central C atom to generate a formamidinate bridge across the B2 pair ([3]−). As a hybrid, the isocyanate iPrNCO combines the reactivity patterns of both its congeners and gives two products: one of them ([4H]−) is related to [2H]−, the other ([5]−) is an analog of [3]−. We finally propose a mechanistic scenario that rationalizes the individual reaction outcomes and combines them to a coherent picture of B–B vs. B–H bond activation.
The exhaustive trichlorosilylation of hexachloro-1,3-butadiene was achieved in one step by using a mixture of Si2Cl6 and [nBu4N]Cl (7:2 equiv) as the silylation reagent. The corresponding butadiene dianion salt [nBu4N]2[1] was isolated in 36 % yield after recrystallization. The negative charges of [1]2− are mainly delocalized across its two carbanionic (Cl3Si)2C termini (α-effect of silicon) such that the central bond possesses largely C=C double-bond character. Upon treatment with 4 equiv of HCl, [1]2− is converted into neutral 1,2,3,4-tetrakis(trichlorosilyl)but-2-ene, 3. The Cl− acceptor AlCl3, induces a twofold ring-closure reaction of [1]2− to form a six-membered bicycle 4 in which two silacyclobutene rings are fused along a shared C=C double bond (84 %). Compound 4, which was structurally characterized by X-ray crystallography, undergoes partial ring opening to a monocyclic silacyclobutene 2 in the presence of HCl, but is thermally stable up to at least 180 °C.
Today, the term buchu refers to the two species in commerce, Agathosma betulina (P.J.Bergius) Pillans and Agathosma crenulata (L.) Pillans (Rutaceae). Its traditional use in urinary tract infections and related ailments made it a popular remedy, specifically in the US, in 19th century, but with the advent of antibiotics it became largely obsolete. Recent focus is on technological use and on the essential oil for use in the perfume and food-flavouring industry. A review of the scarce pharmacological research revealed moderate antimicrobial activity for a leaf extract but not the essential oil of both species in the MIC assay. In the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) assay the essential oil of both species revealed IC50 values of 50.37 ± 1.87 μg/ml and 59.15 ± 7.44 μg/ml, respectively. In another study 98% inhibitory activity was determined for 250 μg/ml of an ethanolic extract of A. betulina on cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and a 25% inhibitory activity on COX-2. Analgesic activity of an ethanolic extract of A. betulina was shown in mice. Moderate antioxidant activity was determined for methanol:dichlormethane extracts of A. betulina and A. crenulata and an aqueous extract of A. betulina showed a Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) of 11.8 µM Trolox. Recent in vitro studies with a commercial aqueous extract of buchu revealed increased uptake of glucose added to 3T3-L1 cell line, significant inhibition of the respiratory burst of neutrophils and monocytes, reduction in the expression of adhesion molecules and inhibition of the release of IL-6 and TNF-α. In diabetic rats the ingestion of aqueous buchu extract completely normalized the glucose level and in rats receiving a high fat diet the consumption of aqueous buchu extract resulted in less weight gain and less intraperitoneal fat gain as well as reduction of elevated blood pressure to normal associated with cardioprotective effects. Limitations in the hitherto conducted research lie in the undisclosed composition of the buchu extracts used and the difficulty in extrapolating data from animal studies to humans. Health claims for buchu products need to be substantiated by randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled studies. Only then can they be promoted for their true therapeutic potential.
The introduction of a trigonal boron atom into a polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) core is an extremely powerful tool to provide organic scaffolds with optoelectronic properties as well as optimal packing in the solid state. However, boron-doped PAHs (B-PAHs) often display low processability due to their poor solubility. The distortion of the molecular scaffold provides a suitable strategy to enhance the solubility properties of B-PAHs while maintaining good stacking properties and sufficient electronic conjugation.
Extreme distortion of the molecular structure can be achieved in helical-shaped PAHs, namely helicenes which are screw-shaped inherently chiral polycycles, formed by ortho-fused aromatic or heteroaromatic rings. The presence of a helical structure in B-PAHs is expected to strongly influence their physico-chemical properties leading to compounds characterized by peculiar features promising for applications in next generation functional materials. Despite the great potential of this class of compounds, only few examples of borahelicenes have been reported in the literature and those mainly consist of carbohelicene-based structures. However, the considerable structural diversity achievable by introducing different boraheterocycles (oxaborine, borole, borepin) and other heteroaromatic rings (thiophene, furan, pyrrole) into the same helical scaffold, suggests that a large variety of compounds with intriguing features could be accessible via currently unexplored synthetic routes. The design, synthesis, and properties investigation of new boraheterohelicenes (BHHs) is therefore a relevant research topic and is the object of this PhD project, aimed to obtain several BHHs with structural diversity, as well as to study their reactivity, electrochemical and photophysical features for better understanding their potential as building blocks for material science.
The thesis work was carried out in part at the University of Milan in the laboratories of Prof. Emanuela Licandro and in part at the Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Matthias Wagner, within a co-tutelle programme. Owing to the long-standing expertise of Prof. Licandro group in the synthesis of tetrathia helicenes and that of Prof. Dr. Wagner group in the synthesis of boron-doped PAHs (e.g. boron helicene 4BH; Figure 1), I conceived this PhD project designing a series of thiahelicenes containing one or more B-O bond into the helical scaffold.Tetrathia helicenes, consisting of thiophene and benzene rings fused in an alternating fashion, are configurationally stable heterohelicenes which exist as pair of enantiomers.
This class of molecules is particularly interesting since it merges the properties of oligothiophenes with those of helicenes, giving rise to systems with peculiar electronic and chiroptical properties which make them appealing building blocks for applications in manifold fields of science, including optoelectronics, catalysis and biology.
The introduction of trigonal boron atom into a thiahelicene scaffold gives rise to a novel class of unexplored boron π-conjugated molecules with potentially interesting features.
The present Ph.D. thesis was therefore intended to provide a meaningful contribution in the development of innovative and versatile syntheses of BO-doped tetrathia helicenes as well as the study of their stereochemical and optoelectronic properties to identify potential applications of these systems in material science. The first selected structures containing one or two oxaborine rings in the helical scaffold are shown in figure 2. The presence of the bulky mesityl group at the boron atom is necessary to ensure stability to the molecule.
It is noteworthy that compound 2 is the skeletal isomer of 1, as the direction of the B-O bond is opposite in the two molecules. In the course of the research work, after the evaluation of the photophysical properties of 1, helicene 2 was designed to get information on the structure-property relationship and evaluate how the position of the BO-bond into the helical scaffold can influence the electronic properties of BO-doped thiahelicenes.
Bleaching-independent, whole-cell, 3D and multi-color STED imaging with exchangeable fluorophores
(2018)
We demonstrate bleaching-independent STED microscopy using fluorogenic labels that reversibly bind to their target structure. A constant exchange of labels guarantees the removal of photobleached fluorophores and their replacement by intact fluorophores, thereby circumventing bleaching-related limitations of STED super-resolution imaging in fixed and living cells. Foremost, we achieve a constant labeling density and demonstrate a fluorescence signal for long and theoretically unlimited acquisition times. Using this concept, we demonstrate whole-cell, 3D, multi-color and live cell STED microscopy with up to 100 min acquisition time.
mRNS ist einer der wichtigsten Informationsträger in lebenden Zellen. Mit ihr wird die in der DNS gespeicherte Information zu aktiven Zellprozessen umgesetzt. Dabei finden erste regulatorische Prozesse, die den Phänotyp eines Organismus bestimmen können, bereits über Strukturelemente auf der mRNS statt. Diese, als Riboschalter bezeichneten Strukturen, können spezifisch, kleine Moleküle binden und dadurch ihre Struktur ändern. Durch diese dynamische Änderung der Struktur, in An- oder Abwesenheit des Liganden, wird reguliert, ob nachfolgende Gene vom Ribosom abgelesen werden können. Der Cd1-Riboschalter aus Clostridium Difficile ist schon während der Transkription aktiv und ein Teil des regulatorischen Netzwerkes, das bestimmt, ob das Bakterium einen mobilen oder stationären Lebensstil einnimmt. Das zentrale Signalmolekül in diesem Netzwerk ist der sekundäre Botenstoff c-di-GMP, der gleichzeitig auch der Ligand des Cd1-Riboschalters ist. In der folgenden Arbeit wurde der zeitliche und strukturelle Ablauf des Cd1 Regulationsmechanismus und die Bindung von c-di-GMP untersucht. Auch ohne einen Riboschalter in der Sequenz ist strukturierte mRNS ein interessanter Forschungsgegenstand. Wie die Covid-19 Pandemie und die Forschungen, mRNS Abschnitte als Krebsmedikamente zu gebrauchen, zeigen, gewinnt RNS immer mehr an Bedeutung für die medizinische Forschung und Anwendung. Mit dieser Motivation im Hintergrund wurden drei weitere RNS Projekte bearbeitet. Im ersten wurde ein 19F-Screening für die Erkennung von RNS bindenden Fragmenten etabliert. Im zweiten wurde ein RNS Doppelstrang untersucht, der mit Hilfe verschiedener, kovalent gebundener Spiropyrane reversibel gefaltet und entfaltet werden sollte. Im abschließenden Projekt wurden im Rahmen der COVID-19-NMR Initiative zwei Sekundärstrukturelemente der Covid-19 RNS untersucht.
Bei der Untersuchung des Cd1-Riboschalters konnten folgende Ergebnisse erzielt werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Bindung von c-di-GMP an das Cd1-Aptamer ein konzentrationsabhängiges Magnesiumverhältnis braucht. Dieses Verhältnis wurde ausgehend von initialen Messungen als 1/40 (RNS/Ligand) bestimmt. Spätere ITC Messungen geben aber Hinweise darauf, dass dieses Verhältnis bei niedrigen RNS Konzentrationen höher liegt und bei größeren RNS Konzentrationen niedriger. Die Bestimmung des Start- und Endpunktes der c-di-GMP Bindung wird in Unterkapitel 3.1.2 behandelt. Es wurde ermittelt, dass Cd1 bei 83 Nukleotiden eine alternative schwach Ligand bindende Konformation einnimmt, die wahrscheinlich durch eine P1 Helix bis zum Erreichen von Cd1-87 stabilisiert wird. Ab Cd1-87 bildet sich die reguläre von der Literatur vorhergesagte Bindetasche. Das Ende der c-di-GMP Bindung wird mit Cd1-148 erreicht, auch wenn hier noch Reste der Reportersignale für Bindung zu sehen sind. Diese Reste werden aber aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach durch eine Cd1-83 entsprechende Konformation der Bindetasche erzeugt. In Kapitel 3.2 wird gezeigt, wie durch NMR Messungen die Zuordnung der Sekundärstruktur des Cd1-Riboschalters vollzogen wurde. Durch diese Messungen konnte bestätigt werden, dass in allen Längen eine P2 und P3 Helix vorhanden ist. Im Aptamer wird die Ligandbindung durch zwei Interaktionen zwischen P2 und P3 stark stabilisiert und der untere Abschnitt der P3 erst dann nicht mehr dynamisch, wenn c-di-GMP gebunden wird. Durch x-filter Experimente und Mutationen konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass C87 das basenpaarende Nukleotid an einem G des Liganden ist. Die Anwesenheit des HP1 Stamms konnte in den Längen 147, 148 und 160 nachgewiesen werden, wobei besonders der Vergleich der NOESY Spektren von Cd1-147 und Cd1-148 die Änderung der Sekundärstruktur hin zum Antiterminator zeigen. Der Verlauf der Bindungsaffinitäten wurde auch durch ITC Messungen an Cd1-83, 86, 87, 88, 135 und 146 bestätigt. Für die volle Länge (Cd1-160) des Riboschalters konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Terminatorstamm ausgeformt ist. Die erreichten Ergebnisse wurden in einem Modell zusammengefasst und der zeitliche Verlauf der Cd1 Regulation simuliert. Aus der Simulation ist zu erkennen, dass Cd1, wie erwartet, Ligand abhängig schaltet. Dabei ist der Aus-Zustand bei hoher Ligandkonzentration zu 90% populiert und der An-Zustand zu 100% bei niedriger Konzentration. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Transkriptionsgeschwindigkeit bei hohen Ligandkonzentrationen einen starken Einfluss auf die Regulationseffizienz des Riboschalters hat. So ist bei einer Transkriptionsgeschwindigkeit von 100 nt/s nach 1 s eine Gleichverteilung von An- und Aus-Zustand zu erkennen. Dieses Verhalten kann durch einen Stopp der Transkription an der potentiellen Pausierstelle U141-145 aufgehoben werden. Unter den Rahmenbedingungen des Modells erwiesen sich Transkriptionsgeschwindkeiten von um die 20 nt/s als optimal und bei niedrigen Ligandkonzentrationen hatte die Transkriptionsgeschwindigkeit faktisch keine Auswirkungen auf die Regulation. Ein interessantes Ergebniss der Modellierung ergab sich aus der Notwendigkeit der Verwendung einer Rate für konkurrenzlose Basenpaarschließungen. Hier konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Rate von 400 nt/s ausreicht um einen voll funktionsfähigen Riboschalter zu beschreiben.
Beim 19F Bindungsscreenings von 101 Fragmenten, die alle ein oder mehrere 19F Atome besaßen, an Cd1-98 wurden 9 Fragmente gefunden die an Cd1-98 binden. Diese sind größtenteils planar mit Ausnahme von 2 Fragmenten bei denen die eine Hälfte des Moleküls nicht aromatisch ist. Des Weiteren besitzen alle Fragmente, außer einem, mindestens eine Aminogruppe im Molekül. Die daraus resultierende Vermutung, dass die Fragmente in die RNS interkalieren, konnte durch RNS beobachtende NMR Messungen nicht überprüft werden, da keine Signaländerung im Imino-Bereich zu erkennen war. Durch Verdrängungsexperimente konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Fragmente, nicht wie c-di-GMP, die RNS Faltung homogenisieren und auch nicht in der Bindetasche gebunden werden.
RNA research is very important since RNA molecules are involved in various gene regulatory mechanisms as well as pathways of cell physiology and disease development.1 RNAs have evolved from being considered as carriers of genetic information from DNA to proteins, with the three major types of RNA involved in protein synthesis, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).2 In addition to the RNAs involved in protein synthesis numerous regulatory non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have been discovered in the transcriptome. The regulatory ncRNAs are classified into small ncRNAs (sncRNAs) with transcripts less than 200 nucleotides (nt) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) with more than 200 nt.3
LncRNAs represent the most diverse and versatile class of ncRNAs that can regulate cellular functions of chromatin modification, transcription, and post-transcription through multiple mechanisms.4 They are involved in the formation of RNA:protein, RNA:RNA and RNA:DNA complexes as part of their gene regulatory mechanism.4,5 The RNA:DNA interactions can be divided into RNA:DNA heteroduplex formation, also called R-loops, and RNA:DNA:DNA triplex formation. In triplex formation, RNA binds to the major groove of double-stranded DNA through Hoogsteen or reverse Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding, resulting in parallel or anti-parallel triplexes, respectively. In vitro studies have confirmed the formation of RNA:DNA:DNA triplexes.6 However, the extent to which these interactions occur in cells and their effects on cellular function are still not understood, which is why these structures are so exciting to study (Chapter I RNA:DNA:DNA Triplexes).
This cumulative thesis investigates several functional and regulatory important RNAs. The first project involves the improved biochemical and biophysical characterization of RNA:DNA:DNA triplex formation between lncRNAs of interest and their target genes. Triplex formation was confirmed by a series of experiments including electromobility shift assays (EMSA), thermal melting assays, circular dichroism (CD), and liquid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The following is a summary of the main findings of these publications.
In research article 5.1, the oxygen-sensitive HIF1α-AS1 was identified as a functionally important triplex-forming lncRNA in human endothelial cells using a combination of bioinformatics techniques, RNA/DNA pulldown, and biophysical experiments. Through RNA:DNA:DNA triplex formation, endogenous HIF1α-AS1 decreases the expression of several genes, including EPH receptor A2 (EPHA2) and adrenomedullin (ADM), by acting as an adaptor for the repressive human silencing hub (HUSH) complex, which has been studied by our collaborators in the groups of Leisegang and Brandes.
2) Triplex formation between HIF1α-AS1 and the target genes EPHA2 and ADM was investigated in biochemical and biophysical studies. The EMSA results indicated that HIF1α-AS1 forms a low mobility RNA:DNA:DNA triplex complex with the EPHA2 DNA target sequence. The CD spectrum of the triplex showed distinct features compared to the EPHA2 DNA duplex and the RNA:DNA heteroduplex. Melting curve analysis revealed a biphasic melting transition for triplexes, with a first melting point corresponding to the dissociation of the RNA strand with melting of the Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds. The second, higher melting temperature corresponds to the melting of stronger Watson-Crick base pairing. Stabilized triplexes were formed using an intramolecular EPHA2 DNA duplex hairpin construct in which both DNA strands were attached to a 5 nucleotide (nt) thymidine linker. This approach allowed improved triplex formation with lower RNA equivalents and higher melting temperatures. By NMR spectroscopy, the triplex characteristic signals were observed in the 1H NMR spectrum, the imino signals in a spectral region between 9 and 12 ppm resulting from the Hoogsteen base pairing. To elucidate the structural and sequence specific Hoogsteen base pairs 2D 1H,1H-NOESY measurements of the EPHA2 DNA duplex and the HIF1α-AS1:EPHA2 triplex were performed. The 1H,1H-NOESY spectrum of the HIF1α-AS1:EPHA2 triplex with a 10-fold excess of RNA was semi-quantitatively analyzed for changes in the DNA duplex spectrum. We discovered, strong and moderate attenuation of cross peak intensities in the imino region of the NOESY spectrum. This attenuation was proposed to result from weakening of Watson-Crick base pairing by Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding induced by RNA binding. The Hoogsteen interactions can be mapped based on the analysis of the cross peak attenuation in the NOESY spectra, which we used to generate a structural model of the RNA:DNA:DNA triplex. These biophysical results support the physiological function of HIF1α as a triplex-forming lncRNA that recruits the HUSH-epigenetic silencing complex to specific target genes such as EPHA2 and ADM, thereby silencing their gene expression through RNA:DNA:DNA triplex formation.
Die Zahl der gramnegativen Bakterien auf der WHO-Liste der Antibiotikaresistenzen hat in den letzten Jahrzehnten erheblich zugenommen. Schätzungen zufolge wird die Antibiotikaresistenz bis 2050 tödlicher sein als Krebs. Die äußere Membran gramnegativer Bakterien ist aufgrund ihres wichtigsten Strukturbestandteils, des Lipopolysaccharids (LPS), sehr anpassungsfähig an Umweltveränderungen. Das LPS macht gramnegative Bakterien von Natur aus resistent gegen viele Antibiotika und führt somit zu Antibiotikaresistenz. Der bakterielle ATP-bindende Kassettentransporter (ABC-Transporter) MsbA spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Regulierung der bakteriellen Außenmembran, indem er das Kern-LPS durch ATP-Hydrolyse über die Innenmembran von gramnegativen Bakterien flockt. Darüber hinaus fungiert diese Floppase als Efflux-Pumpe, indem sie Medikamente durch die innere Membran transportiert, was sie zu einem interessanten Ziel für Medikamente macht. Vor kurzem wurden zwei verschiedene Klassen von MsbA-Inhibitoren entdeckt: (1) Tetrahydrobenzothiophene (TBT), die den LPS-Transport aufheben, und (2) Chinolinderivate, die sowohl die ATP-Hydrolyse als auch die LPS-Translokation blockieren. Darüber hinaus hat die Bestimmung der 3D-Struktur von MsbA durch Rontgen- und Kryo-EM mehrere interessante Zustände der Floppase ergeben. Die Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie ist eine hervorragende biophysikalische Methode zur Ergänzung der vorhandenen 3D-Strukturdaten. Insbesondere ermöglicht die Festkörper-NMR die Untersuchung von Membranproteinen in einer nativen Umgebung (z. B. in einer Lipiddoppelschicht). In der Vergangenheit hat unser Labor mithilfe der Festkörper-NMR einige detaillierte Mechanismen von MsbA aufgedeckt. Trotz der zahlreichen Fortschritte bei der Untersuchung der ABC-Transporterprotein-Superfamilie ist der spezifische Prozess der Substrattranslokation von MsbA noch immer unbekannt. Es wird angenommen, dass dieser Translokationsprozess über die Kopplungshelices (CHs) erfolgt, die sich zwischen der Transmembranregion (TMD) und der Nukleotidbindungsdomäne (NBD) befinden. Nukleotid-Bindungsdomäne (NBD). Zu diesem Zweck wird dem Zusammenspiel zwischen der TMD und der NBD über die CHs besondere Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet, mit dem Ziel, den Prozess der Substrattranslokation mithilfe von funktionellen Assays und Festkörper-NMR zu verstehen. Bei letzterem wurden spezifische Reporter in die CHs eingeführt, um Konformationsänderungen in 2D-spektroskopischen Daten zu verfolgen. Darüber hinaus wurde zeitaufgelöste NMR eingesetzt, um die Auswirkungen verschiedener Substrate in der TMD während der ATP-Hydrolyse in der NBD sichtbar zu machen. Die einzigartigen Reporter in den CHs haben Konformationsänderungen in bestimmten katalytischen Zuständen gezeigt. Darüber hinaus scheinen verschiedene Substrate die Kinetik der ATP-Hydrolyse zu beeinflussen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass einige Substrate einen bevorzugten katalytischen Zustand innerhalb des ATP-Hydrolyse Zyklus aufweisen, der möglicherweise einen gekoppelten oder ungekoppelten Kinasemechanismus hat. Diese Ergebnisse könnten verschiedene Einblicke in die molekulare Struktur potenzieller neuer Antibiotika liefern.
Glucokinase (GK) is a key enzyme of glucose metabolism in liver and pancreatic beta-cells, and small molecule activators of GK (GKAs) are under evaluation for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. In liver, GK activity is controlled by the GK regulatory protein (GKRP), which forms an inhibitory complex with the enzyme. Here, we performed isothermal titration calorimetry and surface plasmon resonance experiments to characterize GK-GKRP binding and to study the influence that physiological and pharmacological effectors of GK have on the protein-protein interaction. In the presence of fructose-6-phosphate, GK-GKRP complex formation displayed a strong entropic driving force opposed by a large positive enthalpy; a negative change in heat capacity was observed (Kd = 45 nm, DeltaH = 15.6 kcal/mol, TDeltaS = 25.7 kcal/mol, DeltaCp = -354 cal mol(-1) K(-1)). With k(off) = 1.3 x 10(-2) s(-1), the complex dissociated quickly. The thermodynamic profile suggested a largely hydrophobic interaction. In addition, effects of pH and buffer demonstrated the coupled uptake of one proton and indicated an ionic contribution to binding. Glucose decreased the binding affinity between GK and GKRP. This decrease was potentiated by an ATP analogue. Prototypical GKAs of the amino-heteroaryl-amide type bound to GK in a glucose-dependent manner and impaired the association of GK with GKRP. This mechanism might contribute to the antidiabetic effects of GKAs.
The genome of the halophilic archaeon Haloferax volcanii encodes more than 40 one-domain zinc finger µ-proteins. Only one of these, HVO_2753, contains four C(P)XCG motifs, suggesting the presence of two zinc binding pockets (ZBPs). Homologs of HVO_2753 are widespread in many euryarchaeota. An in frame deletion mutant of HVO_2753 grew indistinguishably from the wild-type in several media, but had a severe defect in swarming and in biofilm formation. For further analyses, the protein was produced homologously as well as heterologously in Escherichia coli. HVO_2753 was stable and folded in low salt, in contrast to many other haloarchaeal proteins. Only haloarchaeal HVO_2753 homologs carry a very hydrophilic N terminus, and NMR analysis showed that this region is very flexible and not part of the core structure. Surprisingly, both NMR analysis and a fluorimetric assay revealed that HVO_2753 binds only one zinc ion, despite the presence of two ZBPs. Notably, the analysis of cysteine to alanine mutant proteins by NMR as well by in vivo complementation revealed that all four C(P)XCG motifs are essential for folding and function. The NMR solution structure of the major conformation of HVO_2753 was solved. Unexpectedly, it was revealed that ZBP1 was comprised of C(P)XCG motifs 1 and 3, and ZBP2 was comprised of C(P)XCG motifs 2 and 4. There are several indications that ZBP2 is occupied by zinc, in contrast to ZBP1. To our knowledge, this study represents the first in-depth analysis of a zinc finger µ-protein in all three domains of life.
Die membranintegrierten, rotierenden F-Typ ATP-Synthasen zählen zu den essentiellen Komponenten der bakteriellen Energieversorgung. Ihre Rolle im zellulären Energiehaushalt bestehtin der Synthese von ATP unter Nutzung des transmembranen, elektrischen Ionengradienten (Mitchell 1961, Duncan et al. 1995, Noji et al. 1997, Kinosita et al. 1998). Die rotierenden ATP-Synthasen werden entsprechend der Kationenselektivität, die sie unter physiologischen Bedingungen zeigen, in zwei verschiedene Klassen eingeteilt, die H+-selektiven, sowiedie Na+-selektiven ATP-Synthasen. Hierbei bildet die Selektivität beider Klassen für einwertige Kationen (H+ oder Na+) eine essenzielle Grundlage für ihre Rolle im Energiehaushalt der bakteriellen Zellen. Jedoch gibt es nur eine begrenzte Anzahl von anaeroben Eubakterien und Archaeen, die noch einen auf Na+- Ionen basierenden Energiehaushalt besitzen. Gut charakterisierte Beispiele für Na+-selektive ATP-Synthasen bilden die F-Typ-Synthasen von I. tartaricus, P. modestum, sowie die V/A-Typ-Enzyme von E. hirae und A. woodii. Trotz der Unterschiede in der Kationenselektivitätder unterschiedlichen F-Typ ATP-Synthasen sind sie jedoch sowohl inihre Organisation, als auch hinsichtlich ihre Wirkungsweisen ähnlich. Das Ziel, der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Forschung, bestand in der Identifizierung der Faktoren, die sowohl die hohen Selektivität, als auch die Affinität des in der Membran-eingebetteten Rotor-C-Rings der ATP-Synthasezu Protonen (H+) und Na+- Ionen beeinflussen. Die Untersuchungen wurden hierbei andem c11-Ring der F-Typ-ATP-Synthase aus dem anaeroben Bakterium Ilyobacter tartaricus durchgeführt, das hierbei als Modellsystem diente. Der untersuchte Ring zeigt unter physiologischen Bedingungen eine hohe Bindungsselektivität für Na+ Ionen, kann jedoch unter nicht-physiologischen Bedingungen auch Li+ und H+ Ionen binden und zur ATP-Synthese verwenden (Neumann et al. 1998).
Das Ziel, der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Forschung, bestand in der Identifizierung der Faktoren, die sowohl die hohen Selektivität, als auch die Affinität des in der Membran-eingebetteten Rotor-C-Rings der ATP-Synthasezu Protonen (H+) und Na+- Ionen beeinflussen. Die Untersuchungen wurden hierbei andem c11-Ring der F-Typ-ATP-Synthase aus dem anaeroben Bakterium Ilyobacter tartaricus durchgeführt, das hierbei als Modellsystem diente. Der untersuchte Ring zeigt unter physiologischen Bedingungen eine hohe Bindungsselektivität für Na+ Ionen, kann jedoch unter nicht-physiologischen Bedingungen auch Li+ und H+ Ionen binden und zur ATP-Synthese verwenden (Neumann et al. 1998). Die Kd- und KM-Werte wurden verwendet, um die Na+ -Bindungsaffinität der C-Ringe bzw. ATP-Synthasen zu quantifizieren. Über die Selektivität wurdebeschrieben, welche Kationen an die C-Ringe und ATP-Synthasen binden können (z. B. H+/Na+/Li+, H+/Na+ - oder nur H+ Ionen).Das Verhältnis der absoluten Bindungsaffinitäten zwischen zwei Kationen (z. B. Kd (Na+)/Kd (H+)) wurde verwendet, um die Präferenz des Enzyms für eines der Ionen zu quantifizieren. Die Faktoren, dieder Kationenselektivität und der Affinität des I. tartaricus c-Rings zugrunde liegen, wurden mit Hilfe von Mutageneseexperimenten der Aminosäuren in der Ionenbindungsstelle untersucht. Im I. tartaricus-c-Ring erfolgt die Na+ Bindung an der Grenzfläche von zwei benachbarten c-Untereinheiten des c-Rings. An der Bindung der Na+-Ionen sind sowohl Aminosäuren aus Helix 1 (Gln32), sowie von Helix 2 (Val63, Ser66, Thr67 und Tyr70) beteiligt, die in der Nähe, des für den Mechanismusessentiellen Glu65 liegen. Insgesamt wurden 19 verschiedene, spezifische Einzel- und Doppelmutationen in die Sequenz des atpE-Gens eingeführt, die für die I. tarticus-ATP-Synthase-c-Untereinheit kodiert. Bei den Experimenten mit dem I. tartaricus c-Ring (Ser66, Thr67 und Tyr70) wurden drei polare Reste der Ionenbindungsstelle durch die polaren Reste (Ser67, Ile67 oder Leu67) oder hydrophobe Reste (Ala66, Gln67 und Phe70) ersetzt, während das geladene Glu65 durch die kürzere, aber immer noch geladene Seitenkette Asp65 ausgetauscht wurde. Zur Charakterisierung der monovalenten Kationenbindung durch die Wildtyp, sowie die mutierten C-Ringe von I.-tartaricus, wurde ein Ansatz verwendet, der biochemische (DCCD-Ionen-Kompetitionsassay) und biophysikalische (ITC) Methoden kombiniert.
Die Daten der in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Experimente, zeigen, dass c-Ringe selektiv für H+ sind, solange in der Ionenbindungsstelle des c-Rings ein ionisierbarer Glu/Asp-Rest vorhanden ist. Die H+-Bindungsaffinität des c-Rings hängt von der Hydrophobizität der Reste ab, aus der die Ionenbindungsstelle aufgebaut ist.Jedoch ist die Zahl der Faktoren, die die Na+-Selektivität des C-Rings bestimmen, weitaus größer. Von den in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Faktoren war die Zahl der polaren Reste, die Wasserstoffbrücken zu Na+ bilden, die Co-Koordination von Na+ durch strukturell vorhandene Wassermoleküle und die Anwesenheit von negativ geladenen Resten besonders wichtig für die Bindung der Na+-Ionen an den Ring. Die hohe Bindungsaffinität des c-Rings für Na+-Ionen, wird sowohl durch Wechselwirkungen begünstigt die das gebundene Na+-Ion stabilisieren, als auch den gesamten atomaren Aufbau der Ionenbindestelle, der die enthalpiegetriebene Na+-Bindungan den c-Ring begünstigen. Im Rahmen dieser eingehenden Studien konnten zum ersten Mal die thermodynamischen Eigenschaften aufgeklärt werden, die der hohen Na+-Bindungsaffinität des c-Rings zugrunde liegen, sowie der Einfluss von Mutationen auf diese Parameter ermittelt werden. Durch zahlreiche Experimente mit ATP-Synthasen, die mit mutierten c-Ringen zusammengesetzt wurden, sollte eine Verbindung zwischen Veränderungen der H+- und der Na+-Bindungsaffinitäten und Unterschiede im Betrieb der ATP-Synthase aufgeklärt werden. Die wichtigste Schlussfolgerung, die sich aus dieser Arbeit ableiten lässt, ist, besteht darin, dass sich Na+/H+-selektiven ATP-Synthasen durch den Austausch von 1-2 Aminosäureresten innerhalb der rotierenden c-Ring-Ionenbindungsstelle in ausschließlich H+-selektive, vollfunktionelle ATP-Synthasen umwandeln lassen.
Um sich an ändernde Umwelteinflüsse und metabolische Bedürfnisse anpassen zu können, ist es für Zellen essenziell, dass Boten-RNA (engl. messenger RNA, mRNA) stetig und schnell nach der Translation abgebaut wird. In Prokaryoten ist dafür der Proteinkomplex Degradosom verantwortlich, in dem Endo- und Exoribonukleasen RNase E und PNPase das RNA-Transkript in kleinere Fragmente und schließlich einzelne Nukleotide spalten. Die DEAD-Box Helikase RhlB im Komplex dient zusätzlich dazu, mögliche Sekundärstrukturen in der RNA zu entfalten, welche sonst die weitere Degradation behindern würden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass RhlB’s sehr geringe katalytische Aktivität – gemessen durch ATP-Verbrauch und Rate an entwundener RNA – signifikant durch die allosterische Bindung an Komplexpartner RNase E erhöht wird. Gleichzeitig deuten andere Studien darauf hin, dass RhlB eine mögliche Selektivität für doppelsträngige RNA-Substrate mit 5‘-Einzelstrang-Überhängen aufweist.
Diese Arbeit liefert neue Erkenntnisse in Bezug auf die Kommunikation zwischen den Degradosom-Komponenten RhlB und RNase E aus E. coli, indem das potenzielle Wechselspiel zwischen RhlBs RNA-Selektivität und der allosterischen Aktivierung durch RNase E untersucht wurde. Der vielseitige Einsatz NMR-spektroskopischer Techniken sowie die Verwendung kurzer RNA-Substrate mit spezifischen Strang-Eigenschaften ermöglicht es, mit einen ungewöhnlichen, RNA-zentrierten Ansatz an diese unzureichend verstandene Protein-Interaktion heranzugehen.
Zunächst wurden hierzu eine Reihe kurzer doppelsträngiger RNA-Konstrukte hergestellt, die sich nicht nur in ihren Einzelstrang-Merkmalen unterscheiden, sondern auch die thermodynamischen Anforderungen eines DEAD-Box Helikase Substrats erfüllen, und gleichzeitig eine ausreichende NMR-spektroskopische Signal-Zuordnung erlauben. Die thermale Stabilität, das Faltungsverhalten sowie die 1H Imino-protonen- und 13C HSQC-Zuordnungen aller geeigneten Konstrukte wurden erfolgreich bestimmt.
Um den Einfluss spezifischer RNA-Substrate sowie die Bindung zweier verschiedener RNase E Fragmente auf RhlBs ATP-Umsatzrate zu untersuchen, wurde sich zunächst eines photometrischen Phosphat-Assays bedient. Damit konnte deutlich gezeigt werden, dass RhlB in Abwesenheit des Komplex-Partners nicht in der Lage ist, signifikante Mengen an ATP umzusetzen, unabhängig davon, welches RNA-Konstrukt eingesetzt wird. Die Bindung der RNase E Fragmente erhöhte signifikant die ATP-Hydrolyse-Rate der Helikase, wobei die größte Aktivierung für den RNA-Duplex mit 5‘-Einzelstrang sowie ein einzelsträngiges Substrat zu beobachten ist. Da diese Ergebnisse deutlich eine RNA-Abhängigkeit beim ATP-Umsatz der Helikase zeigen, wurde untersucht, ob diese Unterschiede ihren Ursprung bereits in der Bindung der spezifischen RNA-Substrate haben. Mittels einer Mischapparatur, die es erlaubt die enzymatische Reaktion direkt im Spektrometer zu initiieren sowie zeitaufgelöster 31P NMR-Experimente konnte die allosterische Aktivierung der ATP-Hydrolyse-Rate von RhlB auch unter NMR-spektroskopischen Messbedingungen nachgewiesen werden.
Da die Ergebnisse des ATPase Assays deutlich eine RNA-Abhängigkeit bei der ATP-Umsatz-Rate der Helikase zeigen, wurde zusätzlich untersucht, ob diese Unterschiede ihren Ursprung in den Affinitäten für die verschiedenen RNA-Substrate haben und ob diese durch die Bindung von RNase E and RhlB beeinflusst werden. Um im gleichen Zuge zu überprüfen, ob die Bindung der RNA an RhlB die RNA-Konformation oder Basenpaarung ändert, werden 1H NMR-Titrationsexperimente durchgeführt. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass RhlB eine inhärente Präferenz für Duplexe mit 5‘-Überhang gegenüber Konstrukten mit 3‘-Überhang oder stumpfen Enden besitzt, was sich in einer erhöhten Affinität zeigt. Zusätzlich offenbaren die Messungen, dass RNase Es allosterische Bindung selektiv die Affinität gegenüber Konstrukten mit Einzelstrang-Überhang erhöht, während die Affinität zu RNA Duplexen ohne Überhang sogar verringert wird. Diese Ergebnisse liefern erstmals einen Nachweis, dass RNase E aktiv Einfluss auf RhlBs RNA-Bindung nimmt. Weder die Bindung der RNA and RhlB noch an den RhlB/RNase E Komplex scheint die Basenpaarung oder Konformation der RNA-Substrate zu beeinflussen, da lediglich eine homogene Peak-Verbreitung aller Imino-Protonen-Signale im 1H NMR-Spektrum beobachtet werden konnte.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is widely used as medicinal plant. According to the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC), dried powdered ginger rhizome can be applied for the prevention of nausea and vomiting in motion sickness (well-established use). Beyond this, a plethora of pre-clinical studies demonstrated anti-cancer, anti-oxidative, or anti-inflammatory actions. 6-Shogaol is formed from 6-gingerol by dehydration and represents one of the main bioactive principles in dried ginger rhizomes. 6-Shogaol is characterized by a Michael acceptor moiety being reactive with nucleophiles. This review intends to compile important findings on the actions of 6-shogaol as an anti-inflammatory compound: in vivo, 6-shogaol inhibited leukocyte infiltration into inflamed tissue accompanied with reduction of edema swelling. In vitro and in vivo, 6-shogaol reduced inflammatory mediator systems such as COX-2 or iNOS, affected NFκB and MAPK signaling, and increased levels of cytoprotective HO-1. Interestingly, certain in vitro studies provided deeper mechanistic insights demonstrating the involvement of PPAR-γ, JNK/Nrf2, p38/HO-1, and NFκB in the anti-inflammatory actions of the compound. Although these studies provide promising evidence that 6-shogaol can be classified as an anti-inflammatory substance, the exact mechanism of action remains to be elucidated. Moreover, conclusive clinical data for anti-inflammatory actions of 6-shogaol are largely lacking.
FPP und GGPP sind Intermediate des Mevalonat-Weges und fungieren als post-translationale Modifikation kleiner GTPasen. Die Prenylierung kleiner GTPasen erfolgt katalysiert von spezifischen Prenyltransferasen und ist notwendig um die kleinen GTPasen in Membranen zu verankern, wo ihre Aktivierung stattfindet. Zu den intrazellulären Funktionen der GTPasen gehören unter anderem der Aufbau des Cytoskeletts, das neuronale Zellwachstum, die Leitung und Ausläuferbildung von Axonen, das Dendritenwachstum, die Synapsenformation, die synaptische Plastizität und die Apoptose. Diese Funktionen spielen in der Gehirnalterung sowie in neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen wie der Alzheimer Demenz (AD) und auch bei der Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) eine wichtige Rolle.
Im Zuge einer in vivo Studie an C57BL/6 Mäusen konnten in der vorliegenden Arbeit altersbedingte Veränderungen der Lokalisation verschiedener Rho- und Rab-GTPasen in Membran- und Cytosol-Präparationen sowie der GGTase-I in Gehirnen gealterter Tiere gezeigt werden. Die zelluläre Lokalisation der Rho GTPasen Rac1, RhoA und Cdc42 verschiebt sich im Alter zu reduzierten Membran-gebundenen und erhöhten cytosolischen Gehalten. Dies ist mit einer Reduktion der Protein- und mRNA- Gehalte des Enzyms GGTase-Iβ assoziiert, der Untereinheit der GGTase-I, die die Bindung des Isoprenoids GGPP an die Rho-GTPasen reguliert. Diese wiederum korrelieren direkt mit der altersbedingten Reduktion der relativen GGTase-Aktivität. Die in vitro Inhibition der GGTase-I mittels GGTI-2133 an SH-SY5Y Zellen erwies sich als Modell, welches die gleichen Effekte wie die gealterten Gehirne in vivo zeigt.
7, 8-Dihydroxyflavon (7, 8-DHF) ist ein natürlich vorkommendes Flavon, welches als hoch affiner selektiver TrkB-Rezeptor-Agonist fungiert und hierdurch wie das Neurotrophin BDNF das Überleben von Neuronen, deren Differenzierung, synaptische Plastizität und Neurogenese vermittelt. In vivo verursacht die orale Gabe von 7, 8-Dihydroxyflavon in Gehirnen alter Tiere eine Abnahme des Isoprenoids GGPP, die Zunahme der prenylierten Membran-gebundenen GTPase Rac1 und eine Reduktion des Gehaltes an Membran-gebundenem Rab3A auf das Niveau der Gehalte in den Gehirnen der jungen Kontroll-Tiere. Das Neurotrophin BDNF interagiert mit dem TrkB-Rezeptor und ist in der Lage direkt an den Rac1-spezifischen GEF Tiam1 zu binden, wodurch dieser aktiviert wird und Veränderungen der zellulären Morphologie der betroffenen Neurone induziert. Während das Alter und die orale Gabe von 7, 8-Dihydroxyflavon in vivo keine Effekte auf die Proteingehalte von BDNF und TrkB in der Tierstudie aufzeigten, konnte eine alterbedingte Reduktion von Tiam1 im Hirngewebe detektiert werden, die wiederum durch 7, 8-Dihydroxyflavon aufgehoben werden konnte.
Die Isoprenoide FPP und GGPP, sowie die Regulation kleiner GTPasen spielen auch eine wichtige Rolle im Zusammenhang mit Veränderungen der APP-Prozessierung in der molekularen Pathogenese der AD. Bei der APP-Prozessierung sind die beiden Sekretasen β- und γ-Sekretase für die Bildung des β-Amyloid-Peptids verantwortlich. In vitro Studien mit dem β-Sekretase-Inhibitor IV und dem γ-Sekretase-Inhibitor DAPT an untransfizierten und APP-transfizierten HEK293 Zellen (HEK293-APP695wt und HEK293-APPsw Zellen) konnten zeigen, dass sowohl die β- als auch die γ-Sekretase an der Regulation der Isoprenoide FPP und GGPP beteiligt sind. FPP und GGPP liegen in APP-transfizierten HEK293 Zellen erhöht vor. Die Inhibition der β-Sekretase führt zur Reduktion von FPP und GGPP. Durch die Inhibition der γ-Sekretase wird ausschließlich FPP reduziert. Weiterhin liegen in APP-transfizierten HEK293 Zellen die Membran-gebundenen prenylierten Rho-GTPasen Rac1, Cdc42 und RhoA erhöht vor. Das Membran-gebundene prenylierte H-Ras kommt jedoch in APP-transfizierten Zellen im Vergleich zu untransfizierten HEK293 Zellen in deutlich niedrigeren Mengen vor. Die Inhibition der β-Sekretase bedingt die Reduktion von Membran-gebundenem prenylierten Rac1 und auch von Membran-gebundenem H-Ras in HEK293-APPsw Zellen.
Veränderungen von Signaltransduktionswegen, die durch kleine GTPasen vermittelt werden, haben sich auch bei der GBM als zentraler Teil der molekularen Pathogenese herausgestellt. Hierbei ist die Prenylierung durch FPP und GGPP die Voraussetzung für die Membran-Insertion und onkogenen Funktion der Ras- und Rho-Proteine über die Stimulierung des Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK Signalweges. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass der HMG-CoA-Reduktase Inhibitor Lovastatin die Bildung der beiden Isoprenoide FPP und GGPP in U87 und U343 Glioblastoma Zellen verringert und hierdurch die Isoprenylierung von H-Ras und Rac1 reduziert. Das natürlich vorkommende Monoterpen Perrilylalkohol hingegen inhibiert die Prenyltransferasen FTase und GGTase und verändert dadurch die post-translationale Prenylierung der GTPasen Rac1 und H-Ras in U87 und U343 Zellen ohne die Isoprenoide FPP und GGPP signifikant zu beeinflussen. Jedoch bewirkt Perillylalkohol in U343 Zellen eine Erhöhung des GGPPs. Beide Substanzen bewirkten die Reduktion der ERK-Phosphorylierung und der Migration, Invasion und Proliferation der untersuchten U87 und U343 Glioblastoma Zellen.
Chemical language models enable de novo drug design without the requirement for explicit molecular construction rules. While such models have been applied to generate novel compounds with desired bioactivity, the actual prioritization and selection of the most promising computational designs remains challenging. Herein, we leveraged the probabilities learnt by chemical language models with the beam search algorithm as a model-intrinsic technique for automated molecule design and scoring. Prospective application of this method yielded novel inverse agonists of retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptors (RORs). Each design was synthesizable in three reaction steps and presented low-micromolar to nanomolar potency towards RORγ. This model-intrinsic sampling technique eliminates the strict need for external compound scoring functions, thereby further extending the applicability of generative artificial intelligence to data-driven drug discovery.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein integrativer Netzwerkmodellierungsansatz gewählt, um die Rolle des Endothels im Kontext der Arteriosklerose zu untersuchen. Hierbei wurden bioinformatische Analysen, laborexperimentelle Versuche und klinische Daten vereinigt und aus dieser Synthese neue klinisch relevante Gene identifiziert und beschrieben.
Das Endothel trägt maßgeblich zur Homöostase des vaskulären Systems bei und eine Dysfunktion des Endothels fördert die Entstehung der Arteriosklerose. Im Zuge der Atherogenese entstehen vermehrt reaktive Sauerstoffspezies, die Lipide in der Membran von Plasma-Lipoprotein-Partikeln und in der zellulären Plasmamembran oxidieren. Eine Gruppe solcher oxidierter Membranlipide ist oxPAPC, das in erhöhter Konzentration in arteriosklerotischen Plaques und lokal an Orten chronischer Entzündung im vaskulären System vorkommt. Weitherhin findet sich diese Gruppe von oxidierten Phospholipiden in oxidierten LDL-Partikeln, in denen oxPAPC die Bindung an Makrophagen vermittelt und hierdurch maßgeblich zur Bildung der Schaumzellen und damit zum arteriosklerotischen Prozess beiträgt. Die durch oxPAPC verursachte Veränderung der Endothelzelle ist bisher wenig erforscht. Es ist jedoch bekannt, dass oxPAPC die Transkriptionslandschaft in Endothelzellen tiefgreifend verändert. Um der Komplexität der Endothelzellveränderung gerecht zu werden, wurde ein bayesscher Ansatz angewendet.
In einem ersten Schritt wurden Expressionsprofile von humanen Aortenendothelzellen (HAEC) aus 147 Herztransplantatspendern verwendet. Diese Expressionprofile enthalten Transkriptionsinformationen der 147 HAEC, die mit oxPAPC oder Kontrollmedium behandelt worden waren. Es wurden signifikant koexprimierte Gene identifiziert und hiervon Gen-Paare berechnet, die einen differentiellen Vernetzungsgrad zwischen Kontroll- and oxPAPC-Status aufweisen. Dieses Netzwerkmodell gibt darüber Aufschluss, welche Gene miteinander in Verbindung stehen. 26759 Gene-Paare, die differentiell verbunden und signifkant koexprimiert waren, wurden hierarchisch gruppiert. Es wurden neun Gen-Gruppen mit einer erhöhten und elf Gen-Gruppen mit einer verminderten Konnektivität nach oxPAPC identifiziert. Gruppe 6 der erhöhten Konnektvitäts-Gruppen wies hierbei die höchste kohärente Konnektivität von allen Gruppen auf. Eine Analyse signifikant überrepräsentierter kanonischer Gensätze ergab, dass diese Gruppe insbesondere Serin-Glycin-Aminosäuremetabolismus, tRNA- und mTOR-Aktivierung wiederspiegelte. Der hier gewählte Netzwerkmodellierungsansatz zeigte auf, dass der Aminosäuremetabolismus durch oxidizerte Phospholipide massiven Veränderungen unterworfen ist.
Um den Mechanismus der Veränderung des Aminosäuremetabolismus näher zu untersuchen, wurden bayessche Netzwerkmodelle verwendet. Dieses Netzwerkmodell enthält im Gegensatz zum differentiellen Koexpresssionsmodell gerichtete Informationen innerhalb des Netzwerkgraphes. Die Gen-Gen Verbindungen sind kausal, wodurch sich eine Hierarchie bildet und Schlüsselfaktoren innerhalb des Netzwerks bestimmt werden können. Durch die Integrierung von Expressionsprofilen und Genomprofilen derselben HAEC-Kohorte und der Inferenz von kausalen Gen-Gen-Verbindungen ergaben sich zwei bayessche Netze: Kontroll- und oxPAPC-Netzwerk. Permutationsuntersuchungen und systematische Beurteilung im Vergleich zu Gen-Gen-Verbindungen in Online-Datenbanken zeigten eine erhöhte Prognosefähigkeit der beiden HAEC bayesschen Netze. Es wurden die Schlüsselfaktoren und deren Teilnetzwerke berechnet und auf biologische Wege hin untersucht. Hierbei wurde das mitochondriale Protein MTHFD2 als ein Schlüsselfaktor für ein Teilnetzwerk des oxPAPC bayesschen Netzes identifiziert. Dieses Teilnetz zeigte eine ähnliche Gensatzanreicherung wie GOC-AA und überlappte mit diesem signifikant.
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Pancreatic cancer is a common malignant tumor with a high incidence and mortality rate. The prognosis of patients with pancreatic cancer is considerably poor due to the lack of effective treatment in clinically. Despite numerous studies have revealed that baicalein, a natural product, is responsible for suppressing multiple cancer cells proliferation, motility and invasion. The mechanism by which baicalein restraining pancreatic cancer progression remains unclear. In this study, we firstly verified that baicalein plays a critical role in inhibiting pancreatic tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. Then we analyzed the alteration of microRNAs (miRNAs) expression levels in Panc-1 cells incubated with DMSO, 50 and 100 μM baicalein by High-Throughput sequencing. Intriguingly, we observed that 20 and 39 miRNAs were accordingly up- and down-regulated through comparing Panc-1 cells exposed to 100 μM baicalein with the control group. Quantitative PCR analysis confirmed that miR-139-3p was the most up-regulated miRNA after baicalein treatment, while miR-196b-5p was the most down-regulated miRNA. Further studies showed that miR-139-3p induced, miR-196b-5p inhibited the apoptosis of Panc-1 cells via targeting NOB1 and ING5 respectively. In conclusion, we demonstrated that baicalein is a potent inhibitor against pancreatic cancer by modulating the expression of miR-139-3p or miR-196b-5p.
F-type ATP synthases are multiprotein complexes composed of two separate coupled motors (F1 and FO) generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as the universal major energy source in a variety of relevant biological processes in mitochondria, bacteria and chloroplasts. While the structure of many ATPases is solved today, the precise assembly pathway of F1FO-ATP synthases is still largely unclear. Here, we probe the assembly of the F1 complex from Acetobacterium woodii. Using laser induced liquid bead ion desorption (LILBID) mass spectrometry, we study the self-assembly of purified F1 subunits in different environments under non-denaturing conditions. We report assembly requirements and identify important assembly intermediates in vitro and in cellula. Our data provide evidence that nucleotide binding is crucial for in vitro F1 assembly, whereas ATP hydrolysis appears to be less critical. We correlate our results with activity measurements and propose a model for the assembly pathway of a functional F1 complex.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the deposition of aggregated species of amyloid beta (Aβ) in the brain, which leads to progressive cognitive deficits and dementia. Aβ is generated by the successive cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), first by β-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) and subsequently by the γ-secretase complex. Those conditions which enhace or reduce its clearance predispose to Aβ aggregation and the development of AD. In vitro studies have demonstrated that Aβ assemblies spark a feed-forward loop heightening Aβ production. However, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. Here, we show that oligomers and fibrils of Aβ enhance colocalization and physical interaction of APP and BACE1 in recycling endosomes of human neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells and other cell types, which leads to exacerbated amyloidogenic processing of APP and intracellular accumulation of Aβ42. In cells that are overexpressing the mutant forms of APP which are unable to bind Aβ or to activate Go protein, we have found that treatment with aggregated Aβ fails to increase colocalization of APP with BACE1 indicating that Aβ-APP/Go signaling is involved in this process. Moreover, inhibition of Gβγ subunit signaling with βARKct or gallein prevents Aβ-dependent interaction of APP and BACE1 in endosomes, β-processing of APP, and intracellular accumulation of Aβ42. Collectively, our findings uncover a signaling mechanism leading to a feed-forward loop of amyloidogenesis that might contribute to Aβ pathology in the early stages of AD and suggest that gallein could have therapeutic potential.
Auswirkung der Chemisorption von Organothiolaten auf den elektrischen Widerstand dünner Goldfilme
(2018)
Hochgeordnete Monolagen von Organothiolaten auf Goldoberflächen bilden sich bei Kontakt einer Goldoberfläche mit einer Lösung eines Thiols oder Thioacetats spontan aus. Die Adsorption auf dünnen Metallfilmen mit Schichtdicken im Bereich von 25 - 100 nm führt zu einer Änderung des elektrischen Widerstandes des Films, die an Goldfilmen mit Schichtdicken von 25 - 40 nm über eine einfache Zweipunktmessung verfolgt wurde. Die Proportionalität der Widerstandsänderung mit der Menge an adsorbiertem Material konnte für die in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Dünnschichtsensoren bestätigt werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurden gleichzeitig Widerstands- und Oberflächenplasmonenresonanzmessungen an 40 nm starken Goldfilmen durchgeführt. In diesen Experimenten zeigt sich die Widerstandsmessung zur Beobachtung der Adsorptionskinetik als die überlegene Technologie.
Die durch Mikrokontaktdrucken und Freiätzen der gedruckten Strukturen hergestellten Sensoren zeigen eine individuelle Signalintensität. Die Normierung auf die maximale, durch Belegung mit Hexadecanthiol (HDT) oder Dodecanthiol erreichte, Signalstärke ermöglichte den Vergleich der maximalen Signalstärke von Thiolatmonolagen, die durch Belegung mit n-Alkanthiolen (CH_3(CH_2)_(n-1)-SH mit n = 12, 16, 19, 22 und 33, Cn), 11-Mercaptoundecyl-hexaethylenglycol (HSC11EG6OH), Adamantan-1-thiol (AdaSH), Triptycenthiol (TrpSH), Anthracen-2-thiol (Ant-0SH), Anthracen-2-alkanthiolen (Ant-(CH_2)_n-SH mit n = 1 - 5 und 10, Ant-nSH), p-Terphenyl-4-thiol (TP0SH), p-Terphenyl-4-alkanthiolen (TP-(CH_2)_n-SH mit n = 1 - 4, TPnSH) und p-Terphenyl-4-ethanthioacetat (TP2SAc) erzeugt wurden. Die Größe der Widerstandsänderung zeigt eine deutliche Abhängigkeit vom organischen Rest des Oberflächenadsorbats. Für die Verstärkung des Signals wurde die folgende Reihenfolge gefunden: Trp > Ada > Ant-0 > Ant-1 > TP0 > TP1 > Ant-2 > TP2 > Cn (n = 12 - 33) = C11EG6OH = Ant-n (n = 3 - 11) = TPn (n = 3, 4). Bei bekannter Verstärkung des Signals durch ein Adsorbat kann unabhängig von der Oberflächenrauigkeit die Oberflächenbedeckung durch Chemisorbate in einer Güte bestimmt werden, die der durch STM- und TEM-Messungen erreichten vergleichbar ist. Die Methode wurde angewendet, um Schichten von TP2SH und TP2SAc, die bei 20 und 60 °C aus ethanolischer Lösung abgeschieden wurden, zu vergleichen. Die Unterschiede in der Oberflächendichte, die durch eine Erhöhung der Abscheidungstemperatur zu beobachten sind, können durch eine Beschleunigung der Reaktion nach Arrhenius erklärt werden. Auch die Temperaturabhängigkeit der Abscheidungsgeschwindigkeit von HDT aus ethanolischer Lösung an Goldoberflächen, die in einem Bereich von -10 °C bis +30 °C betrachtet wurde, ist mit dem Arrhenius'schen Ansatz konform. Die Aktivierungsenergie der Adsorption von HDT auf Gold wurde auf E_a = 23 +-6 kJ/mol bestimmt.
Die Konzentrationsabhängigkeit der Abscheidung aus ethanolischer Lösung an Goldoberflächen wurde für HDT, AdaSH, TP2SH und TP2SAc untersucht. Um eine Präadsorption der Thiole vor dem eigentlichen Start der Messung zu verhindern, wurde eine Apparatur mit einem Diaphragma aus Aluminium entwickelt, das beim Start der Messung mit dem Sensor durchstoßen wird. Mit Ausnahme von TP2SH zeigen alle Adsorptive ein Adsorptions-Desorptions-Gleichgewicht. Die Adsorptionsisothermen bei 20 °C lassen sich am besten durch die Freundlich-Isotherme beschreiben. Während die Reaktionsordnung im Adsorbat für die Adsorption der Thiole nahe an 1 liegt, hat sie für die Adsorption von TP2SAc einen Wert von ca. 1/4. Damit ergibt sich für die Geschwindigkeitskonstante der Adsorption k_a(HDT) = (2,3 +-0,2) 10^4 L/(mol s), k_a(AdaSH) = (6,1 +-0,2) 10^4 L/(mol s), k_a(TP2SH) = (7,3 +-0,4) 10^3 L/(mol s) und k_a(TP2SAc) = (8 +-3) 10^-2 L^(1/4)/(mol^(1/4) s). Die Adsorptionskurven der Thiole weisen bei Konzentrationen unterhalb von 5 10^-5 mol/L einen linearen Bereich auf, der einer zwischenzeitlichen Diffusionskontrolle zugeordnet wird.
An die aufgenommenen Adsorptionskurven der Thiole wurden literaturbekannte Modelle numerisch angepasst und teilweise weiterentwickelt. Die Anpassung konnte durch die Einführung einer vor der Oberfläche gelagerten Diffusionsgrenzschicht, in welcher der zeitabhängige Verlauf der Analytkonzentration in einem System von 10 Schichten berechnet wurde, deutlich verbessert werden. Von allen getesteten Modellen zeigt nur die Adsorption mit Ausschlussmuster keine Konzentrationsabhängigkeit der Geschwindigkeitskonstante der Desorption. Dieses Modell bezieht den Verlust von Adsorptionsplätzen mit ein, die einem besetzten Adsorptionsplatz benachbart sind und durch das adsorbierte Teilchen verdeckt werden. Der daraus resultierende Zusammenhang zwischen der Konzentration freier Adsorptionsplätze und dem Bedeckungsgrad der Oberfläche Theta_F(Theta) ist abhängig vom Verhältnis der Stoßfrequenz zwischen den Teilchen und der Oberfläche zur Platzwechselfrequenz der Teilchen auf der Oberfläche. Zur Bestimmung von Theta_F(Theta) für die numerische Anpassung der Adsorptionskurven von HDT und TP2SH wurde die Oberflächenbesetzung in einem Monte-Carlo-Verfahren für eine Konzentrationsreihe in Zehnerpotenzschritten simuliert.
Die Verwendung von Photoschaltern zur gezielten Kontrolle von Systemen birgt ein hohes Potential hinsichtlich biologischer Fragestellungen, bis hin zu optoelektronischen Anwendungen. Infolge einer Photoanregung kommt es zu Geometrieänderungen, die einen erheblichen Einfluss auf ihr photophysikalisches Verhalten haben. Die Änderungen der photochemischen, wie photophysikalischen Eigenschaften, beruht entweder auf der Isomerisierung von Doppelbindungen oder auf perizyklischen Reaktionen. Durch sorgfältige Modifikationen, wie beispielsweise die Änderung der Konjugation durch unterschiedlich große π-Elektronensysteme, der Molekülgeometrie oder der Veränderung des Dipolmoments, lassen sich intrinsische Funktionen variieren.
Die Kombination dieser Eigenschaften stellt eine komplexe Herausforderung dar, da diese Änderungen einen direkten Einfluss auf wichtige Charakteristika wie die Adressierbarkeit, die Effizienz und die Stabilität der Moleküle haben. Darüber hinaus spielt die thermische Stabilität eine erhebliche Rolle im Hinblick auf die Speicherung von Energie oder Informationen für Anwendungsbereiche in der Energiegewinnung und Datenverarbeitung.
Für die Anwendung solcher photochromen Moleküle ist hinsichtlich der oben genannten Eigenschaften auch das Wissen über den photoinduzierten Reaktionsmechanismus unabdingbar.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde der Einfluss auf die Isomerisierungsdynamik organischer Photoschalter durch unterschiedliche Modifikationen mittels stationärer und zeitaufgelöster Spektroskopie untersucht. Im Bereich der Merocyanine konnte ein Derivat vorgestellt werden, das ausschließlich zwischen zwei MC-Formen (trans/cis) isomerisiert. Die interne Methylierung am Phenolatsauerstoff der Chromeneinheit verhindert die Ringschlussreaktion zum SP und somit seinen zwitterionischen Charakter. Die stabilen Grundzustandsisomere TTT und CCT weisen durch den Methylsubstituenten eine hypsochrome Verschiebung ihrer Absorptionsmaxima auf, während TTT das thermodynamisch stabilste Isomer darstellt. Das MeMC wies eine erstaunlich hohe Effizienz seiner Schaltamplituden, insbesondere der TTT → CCT Photoisomerisierung auf, sowie eine überaus hohe Quantenausbeute.
Das MeMC wies zudem eine signifikante Lösungsmittelabhängigkeit auf, die sich insbesondere in der Photostabilität bemerkbar macht. Während das MeMC in MeCN und EtOH photodegradiert, konnte in EtOH/H2O eine konstante Reliabilität festgestellt werden. Diese Zuverlässigkeit impliziert nicht nur eine Stabilisierung durch das Wasser, sondern auch eine Resistenz gegenüber Hydrolysereaktionen. Darüber hinaus konnten kinetische Studien eine hohe thermische Rückkonversion von CCT zu TTT bei Raumtemperatur nachweisen, womit auf schädliche UV-Bestrahlung verzichtet werden könnte.
Die Untersuchung der Kurzzeitdynamiken beider Grundzustandsisomere gab Aufschluss über die Beteiligung anderer möglicher MC-Intermediate und den Einfluss der Methylgruppe auf das System. Mittels quantenchemischer Berechnungen konnte eine erste Initiierung um die zentrale Doppelbindung beider Isomere bestimmt werden, die jeweils zu einem heißen Grundzustandsintermediat führt, bis nach einer zweiten Isomerisierung der endgültige Grundzustand der Photoprodukte populiert wird. Dies bedeutet, dass die trans/cis-Isomerisierung über TTT-TCT-CCT und die Rückkonversion über CCT-CTT-TTT erfolgt.
Im Bereich der Hydrazon-Photoschalter konnten unterschiedlich substituierte Derivate mittels statischer und zeitaufgelösten UV/Vis-Studien untersucht werden. Da ESIPT Prozesse eine wichtige Funktion bei der Kontrolle von biologischen Systemen spielen, wurden verschiedene Hydrazonderivate hinsichtlich ihrer Reaktionsmechanismen untersucht. Als Rotoreinheit diente zum einen eine Benzothiazolkomponente, die die interne H-Bindung des angeregten Z-Hydrazons schwächen sollte und zum anderen wurde ein Chinolinsubstituent eingesetzt, der als Elektronenakzeptor diente und den H-Transfer begünstigt. Der Einsatz der Benzothiazolkomponente bewirkte die gewünschte Vergrößerung der bathochromen Verschiebung des E-Isomers, sowie eine deutliche Erhöhung der thermischen Stabilität des metastabilen
Zustands. Dies bestätigten die zeitaufgelösten Studien der Z zu E Isomerisierung, bei denen die Isomere im Vergleich zum Chinolinhydrazonderivat, in beiden ausgewählten Lösungsmitteln metastabile Z-Intermediate zeigten und eine Lebenszeit bis in den µs-Zeitbereich aufwiesen. Die Rückreaktion beider Derivate (HCN) und (HBN) hingegen zeigte eine barrierelose Umwandlung in die beteiligten Photoprodukte. Trotz der Verwendung des Chinolinsubstituenten zusammen mit Naphthalin als Rotoreinheit (HCN), konnte kein ESIPT Prozess beobachtet werden. HCB mit einer Kombination aus einem Chinolinrotor und eines Benzothiazolsubstituenten, wies eine Hydrazon-Azobenzol-Tautomerie auf, die ein prototropes Gleichgewicht zwischen dem E-Hydrazon und der E-Azobenzolform (E-AB) ausbildete. Die Reaktionsdynamiken des Z-Hydrazons zum E-AB wiesen eine ultraschnelle Bildung des Photoproduktes auf, während die Rückreaktion über einen ESIPT im sub-ps-Bereich erfolgte. Dieser H-Transfer hat die Bildung des angeregten E-Hydrazons zur Folge. Interessanterweise wurde kein Rückprotonentransfer nachgewiesen, sondern die mögliche Formation eines Z-AB gefunden. Damit unterscheidet sich dieser Reaktionsmechanismus erheblich von den typischen ESIPT Prozessen, die normalerweise zu ihrem Ausgangsmolekül zurückrelaxieren. Des Weiteren konnte ein Pyridinoxid und Benzoylpyridin-substituiertes Hydrazon charakterisiert werden, bei denen die stationären Studien kein Schaltverhalten, sondern Photodegradation aufwiesen. Die zeitaufgelösten Daten ergaben ebenfalls keine Photoproduktbildung, was die These der Photozersetzung unterstützt. Die Verwendung von zusätzlich substituierten Rotoreinheiten, wie beispielsweise Pyridinoxid und Benzoylpyridin, die aufgrund fehlender Protonenakzeptormöglichkeit keine interne H-Bindung ausbilden, erlaubt keine Bildung des Z-Hydrazon Isomers.
Atg8-family proteins - structural features and molecular interactions in autophagy and beyond
(2020)
Autophagy is a common name for a number of catabolic processes, which keep the cellular homeostasis by removing damaged and dysfunctional intracellular components. Impairment or misbalance of autophagy can lead to various diseases, such as neurodegeneration, infection diseases, and cancer. A central axis of autophagy is formed along the interactions of autophagy modifiers (Atg8-family proteins) with a variety of their cellular counter partners. Besides autophagy, Atg8-proteins participate in many other pathways, among which membrane trafficking and neuronal signaling are the most known. Despite the fact that autophagy modifiers are well-studied, as the small globular proteins show similarity to ubiquitin on a structural level, the mechanism of their interactions are still not completely understood. A thorough analysis and classification of all known mechanisms of Atg8-protein interactions could shed light on their functioning and connect the pathways involving Atg8-proteins. In this review, we present our views of the key features of the Atg8-proteins and describe the basic principles of their recognition and binding by interaction partners. We discuss affinity and selectivity of their interactions as well as provide perspectives for discovery of new Atg8-interacting proteins and therapeutic approaches to tackle major human diseases.
ATP-binding cassette (ABC) systems translocate a wide range of solutes across cellular membranes. The thermophilic Gram-negative eubacterium Thermus thermophilus, a model organism for structural genomics and systems biology, discloses ∼46 ABC proteins, which are largely uncharacterized. Here, we functionally analyzed the first two and only ABC half-transporters of the hyperthermophilic bacterium, TmrA and TmrB. The ABC system mediates uptake of the drug Hoechst 33342 in inside-out oriented vesicles that is inhibited by verapamil. TmrA and TmrB form a stable heterodimeric complex hydrolyzing ATP with a Km of 0.9 mm and kcat of 9 s−1 at 68 °C. Two nucleotides can be trapped in the heterodimeric ABC complex either by vanadate or by mutation inhibiting ATP hydrolysis. Nucleotide trapping requires permissive temperatures, at which a conformational ATP switch is possible. We further demonstrate that the canonic glutamate 523 of TmrA is essential for rapid conversion of the ATP/ATP-bound complex into its ADP/ATP state, whereas the corresponding aspartate in TmrB (Asp-500) has only a regulatory role. Notably, exchange of this single noncanonic residue into a catalytic glutamate cannot rescue the function of the E523Q/D500E complex, implicating a built-in asymmetry of the complex. However, slow ATP hydrolysis in the newly generated canonic site (D500E) strictly depends on the formation of a posthydrolysis state in the consensus site, indicating an allosteric coupling of both active sites.
Introns of human transfer RNA precursors (pre-tRNAs) are excised by the tRNA splicing endonuclease TSEN in complex with the RNA kinase CLP1. Mutations in TSEN/CLP1 occur in patients with pontocerebellar hypoplasia (PCH), however, their role in the disease is unclear. Here, we show that intron excision is catalyzed by tetrameric TSEN assembled from inactive heterodimers independently of CLP1. Splice site recognition involves the mature domain and the anticodon-intron base pair of pre-tRNAs. The 2.1-Å resolution X-ray crystal structure of a TSEN15–34 heterodimer and differential scanning fluorimetry analyses show that PCH mutations cause thermal destabilization. While endonuclease activity in recombinant mutant TSEN is unaltered, we observe assembly defects and reduced pre-tRNA cleavage activity resulting in an imbalanced pre-tRNA pool in PCH patient-derived fibroblasts. Our work defines the molecular principles of intron excision in humans and provides evidence that modulation of TSEN stability may contribute to PCH phenotypes.
Introns of human transfer RNA precursors (pre-tRNAs) are excised by the tRNA splicing endonuclease TSEN in complex with the RNA kinase CLP1. Mutations in TSEN/CLP1 occur in patients with pontocerebellar hypoplasia (PCH), however, their role in the disease is unclear. Here, we show that intron excision is catalyzed by tetrameric TSEN assembled from inactive heterodimers independently of CLP1. Splice site recognition involves the mature domain and the anticodon-intron base pair of pre-tRNAs. The 2.1-Å resolution X-ray crystal structure of a TSEN15–34 heterodimer and differential scanning fluorimetry analyses show that PCH mutations cause thermal destabilization. While endonuclease activity in recombinant mutant TSEN is unaltered, we observe assembly defects and reduced pre-tRNA cleavage activity resulting in an imbalanced pre-tRNA pool in PCH patient-derived fibroblasts. Our work defines the molecular principles of intron excision in humans and provides evidence that modulation of TSEN stability may contribute to PCH phenotypes.
We demonstrated previously that 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), a key enzyme in leukotriene biosynthesis, can be phosphorylated by p38 MAPK-regulated MAPKAP kinases (MKs). Here we show that mutation of Ser-271 to Ala in 5-LO abolished MK2 catalyzed phosphorylation and clearly reduced phosphorylation by kinases prepared from stimulated polymorphonuclear leukocytes and Mono Mac 6 cells. Compared with heat shock protein 27 (Hsp-27), 5-LO was a weak substrate for MK2. However, the addition of unsaturated fatty acids (i.e. arachidonate 1-50 microm) up-regulated phosphorylation of 5-LO, but not of Hsp-27, by active MK2 in vitro, resulting in a similar phosphorylation as for Hsp-27. 5-LO was phosphorylated also by other serine/threonine kinases recognizing the motif Arg-Xaa-Xaa-Ser (protein kinase A, Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II), but these activities were not increased by fatty acids. HeLa cells expressing wild type 5-LO or S271A-5-LO, showed prominent 5-LO activity when incubated with Ca(2+)-ionophore plus arachidonate. However, when stimulated with only exogenous arachidonic acid, activity for the S271A mutant was significantly lower as compared with wild type 5-LO. It appears that phosphorylation at Ser-271 is more important for 5-LO activity induced by a stimulus that does not prominently increase intracellular Ca(2+) and that arachidonic acid stimulates leukotriene biosynthesis also by promoting this MK2-catalyzed phosphorylation.
Objectives Supersaturating formulations hold great promise for delivery of poorly soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). To profit from supersaturating formulations, precipitation is hindered with precipitation inhibitors (PIs), maintaining drug concentrations for as long as possible. This review provides a brief overview of supersaturation and precipitation, focusing on precipitation inhibition. Trial-and-error PI selection will be examined alongside established PI screening techniques. Primarily, however, this review will focus on recent advances that utilise advanced analytical techniques to increase mechanistic understanding of PI action and systematic PI selection.
Key Findings. Advances in mechanistic understanding have been made possible by the use of analytical tools such as spectroscopy, microscopy and mathematical and molecular modelling, which have been reviewed herein. Using these techniques, PI selection can instead be guided by molecular rationale. However, more work is required to see wide-spread application of such an approach for PI selection.
Conclusions PIs are becoming increasingly important in enabling formulations. Trial-and-error approaches have seen success thus far. However, it is essential to learn more about the mode of action of PIs if the most optimal formulations are to be realised. Robust analytical tools, and the knowledge of where and how they can be applied, will be essential in this endeavour.