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Endocannabinoids (eCB) are signaling lipids and became known for their importance in the central nervous system as well as in immune defense. Beneficial effects of eCB are shown in processes of excitotoxic lesion, secondary damage and neuronal plasticity throughout the last years. Two canabinoid receptors, type 1 (CB1) and type 2 (CB2) as the respective endogenous ligands belong to the endocannabinoid system (eCBS). In 1990, the CB1 could be cloned and was localised mainly on neurons. Shortly thereafter in 1993, the CB2 was characterised and found primarily on cells belonging to the immune system. N-arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA), often called anandamide, and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are the best characterised eCB. N-palmitylethanolamide (PEA) and N-oleoylethanolamide (OEA) have no or only low affinity to CB1 but enhance the affinity of AEA significantly. This group is therefore often summarized as N-ethanolamides (NEA). ECB are derivates of arachidonic acid and are stored in membranes where they become hydrolysed on demand by specific enzymes. Traumatic brain injury altered the levels of eCB in the blood in vivo and when applied in vitro after neuronal damage, eCB could reduce the damaging burden. Further studies demonstrated that eCB are potent to down-regulate pro-inflammatory cytokines and most important to decrease neuronal excitation.
In the present study, the intrinsic regulation of the endocannabinoid system after neuronal damage over time was investigated in rat Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures (OHSC). Temporal and spatial dynamics of eCB levels were analysed after transection of the perforant pathway (PPT) in originating neurons (enthorhinal cortex, EC), areas of deafferentiation/anterograde axonal degeneration (dentate gyrus, DG) and of the synaptically linked cornu ammonis region 1 (CA1) as well as after excitotoxic lesion in the respective regions.
A strong increase of all eCB was observed only in the denervation zone of the DG 24 hours post PPT. In excitotoxic lesioned OHSC all eCB were elevated, in the investigated regions up to 72 hours post lesion (hpl). The responsible enzyme for biosynthesis of the NEA, NAPE-PLD protein, was increased during the early timepoints of measurement (1-6 hpl). The responsible catabolizing enzyme, FAAH, and the CB1 receptor were up-regulated at a later timepoint, 48 hpl, explaining the eCB levels. In the present model, the inhibition of the enzyme responsible for 2-AG hydrolysis (MAGL) was neuroprotective as previously shown and a re-distribution within neurons and astrocytes during neuronal damage could be observed. In primary cell cultures microglia expressed the regulating enzymes of 2-AG and the enzyme responsible for NEA down-regulation, FAAH. Astrocytes expressed mainly the catalyzing enzymes, indicating the role for eCB break-down. All these findings together demonstrate the great capacity of the eCBS to control inflammatory processes and consequently neuronal cell death.
All effects of the known eCB could not be clarified by CB1/CB2 deficient mice. Several G-protein coupled receptors (GPR) are recently in discussion whether they might and should belong to the endocannabinoid system. The GPR55, the not yet cloned abnormal cannabidiol receptor and further GPRs are candidates as potential endocannabinoid receptors. Recently GPR55 has been discussed as a putative cannabinoid receptor type 3 (CB3). Quantitative PCR revealed that Gpr55 is present in primary microglia and the brain, but the exact regional and cellular distribution and the physiological/pathological effects downstream of GPR55 activation in the CNS still remain open. Therefore, the excitotoxic rat OHSC model, previously used to investigate the neuroprotective potency of eCB, was now used to investigate the neuroprotective potency of GPR55. Activation of GPR55 protected dentate gyrus granule cells in vitro after excitotoxic lesion, induced by NMDA. In parallel, GPR55 activation was able to reduce the number of microglia in the dentate gyrus. These neuroprotective effects vanished however in microglia depleted OHSCs as well as in OHSC transfected with Gpr55 siRNA, indicating a strong involvement of microglia in GPR55 mediated neuroprotection.
In summary, the present study found a strong time-dependent and anterograde mechanism of action of eCB after long-range projection damage and provided further evidence for the neuroprotective properties of eCB. The potential cannabinoid receptor 3 (GPR55) mediates neuronal protection on behalf of microglia.
Over the last 15 years the Diagnostic Center of Acute Leukemia (DCAL) at the Frankfurt University has diagnosed and elucidated the Mixed Lineage Leukemia (MLL) recombinome with >100 MLL fusion partners. When analyzing all these different events, balanced chromosomal translocations were found to comprise the majority of these cases (~70%), while other types of genetic rearrangements (3-way-translocations, spliced fusions, 11q inversions, interstitial deletions or insertion of chromosomal fragments into other chromosomes) account for about 30%. In nearly all those complex cases, functional fusion proteins can be produced by transcription, splicing and translation. With a few exceptions (10 out of 102 fusion genes which were per se out-of-frame), all these genetic rearrangements produced a direct MLL fusion gene, and in 94% of cases an additional reciprocal fusion gene. So far, 114 patients (out of 2454 = ~5%) have been diagnosed only with the reciprocal fusion allele, displaying no MLL-X allele. The fact that so many MLL rearrangements bear at least two fusion alleles, but also our findings that several direct MLL fusions were either out-of-frame fusions or missing, raises the question about the function and importance of reciprocal MLL fusions. Recent findings also demonstrate the presence of reciprocal MLL fusions in sarcoma patients. Here, we want to discuss the role of reciprocal MLL fusion proteins for leukemogenesis and beyond.
The prevalence and specificity of local protein synthesis during neuronal synaptic plasticity
(2021)
To supply proteins to their vast volume, neurons localize mRNAs and ribosomes in dendrites and axons. While local protein synthesis is required for synaptic plasticity, the abundance and distribution of ribosomes and nascent proteins near synapses remain elusive. Here, we quantified the occurrence of local translation and visualized the range of synapses supplied by nascent proteins during basal and plastic conditions. We detected dendritic ribosomes and nascent proteins at single-molecule resolution using DNA-PAINT and metabolic labeling. Both ribosomes and nascent proteins positively correlated with synapse density. Ribosomes were detected at ~85% of synapses with ~2 translational sites per synapse; ~50% of the nascent protein was detected near synapses. The amount of locally synthesized protein detected at a synapse correlated with its spontaneous Ca2+ activity. A multifold increase in synaptic nascent protein was evident following both local and global plasticity at respective scales, albeit with substantial heterogeneity between neighboring synapses.
Treatment of hexachloropropene (Cl2C[double bond, length as m-dash]C(Cl)–CCl3) with Si2Cl6 and [nBu4N]Cl (1 : 4 : 1) in CH2Cl2 results in a quantitative conversion to the trisilylated, dichlorinated allyl anion salt [nBu4N][Cl2C[double bond, length as m-dash]C(SiCl3)–C(SiCl3)2] ([nBu4N][1]). Tetrachloroallene Cl2C[double bond, length as m-dash]C[double bond, length as m-dash]CCl2 was identified as the first intermediate of the reaction cascade. In the solid state, [1]− adopts approximate Cs symmetry with a dihedral angle between the planes running through the olefinic and carbanionic fragments of [1]− of C[double bond, length as m-dash]C–Si//Si–C–Si = 78.3(1)°. One-electron oxidation of [nBu4N][1] with SbCl5 furnishes the distillable blue radical 1˙. The neutral propene Cl2C[double bond, length as m-dash]C(SiCl3)–C(SiCl3)2H (2) was obtained by (i) protonation of [1]− with HOSO2CF3 (HOTf) or (ii) H-atom transfer to 1˙ from 1,4-cyclohexadiene. Quantitative transformation of all three SiCl3 substituents in 2 to Si(OMe)3 (2OMe) or SiMe3 (2Me) substituents was achieved by using MeOH/NMe2Et or MeMgBr in CH2Cl2 or THF, respectively. Upon addition of 2 equiv. of tBuLi, 2Me underwent deprotonation with subsequent LiCl elimination, 1,2-SiMe3 migration and Cl/Li exchange to afford the allenyl lithium compound Me3Si(Li)C[double bond, length as m-dash]C[double bond, length as m-dash]C(SiMe3)2 (Li[4]), which is an efficient building block for the introduction of Me, SiMe3, or SnMe3 (5) groups. The trisilylated, monochlorinated allene Cl3Si(Cl)C[double bond, length as m-dash]C[double bond, length as m-dash]C(SiCl3)2 (6), was obtained from [nBu4N][1] through Cl−-ion abstraction with AlCl3 and rearrangement in CH2Cl2 (1˙ forms as a minor side product, likely because the system AlCl3/CH2Cl2 can also act as a one-electron oxidant).
The sessile lifestyle of plants requires an immediate response to environmental stressors that affect photosynthesis, growth, and crop yield. Here, we showed that three abiotic perturbations—heat, cold, and high light—triggered considerable changes in the expression signatures of 42 epitranscriptomic factors (writers, erasers, and readers) with putative chloroplast-associated functions that formed clusters of commonly expressed genes in Arabidopsis. The expression changes under all conditions were reversible upon deacclimation, identifying epitranscriptomic players as modulators in acclimation processes. Chloroplast dysfunctions, particularly those induced by the oxidative stress-inducing norflurazon in a largely GENOME UNCOUPLED-independent manner, triggered retrograde signals to remodel chloroplast-associated epitranscriptomic expression patterns. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is known as the most prevalent RNA modification and impacts numerous developmental and physiological functions in living organisms. During cold treatment, expression of components of the primary nuclear m6A methyltransferase complex was upregulated, accompanied by a significant increase in cellular m6A mRNA marks. In the cold, the presence of FIP37, a core component of the writer complex, played an important role in positive regulation of thylakoid structure, photosynthetic functions, and accumulation of photosystem I, the Cytb6f complex, cyclic electron transport proteins, and Curvature Thylakoid1 but not that of photosystem II components and the chloroplast ATP synthase. Downregulation of FIP37 affected abundance, polysomal loading, and translation of cytosolic transcripts related to photosynthesis in the cold, suggesting m6A-dependent translational regulation of chloroplast functions. In summary, we identified multifaceted roles of the cellular m6A RNA methylome in coping with cold; these were predominantly associated with chloroplasts and served to stabilize photosynthesis.
Nuclear receptor related 1 (Nurr1) is an orphan ligand-activated transcription factor and considered as neuroprotective transcriptional regulator with great potential as therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases. However, the collection of available Nurr1 modulators and mechanistic understanding of Nurr1 are limited. Here, we report the discovery of several structurally diverse non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as inverse Nurr1 agonists demonstrating that Nurr1 activity can be regulated bidirectionally. As chemical tools, these ligands enable unraveling the co-regulatory network of Nurr1 and the mode of action distinguishing agonists from inverse agonists. In addition to its ability to dimerize, we observe an ability of Nurr1 to recruit several canonical nuclear receptor co-regulators in a ligand-dependent fashion. Distinct dimerization states and co-regulator interaction patterns arise as discriminating factors of Nurr1 agonists and inverse agonists. Our results contribute a valuable collection of Nurr1 modulators and relevant mechanistic insights for future Nurr1 target validation and drug discovery.
Chronic inflammation is characterized by persisting leukocyte infiltration of the affected tissue, which is enabled by activated endothelial cells (ECs). Chronic inflammatory diseases remain a major pharmacotherapeutic challenge, and thus the search for novel drugs and drug targets is an ongoing demand. We have identified the natural product vioprolide A (vioA) to exert anti-inflammatory actions in vivo and in ECs in vitro through inhibition of its cellular target nucleolar protein 14 (NOP14). VioA attenuated the infiltration of microglia and macrophages during laser-induced murine choroidal neovascularization and the leukocyte trafficking through the vascular endothelium in the murine cremaster muscle. Mechanistic studies revealed that vioA downregulates EC adhesion molecules and the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) 1 by decreasing the de novo protein synthesis in ECs. Most importantly, we found that inhibition of importin-dependent NF-ĸB p65 nuclear translocation is a crucial part of the action of vioA leading to reduced NF-ĸB promotor activity and inflammatory gene expression. Knockdown experiments revealed a causal link between the cellular target NOP14 and the anti-inflammatory action of vioA, classifying the natural product as unique drug lead for anti-inflammatory therapeutics.
A key event in cellular physiology is the decision between membrane biogenesis and fat storage. Phosphatidic acid (PA) is an important lipid intermediate and signaling lipid at the branch point of these pathways and constantly monitored by the transcriptional repressor Opi1 to orchestrate lipid metabolism. Here, we report on the mechanism of membrane recognition by Opi1 and identify an amphipathic helix (AH) for the selective binding to membranes containing PA over phosphatidylserine (PS). The insertion of the AH into the hydrophobic core of the membrane renders Opi1 sensitive to the lipid acyl chain composition as an important factor contributing to the regulation of membrane biogenesis. Based on these findings, we rationally designed the membrane binding properties of Opi1 to control its responsiveness in the physiological context. Using extensive molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we identified two PA-selective three-finger grips that tightly bind the phosphate headgroup, while interacting less intimately and more transiently with PS. This work establishes lipid headgroup selectivity as a new feature in the family of AH-containing membrane property sensors.
A key event in cellular physiology is the decision between membrane biogenesis and fat storage. Phosphatidic acid (PA) is an important intermediate at the branch point of these pathways and is continuously monitored by the transcriptional repressor Opi1 to orchestrate lipid metabolism. In this study, we report on the mechanism of membrane recognition by Opi1 and identify an amphipathic helix (AH) for selective binding of PA over phosphatidylserine (PS). The insertion of the AH into the membrane core renders Opi1 sensitive to the lipid acyl chain composition and provides a means to adjust membrane biogenesis. By rational design of the AH, we tune the membrane-binding properties of Opi1 and control its responsiveness in vivo. Using extensive molecular dynamics simulations, we identify two PA-selective three-finger grips that tightly bind the PA phosphate headgroup while interacting less intimately with PS. This work establishes lipid headgroup selectivity as a new feature in the family of AH-containing membrane property sensors.
Chromosomal translocations (CTs) are a genetic hallmark of cancer. They could be identified as recurrent genetic aberrations in hemato-malignancies and solid tumors. More than 40% of all "cancer genes" were identified in recurrent CTs. Most of these CTs result in the production of oncofusion proteins of which many have been studied over the past decades. They influence signaling pathways and/or alter gene expression. However, a precise mechanism for how these CTs arise and occur in a nearly identical fashion in individuals remains to be elucidated. Here, we performed experiments that explain the onset of CTs: proximity of genes able to produce prematurely terminated transcripts, which leads to the production of transspliced fusion RNAs, and finally, the induction of DNA double-strand breaks which are subsequently repaired via EJ repair pathways. Under these conditions, balanced chromosomal translocations could be specifically induced.
K + is the most abundant cytosolic cation in bacteria, and its homeostasis is vital for bacterial survival, playing roles in many essential processes like pH homeostasis, protein synthesis and osmoregulation. When surrounding K + concentrations become very low, bacteria require an active high-affinity uptake system to ensure sufficient cellular K + levels. In many prokaryotes, this system is the K + pump KdpFABC. Peculiarly, KdpFABC forms a functional chimera between a channel-like subunit (KdpA) and a P-type ATPase (KdpB), and for a long time, the mechanism of how transport and ATP hydrolysis between these subunits are coordinated remained unclear. By applying a combination of cryo-EM, biochemical assays, and MD simulations, we have been able to shed light on a unique transport mechanism that combines both the channel and P-type ATPase subunits.
At high K + levels, KdpFABC needs to be inhibited to prevent excessive K + accumulation. This is achieved by a phosphorylation of the serine residue in the TGES 162 motif in the A domain of the pump subunit KdpB, which was shown to stall the complex in the E1P intermediate. Using cryo-EM studies under turnover conditions, we illuminated how stalling in this high-energy intermediate is possible.
Furthermore, we identify a previously uncharacterized atypical serine kinase domain in the sensor histidine kinase KdpD as the responsible kinase for KdpB phosphorylation, giving it a dual role in transcriptional and post-translational regulation of the Kdp system.
The Kinase Chemogenomic Set (KCGS): An open science resource for kinase vulnerability identification
(2019)
We describe the assembly and annotation of a chemogenomic set of protein kinase inhibitors as an open science resource for studying kinase biology. The set only includes inhibitors that show potent kinase inhibition and a narrow spectrum of activity when screened across a large panel of kinase biochemical assays. Currently, the set contains 187 inhibitors that cover 215 human kinases. The kinase chemogenomic set (KCGS) is the most highly annotated set of selective kinase inhibitors available to researchers for use in cell-based screens.
Modular polyketide synthases (PKSs) produce complex, bioactive secondary metabolites in assembly line-like multistep reactions. Longstanding efforts to produce novel, biologically active compounds by recombining intact modules to new modular PKSs have mostly resulted in poorly active chimeras and decreased product yields. Recent findings demonstrate that the low efficiencies of modular chimeric PKSs also result from rate limitations in the transfer of the growing polyketide chain across the non-cognate module:module interface and further processing of the non-native polyketide substrate by the ketosynthase (KS) domain. In this study, we aim at disclosing and understanding the low efficiency of chimeric modular PKSs and at establishing guidelines for modular PKSs engineering. To do so, we work with a bimodular PKS testbed and systematically vary substrate specificity, substrate identity, and domain:domain interfaces of the KS involved reactions. We observe that KS domains employed in our chimeric bimodular PKSs are bottlenecks with regards to both substrate specificity as well as interaction with the ACP. Overall, our systematic study can explain in quantitative terms why early oversimplified engineering strategies based on the plain shuffling of modules mostly failed and why more recent approaches show improved success rates. We moreover identify two mutations of the KS domain that significantly increased turnover rates in chimeric systems and interpret this finding in mechanistic detail.
Chronische Entzündungen und die daraus resultierenden Morbiditäten gehören zu den häufigsten Ursachen für einen frühen Tod beim Menschen. Einer der Hauptfaktoren für die Verschlechterung des Gesundheitszustands bei Patienten mit chronischen-entzündlichen Erkrankungen ist die pathologische Infiltration von Leukozyten in gesundes Gewebe, die zu Gewebeschäden und dem Fortschreiten der Krankheit führt. Das vaskuläre Endothel, das die Innenseite der Blutgefäße auskleidet, spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Entzündungsreaktion, da es als Schnittstelle für die Interaktion mit Leukozyten fungiert, um die Extravasation von Leukozyten aus dem Blutstrom in das Gewebe zu ermöglichen. Die Adhäsion von Leukozyten an die Zellen des Endothels wird dabei hauptsächlich durch die von Zytokinen ausgelösten pro-inflammatorischen NFκB- und AP-1-Signalkaskaden ermöglicht, die die Hochregulierung der wichtigsten endothelialen Adhäsionsmoleküle – ICAM-1, VCAM-1 und E-Selektin – bewirken. Eine Klasse von Wirkstoffen, die für ihre entzündungshemmenden Eigenschaften und ihren Nutzen bei der Behandlung chronischer Entzündungskrankheiten bekannt sind, sind die Mikrotubuli-bindenden-Substanzen (microtubule-targeting-agents; MTAs), die nachweislich auch den Entzündungszustand in den Zellen des Endothels und die Leukozyten-Adhäsionskaskade beeinflussen können. MTAs lassen sich in Mikrotubuli-Destabilisatoren, die eine Depolymerisation des Mikrotubuli-Zytoskeletts bewirken, und Mikrotubuli-Stabilisatoren, die die Depolymerisation der Mikrotubuli verhindern, unterteilen. Die zugrundeliegenden biomolekularen Vorgänge und Wirkungen, die die MTAs auf die Zellen des Gefäßendothels haben, und wie sie die Adhäsionskaskade der Leukozyten beeinflussen, sind jedoch weitgehend unbekannt.
Ziel dieser Studie war es, die Auswirkungen des neuartigen Mikrotubuli-Destabilisators Prätubulysin, eines Vorläufers der Tubulysine, die ursprünglich in Stämmen des Myxobakteriums Angiococcus disciformis entdeckt wurden, auf die entzündlichen Prozesse zu untersuchen, die die Leukozyten-adhäsion in TNF-aktivierten primären Endothelzellen aus der menschlichen Nabelschnurvene (HUVECs) ermöglichen. Zusätzlich wurden auch die Auswirkungen der bereits klinisch etablierten Mikrotubuli-Destabilisatoren Colchicin und Vincristin sowie des Mikrotubuli-Stabilisators Paclitaxel untersucht.
Das entzündungshemmende Potenzial von Prätubulysin wurde daher zunächst in vivo in einem Imiquimod-induzierten psoriasiformen Dermatitis-Mausmodell getestet, wobei sich zeigte, dass Prätubulysin den Entzündungszustand deutlich verringert. Um zu beweisen, dass der entzündungshemmende Effekt mit einer verringerten Interaktion von Leukozyten mit dem Endothel zusammenhängt, wurde die Wirkung von Prätubulysin in vivo mittels Intravitalmikroskopie des TNF-aktivierten Kremaster-Muskels der Maus untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Behandlung mit Prätubulysin zu einer signifikant verringerten Adhäsion von Leukozyten an die Zellen des Gefäßendothels führte. Die verringerte Adhäsion von Leukozyten an Endothelzellen wurde auch in der in vitro Umgebung bestätigt, indem die Adhäsion von Leukozyten unter Flussbedingungen getestet wurde. Mittels Durchflusszytometrie, Western-Blot-Analyse, sowie qRT-PCR-Analyse der jeweiligen mRNA-Level konnte gezeigt werden, dass die verringerten Leukozyten-Interaktionen auf der verringerten Expression der Zelladhäsionsmoleküle ICAM-1 und VCAM-1 sowie teilweise von E-Selektin nach Behandlung mit Prätubulysin, Vincristin und Colchicin beruhen, wobei Paclitaxel keine signifikanten hemmenden Auswirkungen hatte. Weitere Untersuchungen des Einflusses von Prätubulysin auf die NFκB- und AP-1-Signalübertragung zeigten, dass diese intrazellulären Signalkaskaden durch Prätubulysin nicht behindert werden, wobei NFκB und AP-1 weitgehend in den Promotoren der Zelladhäsionsmoleküle angereichert waren, wie durch Chromatin-Immunpräzipitation nachgewiesen wurde. Darüber hinaus induzierte die Behandlung mit Prätubulysin die Aktivität der NFκB-induzierenden Kinase IKK und führte zu einem signifikanten Anstieg der Aktivität der AP-1 Upstream-Kinase JNK, wie eine Western Blot Analyse ergab. Die Prüfung der Transkriptionsaktivität von NFκB und AP-1 in Reportergen Assays zeigte, dass insbesondere die Mikrotubuli-Destabilisatoren die Promotoraktivität dieser Transkriptionsfaktoren in einer konzentrationsabhängigen Weise verringerten. Weitere Tests zur Abhängigkeit der durch Prätubulysin induzierten Hemmung der Zelladhäsionsmoleküle von der Aktivität der JNK zeigten, dass die Hemmung empfindlich auf die Aktivität dieser Kinase reagiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Inhibition der Aktivität der JNK die Expression der Zelladhäsionsmoleküle durch die Behandlung mit Prätubulysin auf mRNA und Proteinebene wiederherstellt. Mit Hilfe der Chromatin-Immunpräzipitation konnte weiterhin gezeigt werden, dass die Behandlung mit Prätubulysin zunächst die Assoziation des Bromodomänen-enthaltenden Proteins 4 mit den Promotoren/Genen von ICAM-1 und VCAM-1 erhöhte, aber zu einem behandlungszeitabhängigen Rückgang der Anreicherung führte. Darüber hinaus wurde durch die Behandlung mit Prätubulysin auch der Abbau dieses Proteins leicht erhöht. Durch den Einsatz eines JNK Inhibitors konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Verdrängung des Bromodomänen-enthaltenden Proteins 4 von icam-1 und vcam-1, sowie der erhöhte Abbau dieses Faktors auch von der Aktivität der JNK abhängig sind. Die Verdrängung des Bromodomänen-enthaltenden Proteins 4 induzierte auch das Vorhandensein von repressiven Chromatinmarkierungen in den Genen von ICAM-1 und VCAM-1. Die Prüfung der Anreicherung der RNA-Polymerase II an den Promotoren/Genen von ICAM-1 und VCAM-1 zeigte jedoch auch eine behandlungszeitabhängige differentielle Anreicherung dieser Polymerase, wobei die Anreicherung nach kurzen Behandlungszeiten reduziert war, sich nach mittleren Behandlungszeiten erholte und nach längeren Behandlungszeiten wieder stark reduziert war. Die anschließende Prüfung der Bedeutung des Bromodomänen-enthaltenden Proteins 4 für die Expression von ICAM-1 und VCAM-1 durch Knock-down-Experimente ergab, dass das vcam-1 Gen durch Knock-down dieses Proteins unterdrückt, das icam-1 Gen jedoch induziert wird. Dies deutet auf das Vorhandensein zusätzlicher Faktoren hin, die auch auf die Aktivität der JNK reagieren und neben dem Bromodomänen-enthaltenden Proteins 4 die Transkriptionsverlängerung des icam-1 Gens bewirken.
Aim: Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) belong to the interface of epigenetics and exhibit diverse functions. Their features depend on their sequence, genomic location and tertiary structure. The aim was to identify novel lncRNAs and characterise their physiological functions and mechanisms in endothelial cells. Three different approaches were performed:
The hypothesis that pseudogene-annotated lncRNA NONHSAT073641 regulates the expression of their parental gene platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase 1b regulatory subunit 1 (PAFAH1B1) was examined.
The physiological functions and in vivo relevance of most lncRNAs are still unknown, therefore a part of this work aimed to identify lncRNAs in response to a pathophysiological stimulus (high amplitude stretch) in endothelial cells.
The long intergenic noncoding RNA antisense to S1PR1 (LISPR1) gene, is located within the promotor of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) and shares a part of the promotor region. This study examined additionally the hypothesis that LISPR1 controls the S1PR1 expression in endothelial cells.
Methods: The angiogenic functions of NONHSAT073641 and LISPR1 were examined with spheroid-outgrowth and scratch wound assays. Furthermore, stretch experiments were performed in order to identify differently expressed lncRNAs in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In addition, the in vivo relevance of both lncRNAs was examined in samples from pulmonary arterial hypertension patients. Knockdown (e.g. LNA GapmeRs), knockout (CRISPR/ Cas9) and overexpression experiments (e.g. CRISPR activation) were performed to analyse target genes. The molecular mechanism of LISPR1 was investigated with RNA and Chromatin immunoprecipitation.
Results: NONHSAT073641 and PAFAH1B1 exhibited angiogenic function in endothelial cells. It could be observed that NONHSAT073641 is not regulating the expression of PAFAH1B1. The pro-angiogenic feature of PAFAH1B1 might be attributed to the target gene matrix Gla protein (MGP). NONHSAT073641 and PAFAH1B1 were significantly induced in CTEPH samples and might be important in the development of this disease. It could be speculated that NONHSAT073641 is regulating the expression of the cell-cycle regulator BCL2L11 as has been investigated in mice.
LISPR1 is a cis-acting lncRNA which maintains S1PR1 gene transcription by intercepting the transcriptional repressor ZNF354C and enabling Polymerase II (PolII) to bind. ZNF354C regulates S1PR1 expression in HUVECs. However, the role of ZNF354C in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is unknown. LISPR1 and S1P1 receptor were both significantly depleted in COPD samples. It can be assumed that due to higher S1P production, the signalling is attenuated through reduction of the lncRNA LIPSR1 and thus the receptor S1P1.
The stretch experiments present a possible in vitro model in order to mimic the condition of endothelial cells during high blood pressure, such as in PAH. Referring to published data, it could be confirmed that stretching of endothelial cells alters the gene expression, which is on the other hand linked to cardiovascular disease. In cardiovascular disease mechanical stretch altered genes, which are participating in the vascular remodelling process. The role of differently expressed lncRNAs (TGFβ2-AS1, CTD-2033D15.2, INHBA-AS1, RP11-393I2.4, TAPT1-AS1, TPM1-AS1, CFLAR-AS1 and HIF1α-AS2) upon mechanical stretch is yet not clarified.
Conclusion: NONHSAT073641 and LISPR1 are important for the endothelial angiogenic function. Both lncRNAs were deregulated in PAH samples. The pathophysiological stimulus had an impact on the expression of different lncRNAs (e.g. TGFβ2-AS1) and pathways (e.g. TGF-β) in endothelial cells.
At the beginning of the 1980s, an increased frequency of immune deficiency was discovered in a population of homosexual men, which is nowadays known as the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). A few years later, the retro virus Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1(HIV-1) has been discovered as the cause of AIDS. Since the beginning of the pandemic, more that 74 million people have become infected and more than 32 million people died. In 2018, it was estimated that 38 million people where living with HIV-1 of which 24.5 million had access to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), which blocks viral replication and prevents the progression towards AIDS. In the most cases an HIV-1 infection leads to the patient’s death within a few years Without HAART.
Taken together, this thesis shows that hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells harbor the prerequisites and characteristics to form an HIV-1 reservoir in vivo. The subsets of HSCs, MPPs and CD34+CD38+ progenitors harbor CD4 & CXCR4 double-positive cells as well as a lower amount of CD4 & CCR5 doublepositive cells. In addition, the susceptibility to X4-tropic HIV-1 is shown in vitro. Susceptibility to R5-tropic HIV-1 is only seen to a very low amount for CD34+CD38+ progenitors. The results also show that transduced HSPCs are capable to pass on integrated viral genomes via proliferation and differentiation during in vitro colony formation. More over the experiments provide evidence that this can take place for long time span as the outcome of the replating assays shows. Ex vivo analysis of HSPCs isolated from PLHIV also suggests that these cells are susceptible to HIV-1. Proviral DNA detection using a nested PCR showed infection of Lin- cells of a single donor with an R5-tropic subtype B HIV-1 clone. However, the assay could not detect infection of CD34+ cells. The
received results of this thesis are in agreement with previously published results. Albeit the obvious susceptibility to HIV-1 and existing reports of viral survival within HSPCs for several years, the low frequency of detected in vivo infected HSPCs could be related to the cytopathic effects of HIV-1 during replication resulting in cell death of potentially infected CD34+ cells. Other reasons could be associated with assay sensitivity or the small number of available patient samples. This makes hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells a target, which can be infected by HIV-1. The role and the clinical relevance of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells in contribution to the latent viral HIV-1 reservoir within an HIV-1 infected patient needs to be further analyzed.
The impact of 2-desaza-annomontine on processes of inflammation and its resolution in leukocytes
(2024)
This present study investigated the effects of the b-carboline derivative C81, also called 2-desaza-annomontine, on the inflammatory response and resolution processes in vivo and in vitro. The study focused on leukocytes and on the elucidation of the underlying pharmacological mode of action. C81 potently reduced the inflammatory response in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis mouse model and additionally resolved the inflammation more quickly. In a CNV model, C81 significantly decreased the microglial infiltration in the inflamed laser lesion in vivo. In vitro experiments revealed that C81 inhibits the migration of macrophages and leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction by reducing the activation of integrins on leukocytes, in particular LFA-1, without affecting the total protein level on the cell surface.
Further experiments revealed that C81 inhibited the expression of EPAC-1, required for Rap1 activation. Consequently, C81 reduced the LPS/PMA-induced Rap1 activity, which is responsible for integrin activation. Moreover, C81 potently reduced the LPS-induced formation of pro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines and eicosanoids, in macrophages. The C81-derived inhibition of eicosanoid release was surprisingly potent, probably due to the C81-evoked inhibition of cPLA2 expression, resulting in less liberated arachidonic acid, the precursor for eicosanoids. At the same time, C81 only delayed COX-2 expression, but completely diminished LPS-induced mPGES-1 expression. In addition to the potent anti-inflammatory effects in vitro, C81-derived impact was complemented with promising pro-resolving effects. Hence, C81 significantly induced neutrophil apoptosis without affecting the cell viability of other leukocytes, such as macrophages. Accordingly, the caspase 3 activity in neutrophils increased upon C81 treatment. The underlying mechanism altered by C81 was the expression of the anti-apoptotic mediator Mcl-1, which is required for the survival of neutrophils, but not macrophages. Furthermore, neutrophils treated with C81 were significantly better efferocytosed by macrophages. Analyzes of the pharmacological mode of action of C81 revealed DYRK1B as the key target kinase in inflammatory processes in leukocytes. Of note, experiments with pharmacological inhibition of DYRK1B by C81 or the ‘selective’ DYRK1B inhibitor AZ-DYRK1B-33, could not completely exclude the involvement of the CLKs and other DYRKs. Therefore, DYRK1B knockdown and overexpression experiments were conducted to elucidate the impact of DYRK1B alone. Pharmacological inhibition of DYRK1B and DYRK1B knockdown phenocopied the inhibitory effect of C81 on leukocyte adhesion. In parallel, DYRK1B overexpression mitigated the C81-evoked effect, supporting the hypothesis that C81 inhibits DYRK1B to mediate its effects on leukocytes. Furthermore, DYRK1B inhibition and DYRK1B knockdown resulted in depletion of STAT3 phosphorylation. In addition, C81-evoked STAT3 inhibition was again mitigated by DYRK1B overexpression, suggesting a link or even an interaction between DYRK1B and STAT3. Indeed, direct interaction between DYRK1B and STAT3 was confirmed by a NanoBRET assay. Importantly, in vitro experiments demonstrated, that C81 did not affect LPS recognition mechanisms, investigated by TLR-4 and CD14 expression, and other important inflammatory signaling pathways. Although C81 inhibited the regeneration of IkBa, this had no effect on the translocation of the NFkB subunit p65. Furthermore, C81 did not alter the activation of MAPK pathways, including p38, JNK and ERK. As a result, the focus was on the potent inhibition of LPS-nduced STAT3 activation mediated by DYRK1B, which was shown to be IL-6 independent. Indeed, direct STAT3 inhibition by Stattic phenocopied all tested C81-derived effects on leukocytes, including migration, adhesion, pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, eicosanoid formation and cell type specific induction of neutrophil apoptosis. The underlying mechanisms altered by Stattic in terms of migration/adhesion and lipid mediator formation were the same as for C81. STAT3 inhibition led to decreased EPAC1 expression and accordingly to reduced Rap1 activation. In addition, inhibited STAT3 phosphorylation resulted in reduced cPLA2 expression and also in attenuated mPGES-1 expression.
Finally, the C81-derived depleted Mcl-1 expression was linked to reduced STAT3 inhibition. As C81 abolished STAT3 phosphorylation, less STAT3 was translocated into the nucleus upon LPS stimulation and less STAT3 enrichment at the MCL1 promoter was observed, leading to reduced gene expression and consequently protein levels.
In summary, using the natural product-derived compound C81, the DYRK1B/STAT3 axis was identified as a novel key regulator of inflammatory processes in human leukocytes. This present study revealed that interfering with the DYRK1B-STAT3 signaling can address essential cell functions including leukocyte extravasation, pro-inflammatory mediator release, neutrophil apoptosis and efferocytosis (Figure 1). Furthermore, two different mouse models demonstrated the in vivo relevance of this signaling axis and highlight DYRK1B as an important kinase modulating inflammation and resolution.
In the context of data science, data projection and clustering are common procedures. The chosen analysis method is crucial to avoid faulty pattern recognition. It is therefore necessary to know the properties and especially the limitations of projection and clustering algorithms. This report describes a collection of datasets that are grouped together in the Fundamental Clustering and Projection Suite (FCPS). The FCPS contains 10 datasets with the names "Atom", "Chainlink", "EngyTime", "Golfball", "Hepta", "Lsun", "Target", "Tetra", "TwoDiamonds", and "WingNut". Common clustering methods occasionally identified non-existent clusters or assigned data points to the wrong clusters in the FCPS suite. Likewise, common data projection methods could only partially reproduce the data structure correctly on a two-dimensional plane. In conclusion, the FCPS dataset collection addresses general challenges for clustering and projection algorithms such as lack of linear separability, different or small inner class spacing, classes defined by data density rather than data spacing, no cluster structure at all, outliers, or classes that are in contact. This report describes a collection of datasets that are grouped together in the Fundamental Clustering and Projection Suite (FCPS). It is designed to address specific problems of structure discovery in high-dimensional spaces.
We investigated the folding kinetics of G-quadruplex (G4) structures by comparing the K+-induced folding of an RNA G4 derived from the human telomeric repeat-containing RNA (TERRA25) with a sequence homologous DNA G4 (wtTel25) using CD spectroscopy and real-time NMR spectroscopy. While DNA G4 folding is biphasic, reveals kinetic partitioning and involves kinetically favoured off-pathway intermediates, RNA G4 folding is faster and monophasic. The differences in kinetics are correlated to the differences in the folded conformations of RNA vs. DNA G4s, in particular with regard to the conformation around the glycosidic torsion angle χ that uniformly adopts anti conformations for RNA G4s and both, syn and anti conformation for DNA G4s. Modified DNA G4s with 19F bound to C2′ in arabino configuration adopt exclusively anti conformations for χ. These fluoro-modified DNA (antiTel25) reveal faster folding kinetics and monomorphic conformations similar to RNA G4s, suggesting the correlation between folding kinetics and pathways with differences in χ angle preferences in DNA and RNA, respectively.
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a member of the Flaviviridae family that received public attention and scientific interest after the outbreak in French Polynesia (2013-2014) and the epidemic in the Americas (2015-2016). Even though only 20% of infected people exhibit clinical manifestations and they are predominantly flu-like symptoms, these events unveiled neurological complications associated with ZIKV infection, such as the Guillain-Barré syndrome in adults and microcephaly in newborns. Lacking a preventive vaccine and a specific antiviral therapy against ZIKV allied to the fact that this pathogen is a re-emerging virus, uncovering and comprehending novel virus-host interactions is crucial to the identification of new antiviral targets and the development of innovative antiviral approaches. Previous research work uncovered that the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells do not support ZIKV infection.459 As this cell line does not express endogenous epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), this study aimed to investigate whether EGFR and EGFR-dependent signaling are relevant for the ZIKV life cycle in vitro.
In the first part of the study, viral infection was investigated in CHO cells and compared to A549 cells, a highly ZIKV permissive cell line. After performing binding and entry assays, ZIKV entry, but not the attachment, was significantly decreased in CHO cells in comparison to A549 cells. Additionally, in A549-EGFR KO cells, ZIKV entry was diminished relatively to the off-target control. These results show the clear impact that the absence of EGFR has on viral entry, implicating EGFR during this process. Even though EGFR overexpression in CHO cells could not render these cells permissive to ZIKV infection, as demonstrated by the lack of viral infection after electroporation with in vitro transcribed capped ZIKV-Renilla luciferase RNA, it was possible to rescue ZIKV entry. These findings suggest that there are additional elements, which are not expressed in CHO cells, required for viral replication.
Furthermore, the impact of ZIKV infection on EGFR mRNA and protein levels as well as on the EGFR subcellular localization and distribution was evaluated. The relative number of EGFR specific transcripts continuously increased with ZIKV infection, whereas the EGFR protein level diminished at later times of infection. Moreover, changes in the subcellular localization of EGFR and its colocalization with the early endosomal marker EEA1 in ZIKV-infected cells revealed that ZIKV triggers EGFR internalization. The relevance of EGFR in the ZIKV entry process was further corroborated by the observation of EGFR internalization at 30 min post-infection (mpi) and to less extent at 60 mpi, which concurs with the expected time of ZIKV entry into the host cells.
In the remaining part of the study, the influence of ZIKV infection in EGFR-dependent signaling as well as the contribution of EGFR and EGFR signaling for viral infection were studied. Activation of EGFR and the MAPK/ERK signaling cascade was detected as early as 5 mpi and ceased within 30 mpi in ZIKV-infected cells. Taking into account that EGFR internalization was observed at 30 mpi in infected cells, the activation of EGFR and ERK and subsequent dephosphorylation within this period go along with this previous observation. Vice-versa, inhibition of the activation of EGFR and the MAPK/ERK pathway declines ZIKV infection. On the one hand, inhibition of EGFR activation by Erlotinib affected ZIKV entry, as a consequence of impaired EGFR internalization. On the other hand, Raf and MEK inhibitors reduced ZIKV infection without disturbing viral replication or viral entry. These data suggest that the activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling cascade is necessary for a step of the viral life cycle before the onset of genome replication and morphogenesis and after viral entry. The importance of EGFR signaling was additionally investigated by the determination of EGFR half-life in ZIKV-infected cells upon EGF stimulation. While the EGFR half-life was similar in uninfected and Uganda-infected cells, a delay in EGFR degradation was observed in French Polynesia-infected cells. This observation might indicate an extended usurpation of the EGFR signaling since EGFR seems to still be active in the endosomes. Moreover, disruption of lipid rafts by MβCD, a cholesterol-depleting agent, hampered ZIKV entry. In uninfected cells, MβCD treatment led to the activation of EGFR, but at the same time prevented EGFR internalization, indicating that EGFR activation exclusively is not sufficient for an efficient ZIKV entry and further supporting the importance of EGFR internalization during the ZIKV entry process.
Taken together, this study uncovers EGFR as a relevant host factor in the early stages of ZIKV infection, providing novel insights into the ZIKV entry process. Since numerous monoclonal antibodies and substances that target EGFR are licensed, repurposing these compounds might be a helpful tool for the establishment of an antiviral therapy in case of ZIKV re-emergence.
The role of lncRNAs in the CVS and the endothelium is highly diverse and has been subject to a substantial amount of research over the last decade. The identification of lncRNAs as clinically relevant biomarkers and as co-regulatory molecules let to the appreciation of the functional relevance of lncRNAs.
In the present study, LINC00607 was identified as an endothelial-enriched, human-specific lncRNA. With its distinct functions, LINC00607 maintains and supports the endothelial homeostasis especially in response to VEGF-A signalling.
In the first part of this study, LINC00607 was functionally characterized in human endothelial cells. LINC00607 is highly and specifically expressed in endothelial cells and is differentially regulated in CVDs. Depletion of LINC00607 resulted in decreased angiogenic sprouting, reduced integration of ECs in a newly formed vascular network in vivo, enhanced endothelial migration and differential expression of many important genes for endothelial cell homeostasis. Functionally, LINC00607 maintains ERG-driven endothelial gene expression programs through BRG1. BRG1 secures stably accessible enhancer regions as well as TSS of ERG target genes, thus enabling transcription of endothelial gene programs.
The second part of this study proposes an additional mode of action for LINC00607. The strongly impaired response to VEGF-A after LINC00607 KO can only be partially explained by its’ expression control of ERG target genes. It rather appears that LINC00607 is involved in the control of alternative splicing of VEGF receptor FLT1. The differential splicing of FLT1 produces the anti-angiogenic soluble isoform of FLT1. Even though further validation is needed to uncover the underlying mechanism, there is the potential of a more general role of LINC00607 in splicing control through BRG1. As AS of FLT1 is a clinical marker in preeclampsia, LINC00607 might qualify to be an additional marker for the onset and manifestation of the pregnancy disorder.
Taken together, LINC00607 is a target in future for molecular therapy in CVD to restore a healthy endothelial phenotype and has the potential to serve as a biomarker in preeclampsia.
An overexpression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase TRIM25 is implicated in several human cancers and frequently correlates with a poor prognosis and occurrence of therapy resistance in patients. Previous studies of our group have identified the mRNA encoding the pro-apoptotic caspase-2 as a direct target of the ubiquitous RNA binding protein human antigen R (HuR). The constitutive HuR binding observed in colon carcinoma cells negatively interferes with the translation of caspase-2 mainly through binding to the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of caspase-2 and thereby confers an increased survival of tumor cells. The main objective of this thesis was to unravel novel regulatory proteins critically involved in the control of caspase-2 translation and their impact on therapeutic drug resistance of human colon carcinoma cells. By employing RNA affinity chromatography in combination with mass-spectrometry, among several putative caspase-2 mRNA binding proteins, we have identified the tripartite motif-containing protein 25 (TRIM25) as novel caspase-2 translation regulatory protein in colon carcinoma cells. The constitutive TRIM25 binding to caspase-2 mRNA in two different human colorectal carcinoma cell lines was validated by ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-immunoprecipitation (RIP)-RT-PCR assay and by means of biotin-labeled RNA-pull-down assay. Since caspase-2 is a caspase which is particularly involved in the DNA-damage-induced apoptosis, I tested the functional relevance of negative caspase-2 regulation by TRIM25 for chemotherapeutic drug-induced cell death of different adenocarcinoma cells by RNA interference (RNAi)- mediated loss-of-function and gain-of-function approaches. In the first part of the thesis, I could demonstrate that transient silencing of TRIM25 caused a significant increase in caspase-2 protein levels without affecting the amount of corresponding mRNAs. Mechanistically, the TRIM25 silencing-triggered increase in caspase-2 was totally impaired by cycloheximide, indicating that the stimulatory effects on caspase-2 levels depend on protein synthesis. This finding was corroborated by RNP/polysomal fractionation, which revealed that the transient knockdown of TRIM25 caused a significant redistribution of caspase-2 transcripts from the fraction of RNP particles to that from translationally active polyribosomes.
The second part of my thesis aimed at the elucidation of the functional consequences of the negative caspase-2 regulation by TRIM25 for enhanced tumor cell survival. Thereby, I found that the siRNA-mediated knockdown of TRIM25 caused a significant increase in the chemotherapeutic drug-induced cleavage of caspase-3 and to elevations in cytoplasmic cytochrome c levels implicating that TRIM25 depletion did mainly affect the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Concordantly, the ectopic expression of TRIM25 caused a reduction in caspase-2 protein levels, concomitant with an attenuated sensitivity of tumor cells to doxorubicin.
To test the functional impact of caspase-2 in the TRIM25 depletion-dependent sensitization to drug-induced apoptosis, I employed a siRNA-mediated knockdown of caspase-2. Interestingly, the strong induction of caspase-3 and -7 cleavage after doxorubicin treatment was fully impaired after the additional knockdown of caspase-2, indicating the sensitizing effects by TRIM25 knockdown depend on caspase-2.
Data from this thesis identified the TRIM25 as a novel RNA-binding protein of caspase-2 mRNA, which negatively interferes with the translation of caspase-2 and which functionally contributes to chemotherapeutic drug resistance of colon carcinoma cells. Interfering with the negative TRIM25-caspase-2 axis may represent a promising therapeutic avenue for sensitizing colorectal cancers to conventional anti-tumor therapies.
All lifeforms have to sense changes in their environment and adapt to possibly detrimental conditions. On a cellular level, the highly elaborate proteostasis network (PN) consisting of housekeeping and stress-induced proteins, confers this tolerance against stress and maintains cellular protein homoestasis. This is essential for survival, as an accumulation of stress-induced protein aggregation will eventually affect the functionality of crucial cellular components and ultimately lead to cell death. The guardians of this balance are the molecular chaperones and their activity-regulating co-haperones. They are engaged in all aspects of protein biogenesis, maintenance and degradation, especially during stress.
The heat shock proteins (HSPs) are the major chaperones in mammals and encompass constitutive and stress-induced isoforms. Among them, the HSP70 and the HSP90 family are the most abundant HSPs and their activity is involved in a great variety of homoestasis and stress-induced tasks.
As part of the protein triage the E3 ligase CHIP (C-terminal HSC70-interacting protein) is an essential activity regulating co-chaperone of HSP70 and HSP90 which provides a link between chaperone mediated protein-folding and various degradation pathways. Due to its decisive function, CHIP is involved in a wide array of cellular processes, especially in clearing misfolded HSP70 client proteins that are prone to aggregate. As a consequence, CHIP was reported to confer protection against many aggregation-induced pathologies of the neuronal system. Additionally, CHIP has been identified as a critical factor in various types of cancer and is implied to affect the development and the longevity of mammals.
Despite the significant progress in the understanding of CHIP’s structure and function, many aspects surrounding its chaperone dependency and its substrate recognition remain unclear. Moreover, due to the variety of substrates in diverse cellular pathways, there are yet many connections to elucidate between CHIP and components of the cellular proteostasis network.
The work of this thesis was focused on the role of CHIP in acute stress response and the corresponding status of chaperone association. Moreover, it was investigated if CHIP, as the connecting ligase of folding and degradation systems, might also provide a link between the PN and the reorganisation of the cellular architecture upon stress exposure.
This has become of increasing interest as recent reports highlight the importance of spatial sequestration in protein quality control.
To this end, subcellular distribution of CHIP was analysed by live-cell microscopy during heat stress. It became obvious that during the heat-induced challenge of the chaperone system, CHIP migrated to new cellular sites. Further experiments suggested that the observed migration to the plasma membrane is a chaperone-independent process and in vitro reconstitution of membrane association confirmed the competitive nature of membranes and chaperones for CHIP binding. A detailed in vivo and in vitro analysis of the newly observed membrane association of CHIP revealed a distinct lipid specificity and a novel direct association with lipids. Binding experiments with recombinantly purified deletion mutants of CHIP identified the TPR domain and a positive patch in the coiled-coil domain as main determinants for the lipid association. Through biochemical and biophysical approaches, the structural integrity and functionality of CHIP upon membrane binding was confirmed and further characterised.
Moreover, mass spectrometry analysis provided a high confidence identification of chaperone-free interactors of CHIP at the plasma membrane and other membranous compartments.
In accordance with the lipid specificity, the Golgi apparatus was one of these sites. Only chaperone-free CHIP had a significant effect on the morphology of the organelle, again confirming the competitive role of chaperones and lipids. With respect to the physiological consequences of the changed localisation of CHIP, preliminary results indicated increased cell death when the ligase localises to cellular membranes. The results lead to the conclusion that CHIP acts as an initiator of early stress adaptation and as a sensor for the severity and strength of the stress reaction.
The dodecin of Mycobacterium tuberculosis : biological function and biotechnical applications
(2020)
Biological Function of Bacterial Dodecins
In this thesis, the dodecins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MtDod), Streptomyces coelicolor (ScDod) and Streptomyces davaonensis (SdDod) were studied. Kinetic measurements of the flavin binding of MtDod revealed that the dodecin binding pocket is filled in two distinct steps, for which a kinetic model then was established and verified by experimental data. The analysis with the two-step model showed that the unique binding pocket of dodecins allows them to bind excessive amounts of flavins, while at low flavin concentrations, flavin is released and only weakly bound. This function of flavin buffering prevents accumulation of free oxidised flavins and therefore helps to keep the redox balance of the cell and prevents potential cell damage caused by excessive free flavins. To further gain insights into the role of bacterial dodecins, the effect of knocking out the dodecin encoding gene in S. davaonensis was analysed. The knockout strain showed increased concentrations of various stress related metabolites, indicating that without dodecin the cellular balance is disrupted, which supports the role of dodecins as a flavin homeostasis factor.
With a self-designed affinity measurement method based on the temperature dependent dissociation of the dodecin:flavin complex, which allowed parallel screening of multiple conditions, it was shown that MtDod, ScDod and SdDod have much higher affinities towards FMN and FAD under acidic conditions. Under these conditions, the three dodecins might function as a FMN storage. M. tuberculosis encounters multiple acidic environments during its infection cycle of humans and can adopt a state of dormancy. During recovery from the dormant state, a flavin storage might be beneficial. For some Streptomyces species it was reported that the formed spores are slightly acidic and therefore ScDod and SdDod could function as flavin storages for the spores. Further details on the flavin binding mechanism of MtDod were revealed by a mutagenesis study, identifying the importance of a histidine residue at the fourth position of the protein sequence for flavin binding, but contrary to expectations, this residue seems only to be partly involved in the pH related affinity shift.
The data, reported in this thesis, demonstrates that bacterial dodecins likely function as flavin homeostasis factors, which allow overall higher flavin pools in the cell without disrupting the cellular balance. Further, the reported acid-dependent increase in binding affinity suggests that under certain conditions bacterial dodecins can also function as a flavin storage system.
Application of the Dodecin of M. tuberculosis
In this thesis, the stability of MtDod, ScDod SdDod and HsDod was analysed to find a suitable dodecin for the use as a carrier/scaffold. Therefore, a method to easily measure the stability of dodecins was designed, which measures the ability of the dodecamer to rebind flavins after a heating phase with stepwise increasing temperatures. Using this assay and testing the stability against detergents by SDS PAGE, showed that the dodecamer of MtDod possesses an excellent stability against a vast array of conditions, like temperatures above 95 °C, low pH and about 2% SDS. By solving the crystal structure of ScDod and SdDod, the latter forming a less stable dodecamer, combined with a mutagenesis study, the importance of a specific salt bridge for dodecamer stability was revealed and might be helpful to find further highly stable dodecins.
In addition to the intrinsic high stability of the MtDod dodecamer, also the robustness of the fold was tested by creating diverse MtDod fusion constructs and producing them in Escherichia coli. Here it was shown that MtDod easily tolerates the attachment of proteins up to 4-times of its own size and that both termini can be modified without affecting the dodecamer noticeably. Further, it was shown that MtDod and many MtDod fusion constructs could be purified in high yields via a protocol based on the removal of E. coli proteins through heat denaturation and subsequent centrifugation. In a case study, by fusing diverse antigens from mostly human proteins to MtDod and using these constructs to produce antibodies in rabbits, it was demonstrated that MtDod is immunogenic and presents the attached antigens to the immune system.
The here reported properties of MtDod and to a lesser degree of other bacterial dodecins, show that bacterial dodecins are a valuable addition to the pool of scaffold and carrier proteins and have great potential as antigen carriers.
The deubiquitinase USP32 regulates non-proteolytic ubiquitination in the endosomal-lysosomal system
(2021)
The regulation of essential cellular processes requires tightly controlled and directed transport of proteins and membranes. The highly dynamic endosomal and lysosomal system forms the key network for exchange and trafficking of molecules with its early endosomes, recycling endosomes, late endosomes, lysosomes, and additionally autophagosomes.
In this system, the small GTPase Rab7 has an essential role at the late endosomal stage regulating vesicle transport, tethering, and fusion, and retromer mediated receptor recycling back to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). Thus, Rab7 is also important for autophagosomes and lysosomes.
Lysosomes do not only represent the end point of the degradation pathway with several feeder pathways. But these organelles are also a dynamic signaling hub for a variety of metabolic processes. The ever-important regulator of cellular biosynthetic pathways mTORC1 dynamically associates with lysosomes where it is activated. mTORC1 activation is a complex multi-step process where a series of signaling events converge in dependence of amino acid levels thereby enabling interactions between the lysosomal v-ATPase, Ragulator complex (consisting of LAMTOR1-5), and Rag GTPases.
Ubiquitin signals are involved in almost all cellular processes. With this, their regulatory mechanism is also described for the endosomal-lysosomal system as well as mTORC1 signaling. Deubiquitinases (DUBs) release conjugated ubiquitin from proteins and thereby maintain the dynamic state of the cellular ubiquitinome.
The ubiquitin-specific protease 32 (USP32) is a poorly characterized DUB with only emerging cellular function. However, its predicted domain structure includes two unique domains within the entire DUB family. It has been linked to the development of breast cancer and small cell lung cancer. Furthermore, overexpressed GFP-USP32 was localized at the TGN, and a global mass spectrometry-based DUB interactome study suggested an interaction with the retromer complex. Based on these data, USP32 was a very interesting candidate to study its cellular function in this PhD project.
To investigate the function without disease background, a polyclonal USP32 knockout (USP32KO) RPE1 cell line was generated using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. First experiments revealed different protein expression levels in various cell lines, and a subcellular localization of USP32 at membranes of the Golgi and lysosomal compartments. In a subsequent SILAC-based ubiquitinome analysis potential substrates of USP32 were identified. Interestingly, various proteins of the endosomal-lysosomal system were detected with enriched non-proteolytic ubiquitination upon USP32 depletion.
The further characterization of Rab7 as USP32 substrate confirmed the USP32-sensitive ubiquitination of Rab7 at lysine (K) residues 191 and 194. The ubiquitination in USP32KO cells did not change the subcellular localization of Rab7, but enhanced the interaction with the effector protein RILP. This implied that Rab7 was either more active or RILP had higher affinity to ubiquitinated Rab7. The subsequent results verified this theory. The retromer mediated recycling of CI-M6PR back to the TGN was faster or more efficient in USP32-depleted cells.
Accompanying this, levels of hydrolases were enriched in lysosomes isolated from USP32KO cells. Notably, USP32 had no direct effect on expression level or assembly of the retromer complex itself.
The observed lysosomal phenotypes connected another identified substrate to the function of USP32 in the endosomal-lysosomal system: LAMTOR1. LAMTOR1 is a component of the Ragulator complex and thus involved in the activation of mTORC1 at the lysosomal surface. Similar as for Rab7, the first experiments to characterize LAMTOR1 as USP32 substrate confirmed the USP32-sensitive ubiquitination at K20 independent of amino acid availability. However, ubiquitination of LAMTOR1 decreased its lysosomal localization in untreated and amino acid starved USP32KO cells. The following label-free interactome study detected a reduced interaction of LAMTOR1 and subunits of the lysosomal v-ATPase upon loss of USP32. This resulted in a shifted subcellular localization of mTOR (subunit of mTORC1) away from lysosomes. Furthermore, direct substrates of mTORC1 were less or slower re-phosphorylated after long amino acid starvation and re-activation of mTORC1 in USP32KO cells indicating a reduced mTORC1 activity.
Both USP32-dependent regulations of Rab7 and LAMTOR1/Ragulator converged in enhanced autophagic processes analyzed by increased LC3 levels upon amino acid starvation and USP32 depletion.
In summary, the presented thesis described the diverse role of USP32 in the endosomal and lysosomal system, and contributes to the understanding of novel ubiquitin signals in this context.
The desensitized channelrhodopsin-2 photointermediate contains 13 -cis, 15 -syn retinal Schiff base
(2021)
Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) is a light-gated cation channel and was used to lay the foundations of optogenetics. Its dark state X-ray structure has been determined in 2017 for the wild-type, which is the prototype for all other ChR variants. However, the mechanistic understanding of the channel function is still incomplete in terms of structural changes after photon absorption by the retinal chromophore and in the framework of functional models. Hence, detailed information needs to be collected on the dark state as well as on the different photointermediates. For ChR2 detailed knowledge on the chromophore configuration in the different states is still missing and a consensus has not been achieved. Using DNP-enhanced solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy on proteoliposome samples, we unambiguously determined the chromophore configuration in the desensitized state, and we show that this state occurs towards the end of the photocycle.
Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a large superfamily of membrane-bound heme-containing monooxygenases. They are essential for the oxidative metabolism of endogenous substrates such as steroids and fatty acids, and biotransformation of xenobiotic substrates such as pollutants and drugs. Although the highest expression of CYPs is found in the liver, their cardiovascular expression is not negligible with CYP450 subfamilies being responsible for the production of vasoactive lipids. Of importance, the enzymatic activity of all microsomal CYP450 isoenzymes is dependent on the cytochrome P450 reductase (POR), an electron donor.
In the first part of this work, the role of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases on the biotransformation of organic nitrates was investigated. Recombinant SupersomesTM were selected and incubated with NTG and PETN, where nitrite release was measured as a nitric oxide (NO) footprint. The capacity of the recombinant POR/CYP450 system to release nitrite from NO prodrugs was shown to be CYP-specific and dose-dependent. To study the involvement of CYP450 enzymes in the vascular biotransformation of organic nitrates in vivo, a smooth muscle-cell specific, inducible knockout model of POR (smcPOR-/-) was generated. Organ chamber experiments revealed that the vascular POR/CYP450 system had no impact on the dilator response of NTG and PETN. In line with previous publications, inhibition of ALDH2, known as the main enzyme responsible for the activation of NTG and PETN, and/or abolishment of the endogenous NO production did not reveal a contribution of the POR/CYP450 system to the dilator response of NTG and PETN. To better understand these results, we looked at the expression of the hepatic and vascular expression of the POR/CYP450 system where the hepatic was increased by 10- to 40-fold as shown by Western blot analysis. We concluded that due to insufficient vascular expression of CYP450 enzymes their contribution to the bioactivation of NTG and PETN is only minor.
The second part of this work focused on the cardiac relevance of endothelial isoenzymes. For that purpose, an endothelial cell-specific, tamoxifen-inducible knockout model of POR was generated and characterized in the present study. RNA-sequencing of the heart of healthy mice revealed that the CYP450 expression is cell-specific with cardiac endothelial cells (ECs) exhibiting an enrichment in the expression of the Cyp4 family (ω-oxidation of fatty acids) and of the Cyp2 family (production of EETs). Under non-stredded conditions (i.e. 30 days after inducing the knockout by tamoxifen feeding), endothelial deletion of POR was associated with cardiac remodelling as observed by an increase in the ratio of heart weight to body weight and an increase in the cardiomyocyte area. RNA-sequencing of cardiac ECs suggested that loss of POR might alter ribosomal biogenesis and protein synthesis, which could potentially affect the cardiac contractility in ecPOR-/- mice. Metabolomics from cardiac tissue of CTL and ecPOR-/- mice were not indicative for an important metabolic function of the endothelial POR/CYP450 system in the heart. The combination of transverse aortic constriction (TAC) with endothelial deletion of POR accelerates the development of heart failure in mice as detected by a reduction in cardiac output and stroke volume. These effects were mediated most likely by a reduction in vascular EETs production, which increases vascular stiffness, resulting in cardiac remodeling.
Cytochrome c oxidase catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to water. This process is accompanied by the vectorial transport of protons across the mitochondrial or bacterial membrane (“proton pumping”). The mechanism of proton pumping is still a matter of debate. Many proposed mechanisms require structural changes during the reaction cycle of cytochrome c oxidase. Therefore, the structure of the cytochrome c oxidase was determined in the completely oxidized and in the completely reduced states at a temperature of 100 K. No ligand exchanges or other major structural changes upon reduction of the cytochrome coxidase from Paracoccus denitrificans were observed. The three histidine CuB ligands are well defined in the oxidized and in the reduced states. These results are hardly compatible with the “histidine cycle” mechanisms formulated previously.
Schätzungen zufolge sind weltweit etwa 71 Millionen Menschen chronisch mit dem Hepatitis-C-Virus (HCV) infiziert. Im Jahre 2016 sind rund 400.000 Menschen an einer HCV-bedingten Lebererkrankung gestorben, insbesondere aufgrund der Entwicklung von Leberzirrhose und Lebertumoren. Trotz der großen Unterschiede in den Prävalenzschätzungen und der Qualität der epidemiologischen Daten zeigt die jüngste weltweite Bewertung, dass die virämische Ausbreitung der HCV-Infektion (Prävalenz der HCV-RNA) in den meisten Industrieländern, einschließlich der USA, weniger als 1,0% beträgt (www .cdc.gov / Hepatitis / HCV). In einigen osteuropäischen Ländern wie Lettland (2,2%) oder Russland (3,3%) und bestimmten Ländern in Afrika, Ägypten (6,3%) und Gabun (7,0%) oder im Nahen Osten Syriens (3,0%) ist die Prävalenz bemerkenswert höher. In den USA und den am weitesten entwickelten Ländern gilt die gemeinsame Nutzung von Werkzeugezur Herstellung von Arzneimitteln und zur Injektion von Medikamenten (Nadeln) als die häufigste derzeitige Übertragungsart. Die vorherrschende Übertragungsart in Ländern, in denen die Ausbreitung von HCV-Infektionen im Vergleich zu den Industrieländern höher ist, beruht jedoch auf schlechten Methoden zur Infektionskontrolle und unsicherer Handhabung von Injektionsnadeln.
Wenn die chronische Infektion unbehandelt bleibt, kann sich im fortschreitenden Verlauf eine Zirrhose oder ein hepatozelluläres Karzinom bilden (Alter H. J. und Seef L. B. 2000). Die Doppeltherapie, bei der es sich um eine Kombination aus pegyliertem Interferon-α (PEG IFNα) und Ribavirin (riba) handelt, war in einigen Ländern der Dritten Welt bis vor kurzem der goldene Standard für die Behandlung von Patienten mit chronischer Hepatitis C und hat eine anhaltende virologische Reaktion erzielt. Mit nur 50% der mit HCV-Genotyp 1 infizierten Patienten (der häufigere) im Vergleich zu 80% mit Genotyp 2 oder 3, obwohl sie kostspielig und langwierig sind (z. B. 24-48 Wochen) und zahlreiche harte Nebenwirkungen aufweisen, die schwer zu bekämpfen sind tolerieren (Erklärung der National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference: Management von Hepatitis C: 2002 - 10.-12. Juni 2002 2002). Die Identifizierung des JFH1 (japanische fulminante Hepatitis Typ 1) -Isolats wurde in einigen in vitro-Studien zu HCV als wichtiger Durchbruch bei der HCV-Behandlung angesehen. Die Verwendung dieses Isolats führte nachfolgend zu einem besseren Verständnis des HCV-Lebenszyklus und der 3D-Strukturen der viralen Proteine. Basierend auf dieser Erkenntnis konnten die ersten direkt wirkenden antiviralen Mittel (DAAs) entwickelt werden, die spezifisch virale Proteine beeinflussen. Die beiden Proteasehemmer (PI) Telaprevir und Boceprevir hemmen die virale NS3-4A-Protease und wurden 2011 als Kombinationstherapie mit PEG IFNα und Ribavirin zugelassen, was die anhaltende virologische Reaktion auf 67-75% erhöhte (Pawlotsky et al. 2015).
Die Optimierung der gegenwärtigen Arzneimittelregime, die Einschränkung des Problems der Mutationsresistenz, die Gestaltung einer individualisierten Therapie, der Zugang zu diesen therapeutischen antiviralen Arzneimitteln und ihr hoher Preis bleiben weiterhin eine Herausforderung (Pawlotsky 2016; Pawlotsky et al. 2015; Sarrazin 2016). Die Entwicklung eines Impfstoffs wird jedoch als größte Herausforderung für die weltweite Kontrolle von HCV angesehen (Bukh 2016). Aus diesem Grund ist es wichtig, weiterhin mehr über den HCV-Lebenszyklus und die Faktoren zu erfahren, die sich auf die Replikation und den gesamten Lebenszyklus auswirken können, um effiziente, qualitativ hochwertige und vor allem leicht zugängliche Behandlungen für alle Menschen weltweit zu entwickeln.
Der Lipidstoffwechsel und insbesondere das Cholesteringleichgewicht werden durch die HCV-Infektion beeinflusst. Die Korrelation zwischen Lipidstoffwechsel und HCV wurde klinisch seit langem beobachtet. In den Leberbiopsien von mit HCV infizierten Patienten wurde ein Anstieg der in den Lipidtröpfchen im Cytosol akkumulierten neutralen Lipide festgestellt (Dienes et al. 1982). Das Hepatitis-C-Virus wurde auch von Hypobetalipoproteinämie, Hypocholesterinämie und Lebersteatose begleitet (Schaefer und Chung 2013). Die Leber ist der primäre Ort für die Synthese, Speicherung und Oxidation von Lipiden und anderen Makromolekülen. Daher ist der Fettstoffwechsel in der Leber für die Aufrechterhaltung der systemischen Nährstoffhomöostase von wesentlicher Bedeutung. Eine Dysregulation des Leberlipidstoffwechsels ist ein Kennzeichen mehrerer Krankheiten wie Diabetes, alkoholische und nichtalkoholische Fettlebererkrankungen sowie parasitäre und virale Infektionen, einschließlich einer HCV-Infektion. (Erklärung der National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference: Management von Hepatitis C: 2002 - 10.-12. Juni 2002 2002; Fon Tacer und Rozman 2011; Chen et al. 2013; Reddy und Rao 2006; Visser et al. 2013; Wu und Parhofer 2014)
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Riboswitches are gene regulatory elements located in untranslated mRNA regions. They bind inducer molecules with high affinity and specificity. Cyclic-di-nucleotide-sensing riboswitches are major regulators of genes for the environment, membranes and motility (GEMM) of bacteria. Up to now, structural probing assays or crystal structures have provided insight into the interaction between cyclic-di-nucleotides and their corresponding riboswitches. ITC analysis, NMR analysis and computational modeling allowed us to gain a detailed understanding of the gene regulation mechanisms for the Cd1 (Clostridium difficile) and for the pilM (Geobacter metallireducens) riboswitches and their respective di-nucleotides c-di-GMP and c-GAMP. Binding capability showed a 25 nucleotide (nt) long window for pilM and a 61 nt window for Cd1. Within this window, binding affinities ranged from 35 μM to 0.25 μM spanning two orders of magnitude for Cd1 and pilM showing a strong dependence on competing riboswitch folds. Experimental results were incorporated into a Markov simulation to further our understanding of the transcriptional folding pathways of riboswitches. Our model showed the ability to predict riboswitch gene regulation and its dependence on transcription speed, pausing and ligand concentration.
Recently, we reported that in crude enzyme preparations, a monocyte-derived soluble protein (M-DSP) renders 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) activity Ca2+-dependent. Here we provide evidence that this M-DSP is glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-1. Thus, the inhibitory effect of the M-DSP on 5-LO could be overcome by the GPx-1 inhibitor mercaptosuccinate and by the broad spectrum GPx inhibitor iodoacetate, as well as by addition of 13(S)-hydroperoxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoic acid (13(S)-HPODE). Also, the chromatographic characteristics and the estimated molecular mass (80-100 kDa) of the M-DSP fit to GPx-1 (87 kDa), and GPx-1, isolated from bovine erythrocytes, mimicked the effects of the M-DSP. Intriguingly, only a trace amount of thiol (10 micro M GSH) was required for reduction of 5-LO activity by GPx-1 or the M-DSP. Moreover, the requirement of Ca2+ allowing 5-LO product synthesis in various leukocytes correlated with the respective GPx-1 activities. Mutation of the Ca2+ binding sites within the C2-like domain of 5-LO resulted in strong reduction of 5-LO activity by M-DSP and GPx-1, also in the presence of Ca2+. In summary, our data suggest that interaction of Ca2+ at the C2-like domain of 5-LO protects the enzyme against the effect of GPx-1. Apparently, in the presence of Ca2+, a low lipid hydroperoxide level is sufficient for 5-LO activation.
The purification and functional reconstitution of a five-component oligopeptide ATP-binding cassette transporter with a remarkably wide substrate specificity are described. High-affinity peptide uptake was dependent on liganded substrate-binding protein OppA, which interacts with the translocator OppBCDF with higher affinity than unliganded OppA. Transport screening with combinatorial peptide libraries revealed that (i) the Opp transporter is not selective with respect to amino acid side chains of the transported peptides; (ii) any peptide that can bind to OppA is transported via Opp, including very long peptides up to 35 residues long; and (iii) the binding specificity of OppA largely determines the overall transport selectivity.
The ABC transporter Mdl1p, a structural and functional homologue of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) plays an important role in intracellular peptide transport from the mitochondrial matrix of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. To characterize the ATP hydrolysis cycle of Mdl1p, the nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The isolated NBD was active in ATP binding and hydrolysis with a turnover of 25 ATP per minute and a Km of 0.6 mm and did not show cooperativity in ATPase activity. However, the ATPase activity was non-linearly dependent on protein concentration (Hill coefficient of 1.7), indicating that the functional state is a dimer. Dimeric catalytic transition states could be trapped either by incubation with orthovanadate or beryllium fluoride, or by mutagenesis of the NBD. The nucleotide composition of trapped intermediate states was determined using [alpha-32P]ATP and [gamma-32P]ATP. Three different dimeric intermediate states were isolated, containing either two ATPs, one ATP and one ADP, or two ADPs. Based on these experiments, it was shown that: (i) ATP binding to two NBDs induces dimerization, (ii) in all isolated dimeric states, two nucleotides are present, (iii) phosphate can dissociate from the dimer, (iv) both nucleotides are hydrolyzed, and (v) hydrolysis occurs in a sequential mode. Based on these data, we propose a processive-clamp model for the catalytic cycle in which association and dissociation of the NBDs depends on the status of bound nucleotides.
Chronic inflammation is considered to be a cause of the autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, etc. The search for effective compounds with anti-inflammatory properties to combat these diseases is still ongoing. Natural compound narciclasine, derived from plants of Narcissus species, demonstrated its anti-inflammatory activity in in vivo arthritis models. Further investigation of narciclasine’s anti-inflammatory activity together with its impact on the interaction between leukocytes and endothelial cells was the main focus of this PhD thesis.
Narciclasine reduced the infiltration of monocytes and neutrophils to the abdomen and the concentration of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-6 and IL-1β. Together with this, it reduced acute visceral pain caused by zymosan injection. Narciclasine interfered with leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction in both in vivo and in vitro models. In vivo microscopy revealed that the compound reduced rolling, adhesion and transmigration of leukocytes in the vessels of an injured murine cremaster muscle. This observation was confirmed in the in vitro models for adhesion and transmigration where narciclasine reduced the level of leukocyte’s interaction with HUVECs. Narciclasine demonstrated profound anti-inflammatory properties based on its interference with leukocyte-endothelium interaction by downregulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules expression (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, CX3CL1) and shutdown of NF-κB pathway. All these effects were a result of the TNF receptor 1 protein translation blocking by narciclasine.
In this work the ability of the compound to reduce visceral pain, downregulate the expression of the endothelial cell adhesion molecules and to interfere with the interaction between leukocytes and endothelial cells was demonstrated for narciclasine for the first time. Obtained results open a promising insight into the understanding of narciclasine’s anti-inflammatory properties and justify further investigation of its potential for treatment of inflammatory diseases.
B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) is characterized by the overproduction of lymphoblasts in the bone marrow (BM), and it is the most common cancer in children while being comparatively uncommon in adults. On the other hand, in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), 70% of cases are found in patients older than 50 years, making it uncommon in children. All CML cases and up to 3% of paediatric B- ALL (and 25% of adult B-ALL) cases are due to fusion gene BCR-ABL1, which gives rise to the cytoplasmatic, constitutively active oncoprotein, tyrosine kinase BCR-ABL1 through a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22. The constitutively active BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase leads to deregulation of different signal transduction pathways such as cell growth, proliferation and cell survival. The role of the bone marrow microenvironment (BMM) can mediate disease initiation (only in mice), progression, therapy resistance, and relapse, as has been increasingly recognized over the last two decades. In general, the BMM is a very complex arrangement of various cell types such as osteoblasts, osteoclasts, endothelial cells, adipocytes, mesenchymal stromal cells, macrophages and several others. In addition, the BMM is composed of multiple chemical and mechanical factors and extra cellular matrix (ECM) proteins which contribute to the BMM’s features influencing leukaemia behaviour. Considering the incidence of B-ALL and CML in children and in adults respectively, we hypothesized that the young and/or an aged BMM might also play a previously unrecognized role in the aggressiveness of B-ALL and CML. We proposed that BM, transduced with BCR-ABL1-expressing retrovirus in the murine transduction/transplantation model of B-ALL, transplanted into young versus old recipient mice would lead to a more aggressive disease in young mice, and similarly CML would be more aggressive in old recipient mice. In close recapitulation with the human incidence, induction of CML led to a significantly shorted survival in old recipient mice. On the other hand, induction of B-ALL showed a shortened survival in young compared to old syngeneic mice, as well as in a xenotransplantation model. Among the highly heterogenous composition of the BMM, we implicate young BM macrophages as a supportive niche for B-ALL cells. The results were found to be mostly due to potential soluble factors differentially secreted from young and old macrophages. Therefore, we hypothesized that the chemokine CXCL13, which has been demonstrated to play a role in B cell migration and act as a diagnostic marker in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neuroborreliosis, might be responsible for the observed phenotype. CXCL13 was found to be more highly expressed in healthy and leukaemic young mice as well as in conditioned medium of young macrophages. Using a variety of in vitro experiments, CXCL13 showed to significantly increase the proliferation and the migration of leukaemia cells when exposed to young macrophages, and the phenotype was rescued while using a CXCL13 neutralizing antibody. The CXCL13 role was also confirmed in vivo, since macrophage ablation led to a prolongation of survival in young mice and a reduction of CXCL13 levels. The use of an additional mouse model, leukaemia cells with CXCR5 deficiency, led to a significant prolongation of survival of young mice, confirming the importance of the CXCL13-CXCR5 axis in B-ALL. In line with our murine results, we found that human macrophages and CXCL13 levels were higher in pediatric B-ALL patients than in adults. Consistent with our murine data, the expression level of CXCR5 may act as a prognostic marker in B-ALL, as well as a predictive marker for central nervous system relapse in human B-ALL. The overall findings show that a young BMM, and in particular macrophages, influences B-ALL progression. We specifically identified CXCL13, secreted by young macrophages, as a promoter of proliferation of B-ALL cells, influencing survival in B-ALL via CXCR5. The CXCR5-CXCL13 axis may be relevant in human B-ALL, and higher CXCR5 expression in human B-ALL may act as a predictive marker.
Double reduction of the THF adduct of 9H-9-borafluorene (1⋅THF) with excess alkali metal affords the dianion salts M2[1] in essentially quantitative yields (M=Li–K). Even though the added charge is stabilized through π delocalization, [1]2− acts as a formal boron nucleophile toward organoboron (1⋅THF) and tetrel halide electrophiles (MeCl, Et3SiCl, Me3SnCl) to form B−B/C/Si/Sn bonds. The substrate dependence of open-shell versus closed-shell pathways has been investigated.
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), the key enzyme in leukotriene biosynthesis, is expressed in a tissue- and cell differentiation-specific manner. The 5-LO core promoter required for basal promoter activity has a unique (G+C)-rich sequence that contains five tandem Sp1 consensus sequences. The mechanisms involved in the regulation of cell type-specific 5-LO expression are unknown. Here we show that 5-LO expression is regulated by DNA methylation. Treatment of the 5-LO-negative cell lines U937 and HL-60TB with the demethylating agent 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (AdC) up-regulated expression of 5-LO primary transcripts and mature mRNA in a similar fashion, indicating that AdC stimulates 5-LO gene transcription. Analysis of the methylation status of the 5-LO promoter revealed that the core promoter region was methylated in U937 and HL-60TB cells, whereas it was unmethylated in the 5-LO-positive parent HL-60 cell line. Reporter gene assays with 5-LO promoter constructs gave up to 68- and 655-fold repression of 5-LO promoter activity in HeLa and Mono Mac 6 cells by methylation. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta), potent inducers of the 5-LO pathway in myeloid cell lines, increased 5-LO RNA expression in HL-60TB and U937 cells, but co-treatment with AdC was required to achieve 5-LO expression levels in HL-60TB cells that were comparable with wild-type HL-60 cells. In reporter gene assays, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and TGFbeta were unable to induce promoter activity when the 5-LO promoter constructs were methylated, which suggests that 5-LO promoter demethylation is a prerequisite for the high level induction of 5-LO gene expression by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and TGFbeta and that the effects of both agents on 5-LO mRNA expression are not related to DNA methylation.
Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process through which defective or otherwise harmful cellular components are targeted for degradation via the lysosomal route. Regulatory pathways, involving post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, play a critical role in controlling this tightly orchestrated process. Here, we demonstrate that TBK1 regulates autophagy by phosphorylating autophagy modifiers LC3C and GABARAP-L2 on surface-exposed serine residues (LC3C S93 and S96; GABARAP-L2 S87 and S88). This phosphorylation event impedes their binding to the processing enzyme ATG4 by destabilizing the complex. Phosphorylated LC3C/GABARAP-L2 cannot be removed from liposomes by ATG4 and are thus protected from ATG4-mediated premature removal from nascent autophagosomes. This ensures a steady coat of lipidated LC3C/GABARAP-L2 throughout the early steps in autophagosome formation and aids in maintaining a unidirectional flow of the autophagosome to the lysosome. Taken together, we present a new regulatory mechanism of autophagy, which influences the conjugation and de-conjugation of LC3C and GABARAP-L2 to autophagosomes by TBK1-mediated phosphorylation.
The simultaneous inhibition of HDACs and BET proteins has shown promising anti-proliferative effects against different cancer types, including the difficult to treat pancreatic cancer. In this work, the strategy of concurrently targeting HDACs and BET proteins was pursued by developing different types of dual inhibitors.
By developing a novel scaffold that selectively inhibits HDAC1/2 together with BET proteins in cells, an effective tool for the investigation of pancreatic cancer, and other diseases which are sensitive to epigenetic processes, was created. The compound’s small size further gives the opportunity to further develop the inhibitor towards optimized pharmacokinetic properties, potentially resulting in a drug for cancer treatment.
A second novel approach that was pursued, was the development of a small-molecule degrader, targeting HDACs and BET proteins. Through synthesizing a variety of different molecules, a compound that was capable of lowering BRD4 levels and, at the same time, increasing histone acetylation was developed. While additional mechanistic investigations are needed to verify the degradation, the potent antiproliferative effects in pancreatic cancer cells encourage further studies following this alternative new strategy.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) serves as a cap-like structure on cellular RNAs (NAD-RNAs) in all domains of life including the bacterium Escherichia coli. NAD also acts as a key molecule in phage-host interactions, where bacterial immune systems deplete NAD to abort phage infection. Nevertheless, NAD-RNAs have not yet been identified during phage infections of bacteria and the mechanisms of their synthesis and degradation are unknown in this context. The T4 phage that specifically infects E. coli presents an important model to study phage infections, but a systematic analysis of the presence and dynamics of NAD-RNAs during T4 phage infection is lacking. Here, we investigate the presence of NAD-RNAs during T4 phage infection in a dual manner. By applying time-resolved NAD captureSeq, we identify NAD-capped host and phage transcripts and their dynamic regulation during phage infection. We provide evidence that NAD-RNAs are – as reported earlier – generated by the host RNA polymerase by initiating transcription with NAD at canonical transcription start sites. In addition, we characterize NudE.1 – a T4 phage-encoded Nudix hydrolase – as the first phage-encoded NAD-RNA decapping enzyme. T4 phages carrying inactive NudE.1 display a delayed lysis phenotype. This study investigates for the first time the dual epitranscriptome of a phage and its host, thereby introducing epitranscriptomics as an important field of phage research.
To better understand the role of sphingolipids in the multifactorial process of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), we elucidated the role of CerS4 in colitis and colitis-associated cancer (CAC). For this, we utilized the azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulphate (AOM/DSS)-induced colitis model in global CerS4 knockout (CerS4 KO), intestinal epithelial (CerS4 Vil/Cre), or T-cell restricted knockout (CerS4 LCK/Cre) mice. CerS4 KO mice were highly sensitive to the toxic effect of AOM/DSS, leading to a high mortality rate. CerS4 Vil/Cre mice had smaller tumors than WT mice. In contrast, CerS4 LCK/Cre mice frequently suffered from pancolitis and developed more colon tumors. In vitro, CerS4-depleted CD8+ T-cells isolated from the thymi of CerS4 LCK/Cre mice showed impaired proliferation and prolonged cytokine production after stimulation in comparison with T-cells from WT mice. Depletion of CerS4 in human Jurkat T-cells led to a constitutively activated T-cell receptor and NF-κB signaling pathway. In conclusion, the deficiency of CerS4 in T-cells led to an enduring active status of these cells and prevents the resolution of inflammation, leading to a higher tumor burden in the CAC mouse model. In contrast, CerS4 deficiency in epithelial cells resulted in smaller colon tumors and seemed to be beneficial. The higher tumor incidence in CerS4 LCK/Cre mice and the toxic effect of AOM/DSS in CerS4 KO mice exhibited the importance of CerS4 in other tissues and revealed the complexity of general targeting CerS4.
Designed multitarget ligands are a popular approach to generating efficient and safe drugs, and fragment-based strategies have been postulated as a versatile avenue to discover multitarget ligand leads. To systematically probe the potential of fragment-based multiple ligand discovery, we have employed a large fragment library for comprehensive screening on five targets chosen from proteins for which multitarget ligands have been successfully developed previously (soluble epoxide hydrolase, leukotriene A4 hydrolase, 5-lipoxygenase, retinoid X receptor, farnesoid X receptor). Differential scanning fluorimetry served as primary screening method before fragments hitting at least two targets were validated in orthogonal assays. Thereby, we obtained valuable fragment leads with dual-target engagement for six out of ten target combinations. Our results demonstrate the applicability of fragment-based approaches to identify starting points for polypharmacological compound development with certain limitations.
Neurleptic drugs, e.g., aripiprazole, targeting the dopamine D2S and D3 receptors (D2SR and D3R) in the central nervous system are widely used in the treatment of several psychotic and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, a new series of benzothiazole-based ligands (3-20) was synthesized by applying the bioisosteric approach derived from the selective D3Rs ligand BP-897 (1) and its structurally related benz[d]imidazole derivative (2). Herein, introduction of the benzothiazole moiety was well tolerated by D2SR and D3R binding sites leading to antagonist affinities in the low nanomolar concentration range at both receptor subtypes. However, all novel compounds showed lower antagonist affinity to D3R when compared to that of 1. Further exploration of different substitution patterns at the benzothiazole heterocycle and the basic 4-phenylpiperazine resulted in the discovery of high dually acting D2SR and D3R ligands. Moreover, the methoxy substitution at 2-position of 4-phenylpiperazine resulted in significantly (22-fold) increased D2SR binding affinity as compared to the parent ligand 1, and improved physicochemical and drug-likeness properties of ligands 3-11. However, the latter structural modifications failed to improve the drug-able properties in ligands having un-substituted 4-phenylpiperazine analogs (12-20). Accordingly, compound 9 showed in addition to high dual affinity at the D2SR and D3R [Ki (hD2SR) = 2.8 ± 0.8 nM; Ki (hD3R) = 3.0 ± 1.6 nM], promising clogS, clogP, LE (hD2SR, hD3R), LipE (hD2SR, hD3R), and drug-likeness score values of −4.7, 4.2, (0.4, 0.4), (4.4, 4.3), and 0.7, respectively. Also, the deaminated analog 10 [Ki (hD2SR) = 3.2 ± 0.4 nM; Ki (hD3R) = 8.5 ± 2.2 nM] revealed clogS, clogP, LE (hD2SR, hD3R), LipE (hD2SR, hD3R) and drug-likeness score values of −4.7, 4.2, (0.4, 0.4), (3.9, 3.5), and 0.4, respectively. The results observed for the newly developed benzothiazole-based ligands 3-20 provide clues for the diversity in structure activity relationships (SARs) at the D2SR and D3R subtypes.
This thesis comprises the usage of two commonly known hinge-binding moieties in drug discovery. First, the quinazoline scaffold of gefitinib (5) was utilized in a macrocyclization strategy to introduce selectivity. In general, the quinazoline hinge-binding moiety is a commonly used scaffold which can be found in 14% of approved kinase inhibitors. The most familiar applications are EGFR inhibitors such as gefitinib (5), erlotinib (6), afatinib, or dacomitinib for the treatment of NSCLC. But other kinases like CDK2, CDK4, or p38 are reported targets as well.
The N-phenylquinazolin-4-amine moiety of gefitinib (5) was conserved however, the residues at the aromatic ring in the linker were modified, the residue targeting the solvent-exposed region was varied, and the linker at the C6 position of the quinazoline was adjusted to enable the macrocyclization. An overview of the structural modifications is shown in Figure 35A.
Kinome-wide screening of gefitinib (5) revealed several off-targets besides EGFR (Figure 35B), making it an excellent starting point for a macrocyclization strategy. Introducing a linker to the N phenylquinazoline-4-amine scaffold and retaining the residues on the aromatic ring as well as the methoxy group targeting the solvent-exposed region improved the selectivity profile and the efficacy towards EGFR WT and its mutants. Truncation of the linker moiety led to the mutant selective macrocycle 26f with an excellent kinome-wide selectivity profile (Figure 35B). An inhibitor that is effective on EGFR mutations while ineffective on the EGFR WT could represent an enhancement of patient treatment, as it potentially causes less side effects. Further studies could determine the effect of the most promising macrocycles in lung cancer cell lines. Additionally, the pharmacokinetic properties could be optimized, e.g. by introducing solubilizing groups, targeting the solvent-exposed region.
The second scaffold comprises the 3-aminopyrazole-based hinge-binding moiety. It is a privileged scaffold in medicinal chemistry for the development of kinase inhibitors. Previous publications report the anti-proliferative and anti-cancer potential of pyrazole-based molecules. They play a crucial role in the treatment of various diseases and cancer types like inflammation disorders, lymphoma, or breast cancer. This scaffold can be found e.g. in the aurora kinase inhibitor tozasertib or in the promiscuous kinase inhibitor 23, published by Statsuk et. al. Rescreening compound 23 in a comprehensive kinase panel against 468 human protein kinases confirmed the unselective behavior with a selectivity score of S35 = 0.56 (Figure 36B), making it a great starting point for further optimizations. The N-(1H-pyrazol-3-yl)pyrimidin-4-amine scaffold was conserved however, the residues targeting the solvent-exposed region were varied and different linkers were attached.
The introduction of different residues at the pyrazole dramatically influenced the selectivity profile of the desired kinases. Ester moieties caused to a favorable combination of selectivity and potency towards the kinase of interest CDK16. The removal of additional residues at the pyrimidine, targeting the solvent-exposed region, increased the efficiency towards CDK16. Further optimization led to the highly potent and selective CDK16 inhibitor 98d (IC50 = 33 nM). NanoBRETTM screening against the complete CDK family revealed a preferred inhibition of the PCTAIRE and PFTAIRE subfamily with cellular IC50 values of 20 nM – 120 nM and 50 nM – 180 nM, respectively. A FUCCI cell cycle assay and viability assessment of 98d confirmed previously published results, reporting a G2/M cell cycle arrest followed by apoptosis and accumulation of p27 through knockout of CDK16 in SCC cells. Consequently, further studies could evaluate the anti-tumor activity of 98d in SCC and NSCLC or elucidate the effect of 98d in AMPK-related macroautophagy. 98d represents a novel tool compound to investigate the understudied kinases of the PCTAIRE family and enable to enlighten the biological role of those kinases.
Macrocyclization of the N-(1H-pyrazol-3-yl)pyrimidin-4-amine core resulted in the selective BMPR2 inhibitor 110a. It showed a good binding affinity towards BMPR2 with a KD value of 205 nM as well as a good potency with an IC50 value of 506 nM. A comprehensive selectivity screen against 468 kinases revealed an excellent selectivity profile with S35 = 0.01. As no BMPR2 inhibitors have been published so far, 110a represents a novel compound that may provide further insights into the canonical BMP pathway, noncanonical signaling, or its impact on BMPR2-associated diseases like PAH.
The introduction of additional residues targeting the solvent-exposed region shifted the selectivity towards the MST kinases. The exchange from the pyrimidine to a quinazoline moiety resulted in the highly potent and selective macrocyclic MST3 inhibitor 113c. NanoBRETTM measurements demonstrated the preferred inhibition of MST3 with IC50 values of 210 nM and 30 nM for intact and lysed cells, respectively. A weaker activity could be seen for MST4 with 1.8 µM and 510 nM, while MST1 and MST2 were not affected. To date, no selective MST3 inhibitors have been published, making 113c a valuable tool compound for further functional studies. As MST3 is influencing the cell cycle progression, 113c could be tested in a further cell cycle assay to elucidate the inhibitory effect of 113c on MST3 and consequently on the cell cycle. Furthermore, the anti-tumor activity of 113c in breast cancer could be determined, as Madsen et. al. reported a high MST3 and MST4 activity triggered by FAM40B mutations.
The p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is activated through stress stimuli such as heat shock or hypoxia. In the nucleus, p38α modulates the activity of other kinases and transcription factors, a process that regulates the expression of specific target genes, most importantly pro-inflammatory cytokines. Dysregulation of p38α therefore plays a major role in the development of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Despite many years of intensive research, no p38 small-molecule inhibitors have been approved yet. Several inhibitor design strategies have been reported, leading to >100-fold selective compounds for α/β over the γ and δ isoforms. Achieving such a selectivity among the two structurally most related α and β isoforms, however, remains a challenging task. Targeting an inactive DFG-out conformation offers another strategy for the development of potent kinase inhibitors (type-II), exemplified by the BCR/ABL-inhibitor Imatinib. Achieving selectivity with type-II binders is challenging, because many kinases can adopt an inactive DFG-out conformation. This is exemplified by the p38 type-II inhibitor BIRB-796, which exhibits picomolar on-target affinity but only a poor kinome-wide selectivity. A potent and selective type-II chemical probe for p38α/β was still lacking at the start of this thesis.
The promising hit VPC-00628, was chosen for a combinatorial synthetic approach to develop a type-II chemical probe. The studies covered the optimization of the hinge-binding head group, the hydrophobic region I and the DFG-out deep pocket of the lead compound VPC-00628. Selectivity for the p38α and p38β isoforms was monitored during the optimization process, which identified several inhibitors with favorable isoform selectivity, providing valuable insights into the potential of isoform-selective inhibitor design for p38. A potent and highly selective p38 MAPK probe (SR-318) was discovered, which showed IC50 values in the low nanomolar range in HEK293T cells. An unusual P-loop conformation induced upon binding of SR-318 to p38α contributed most likely to the impressive selectivity profile within the kinome that surpassed both the parent compound and BIRB-796. A negative control compound, SR-321, was developed, to distinguish between on-target effects and non-specific effects due to cross-reactivity with other cellular proteins. Studies of the metabolic stability in human liver microsomes revealed a high stability of the compounds, with only a small amount of metabolites formed over several hours. Compound SR-318 also exhibited a good in vitro efficacy, quantitatively reducing the LPS-stimulated TNF-α release in whole blood. Taken together, SR-318 is a highly potent and selective type-II p38α/β chemical probe, which will help to gain a better understanding of the catalytic and non-catalytic functions of these key signaling kinases in physiology and pathology.
The next studies focused on the exploration of the highly dynamic allosteric back pocket of p38 MAPK, and allosteric BIRB-796 derived compounds for targeting the αC- and DFG-out pockets were synthesized. Kinase activities of allosteric pyrazole-urea fragments were analyzed against a comprehensive set of 47 diverse kinases by differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF), revealing that BIRB-796 off-targets remain a problem when targeting this back-pocket binding motif. Revisiting the recently published compound MCP-081, which combines the allosteric part of BIRB-796 with the active-site directed part of VPC-00628, showed that it displays a clean selectivity profile in our kinase panel. Because the potency of MCP-081 was slightly reduced compared with VPC-00628 and the allosteric tert-butyl pyrazole moiety seemed suboptimal, a set of VPC-00628 derivatives for targeting the αC-out pocket region was synthesized. Through structure-guided extension of the terminal amide of VPC-00628 toward this allosteric site, the potent and selective compound SR-43 was developed, which showed excellent cellular activity on p38 MAPK in NanoBRETTM assays (IC50 [p38α/β] = 14.0 ± 0.1/ 16.8 ± 0.1 nM). SR-43 showed a dose-dependent inhibition of activating phosphorylation of p38 in HCT-15 cells as well as inhibition of phosphorylation of p38 downstream substrates MK2 and Hsp27. In addition, SR-43 induced an anti-inflammatory response by blocking TNF-α release in whole blood and displayed a high metabolic stability. Selectivity profiling of SR-43 revealed a narrow selectivity for additional targets such as the discoidin domain receptor kinases (DDR1/2). DDR kinases play a central role in fibrotic disorders, such as renal and pulmonale fibrosis, atherosclerosis and different forms of cancer. Since selective and potent inhibitors for these important therapeutic targets are largely lacking and the existing inhibitors are of low scaffold diversity, the next study focused on the optimization of SR-43 toward DDR1/2 kinase inhibition. The synthetic work covered the optimization of the hinge-binding head group and the allosteric part of SR-43 toward DDR1/2 kinase inhibition. These studies provided novel insights into the P-loop folding process of p38 MAPK and how targeting of non-conserved amino acids affects inhibitor selectivity. Importantly, they led to the development of a selective dual DDR/p38 inhibitor probe, SR-302, with picomolar affinity for DDR2. SR-302 was efficient in vitro and showed a destabilizing effect on the surface adhesion protein E-cadherin in epithelial cells. In summary, SR-302 and its negative control SR-301 provide a valuable tool set for studying the phenotypic effects of DDR1/2 signaling, e.g., in cancer cell lines.
Lead-optimization strategies for compounds targeting c-Myc G-quadruplex (G4) DNA are being pursued to develop anticancer drugs. Here, we investigate the structure-activity- relationship (SAR) of a newly synthesized series of molecules based on the pyrrolidine-substituted 5-nitro indole scaffold to target G4 DNA. Our synthesized series allows modulation of flexible elements with a structurally preserved scaffold. Biological and biophysical analyses illustrate that substituted 5-nitroindole scaffolds bind to the c-Myc promoter G-quadruplex. These compounds downregulate c-Myc expression and induce cell-cycle arrest in the sub-G1/G1 phase in cancer cells. They further increase the concentration of intracellular reactive oxygen species. NMR spectra show that three of the newly synthesized compounds interact with the terminal G-quartets (5′- and 3′-ends) in a 2 : 1 stoichiometry.
This work focused on the biosynthesis and characterization of esterified lipid mediators. Lipid mediators were generally thought to exert their effects as free molecules, and their esterification was regarded as a storage mechanism. However, more recent studies indicate that esterified lipid mediators are a distinct class of mediators. When this thesis started back in 2017, the idea of esterified lipids as a new class of mediators was relatively new so that respective compounds were either quite expensive or not commercially available at all. Therefore, a biosynthetic approach had to be established first to enable the study of the new lipid mediator class. Within the cell, esterified lipids are produced by activation and subsequent incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These steps are enzymatically catalyzed by members of the acyl-CoA synthetase family and the lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase family, respectively. Therefore, the enzymes acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) and lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 2 (LPCAT2) were selected for a biosynthetic approach due to their broad substrate acceptance.
In a first attempt, recombinant protein expression in E. coli was studied. While the expression and purification of C-terminally His6x-tagged ACSL4 resulted in a pure and active protein, the expression of LPCAT2 turned out quite troublesome. Although several expression and purification parameters were varied, including purification tags, buffer compositions, and chromatography strategies, successful purification of LPCAT2 was not achieved.
Instead, a second approach was studied. This time, stably transfected cells overexpressing ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 were generated from the human embryonal kidney (HEK) 293T cell line. Stably transfected cell lines were characterized on protein level and regarding their oxylipin profile. After confirming the overexpression and functionality of the enzymes, lipoxygenases (LOs) were co-expressed in a doxycycline-inducible manner to prevent premature cell death due to increased oxidative stress. As a result, LO product formation was enhanced and enabled the investigation of specific oxylipins. Since increased lipid peroxidation is also a key component of the ferroptosis cell death mechanisms, cell lines were investigated towards their cell viability. Indeed, expression of ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 promoted cell death when treated with the ferroptosis inducers erastin or RSL3, even in the absence of LO expression. Furthermore, analysis by laser scanning confocal microscopy revealed that the localization of 15-LO1 was altered in the presence of LPCAT2, similar to treatment with RSL3 in vector control cells.
In conclusion, a stable overexpression system of ACSL4 and/or LPCAT2 was successfully established in HEK293T cells, which enabled the synthesis and characterization of esterified oxylipins. Interestingly, characterization of the cell lines revealed a correlation with the cell death mechanism ferroptosis. Although the expression of ACSL4 has already been reported as a biomarker for ferroptosis, this is the first time that a potential connection of LPCAT2 with ferroptosis was demonstrated. As a result, this may provide new therapeutic options for ferroptosis-related pathologies such as neurodegeneration, autoimmune diseases, or tumorigenesis.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Herstellung von codierten Peptidbibliotheken durch kombinatorische Synthese, sowie deren Selektion auf Wechselwirkung mit einer verkürzten Sequenz der TAR-RNA des HI-Viruses.
Die zur Selektion benötigte RNA wurde dazu auf chemischem Wege hergestellt und mit einem Fluoreszensfarbstoff für eine optische Selektion markiert. Ausgehend von dieser RNA wurde ein Anfärbeassay entwickelt. Bei der Anwendung des Assays auf Tri- und Pentapeptide, die auf einem Polymerträger immobilisiert waren, zeigten sich einige intensiv leuchtende Polymerkügelchen. Die hellsten unter ihnen wurden selektiert. Die Synthese der Trimeren und Pentamerenbibliothek erfolgte zuvor an wasserquellbarem, polymerem Trägermaterial. Die Identifizierung der polymergebundenen Verbindungen erfolgte über die Codierung nach W.C. Still, welche im Rahmen dieser Dissertation in der Arbeitsgruppe von Hr. Prof. Göbel erfolgreich etabliert wurde und die einfache Unterscheidung zwischen Enantiomeren ermöglicht. Drei der am häufigsten auftretenden Trimerensequenzen wurden im Nachhinein erneut synthetisiert und Experimenten an Zellen zugeführt. Unabhängig davon, wurde ihre Wechselwirkung mit RNA als auch mit RNA-Peptid Komplexen direkt getestet.
Weiterhin wurde exemplarisch anhand von Aminopyridinen die Möglichkeit getestet, neuartige Synthesemonomere für die automatische Synthese polymergebundener Verbindungen darzustellen.
Die vorliegende Arbeit macht deutlich, dass man durch kombinatorische Synthese im Verbund mit gerichteter Selektion, die Entwicklung von in vitro RNA-Liganden für RNA mit bekannter Struktur vorantreiben kann. Umgekehrt müsste dies auch bald die Selektion von Liganden für strukturell nicht charakterisierte RNA ermöglichen.
Das nächste Ziel sollte, die Entwicklung weiterer Selektionstests sein und die Etablierung von NMR-Methoden, welche die genauen Bindungsmodi der selektierten Verbindungen an RNA aufklären, um somit die gezielte Synthese neuartiger Liganden vorantreiben zu können, da letztendlich das "Wie", für die Weiterentwicklung einer Leitstruktur ausschlaggebend ist.
Weiterhin sollten die Transportmechanismen von körperfremden Substanzen zu dem gewünschten Wirkort studiert werden, damit die vorab in vitro getestete Substanz auch im späteren Entwicklungsstadium in vivo die gewünschten Eigenschaften zeigen kann.
Photolabile Schutzgruppen haben sich im Laufe der letzten Jahre als wertvolle Werkzeuge für die Untersuchung und Regulation biologischer Prozesse etabliert. Dabei wird die photolabile Schutzgruppe auf geeignete Weise mit Biomolekülen verknüpft, sodass deren Funktion temporär deaktiviert wird. Durch Bestrahlen mit Licht geeigneter Wellenlängen wird die photolabile Schutzgruppe entfernt und die Aktivität des Biomoleküls bzw. des zu beobachtenden Prozesses wiederhergestellt. Die Grundlagen der Verwendung photolabiler Schutzgruppen im biologischen Kontext wurden in zwei Pionierarbeiten 1977 von J.W. ENGELS und 1978 von J.F. HOFFMAN gelegt. Davon ausgehend haben sich zahlreiche Anwendungen photolabiler Schutzgruppen für biologisch interessante Molekülklassen entwickelt. Auf dem speziellen Gebiet der Nukleinsäuren wurden in den letzten Jahren einige fundamentale Mechanismen entdeckt und aufgeklärt, die nicht zuletzt auch therapeutisch interessante Anwendungsmöglichkeiten für photolabile Schutzgruppen bieten. Hierbei stellt das An-/Aus-Schaltverhalten von Nukleinsäuren jedoch ein nicht-triviales Problem dar. Selbst der gezielte Einbau einer einzelnen photolabilen Schutzgruppe in ein multifunktionales Oligonukleotid führt in der Regel nämlich nicht zu einer vollständigen Deaktivierung dessen. Ein multipler Einbau photolabiler Schutzgruppen entlang der Sequenz eines funktionellen Oligonukleotids schaltet die Hintergrundaktivität im deaktivierten Zustand zwar vollständig aus, allerdings müssen in diesem Fall hohe Bestrahlungsintensitäten bzw. –dauern für das Entfernen aller photolabilen Modifikationen angewendet werden. Dadurch geht zum einen die Zeitauflösung der lichtgeschalteten Prozesse verloren, nicht zuletzt erhöht sich dabei aber auch das Risiko von lichtinduzierten Schäden am biologischen System. Das Kernthema der vorliegenden Dissertation war es daher, neue Architekturen für den Aufbau photoaktivierbarer Oligonukleotide zu entwickeln.
Das erste große Projekt basierte auf der Annahme, dass sich Duplexstrukturen, die für die Funktion vieler Nukleinsäuremechanismen fundamental sind, durch Zyklisierung von Oligonukleotiden global destabilisieren und damit effizienter photoaktivieren lassen, als durch lokalen Einbau einzelner photolabiler Schutzgruppen in Oligonukleotide. Hierzu wurden geeignete Alkin-Modifikationen an photolabile Nitrobenzyl- und Cumarin-Schutzgruppen angebracht und diese an die Nukleobasen verschiedener DNA-Bausteine geknüpft. Es ist daraufhin gelungen, Oligonukleotide mit je zwei photolabilen Alkin-Modifikationen herzustellen und diese intrasequentiell über eine Cu(I)-katalysierte Click-Reaktion mit einem Bisazid-Linker zu zyklisieren. Die so erhaltenen Oligonukleotide wiesen dramatisch erniedrigte Schmelzpunkte gegenüber den nativen Duplexen, sowie gegenüber den zweifach photolabil geschützten Oligonukleotiden auf. Dabei wurde außerdem festgestellt, dass Zyklisierungsparameter wie die Linkerlänge, -polarität und –flexibilität und die Wahl der photolabilen Schutzgruppe keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Duplexstabilität hat. Über einen Bereich von Ringgrößen zwischen ca. 11-21 Nukleotiden wurden die niedrigsten Duplexstabilitäten beobachtet. Sehr kleine, sowie große Ringe ab 30 Nukleotiden wiesen dagegen höhere Stabilität auf.
Da mit dem entwickelten Zyklisierungskonzept auch mehrere Ringstrukturen innerhalb einer Oligonukleotidsequenz aufgebaut werden können, wurde im nächsten Schritt eine photoaktivierbare Variante des C10-Aptamers hergestellt, welches selektiv gegen Burkitt’s Lymphomzellen bindet. Dieses 90-mer DNA-Oligonukleotid wurde an drei Stellen photolabil Alkin-modifiziert und infolge mit einem Trisazid-Linker zu einer bizyklisierten Struktur verknotet. Mit Hilfe von Fluoreszenzmikroskopie-Experimenten konnte demonstriert werden, dass das durch eine solche „Photo-Klammer“ deaktivierte C10-Aptamer keine Bindungsaffinität gegenüber Burkitt’s Lymphomzellen aufweist, die Bindungsaktivität jedoch nach Belichten wiederhergestellt werden kann. Mit Atomkraftmikroskopie-Experimenten ist es darüber hinaus gelungen, die Photoaktivierung des verknäuelten C10-Aptamers mit molekularer Auflösung abzubilden. Mit diesem Ergebnis können nun lange funktionelle Oligonukleotide auf definierte Weise photoaktivierbar gestaltet werden, insbesondere auch dann, wenn keine (Informationen über) funktionelle Sekundärstrukturen existieren.
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