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We generalize the concept of block reduction for lattice bases from l2-norm to arbitrary norms. This extends the results of Schnorr. We give algorithms for block reduction and apply the resulting enumeration concept to solve subset sum problems. The deterministic algorithm solves all subset sum problems. For up to 66 weights it needs in average less then two hours on a HP 715/50 under HP-UX 9.05.
We propose a fast variant of the Gaussian algorithm for the reduction of two dimensional lattices for the l1-, l2- and l-infinite- norm. The algorithm runs in at most O(nM(B) logB) bit operations for the l-infinite- norm and in O(n log n M(B) logB) bit operations for the l1 and l2 norm on input vectors a, b 2 ZZn with norm at most 2B where M(B) is a time bound for B-bit integer multiplication. This generalizes Schönhages monotone Algorithm [Sch91] to the centered case and to various norms.
We present an efficient variant of LLL-reduction of lattice bases in the sense of Lenstra, Lenstra, Lov´asz [LLL82]. We organize LLL-reduction in segments of size k. Local LLL-reduction of segments is done using local coordinates of dimension 2k. Strong segment LLL-reduction yields bases of the same quality as LLL-reduction but the reduction is n-times faster for lattices of dimension n. We extend segment LLL-reduction to iterated subsegments. The resulting reduction algorithm runs in O(n3 log n) arithmetic steps for integer lattices of dimension n with basis vectors of length 2O(n), compared to O(n5) steps for LLL-reduction.
We introduce algorithms for lattice basis reduction that are improvements of the famous L3-algorithm. If a random L3-reduced lattice basis b1,b2,...,bn is given such that the vector of reduced Gram-Schmidt coefficients ({µi,j} 1<= j< i<= n) is uniformly distributed in [0,1)n(n-1)/2, then the pruned enumeration finds with positive probability a shortest lattice vector. We demonstrate the power of these algorithms by solving random subset sum problems of arbitrary density with 74 and 82 many weights, by breaking the Chor-Rivest cryptoscheme in dimensions 103 and 151 and by breaking Damgard's hash function.
We call a vector x/spl isin/R/sup n/ highly regular if it satisfies =0 for some short, non-zero integer vector m where <...> is the inner product. We present an algorithm which given x/spl isin/R/sup n/ and /spl alpha//spl isin/N finds a highly regular nearby point x' and a short integer relation m for x'. The nearby point x' is 'good' in the sense that no short relation m~ of length less than /spl alpha//2 exists for points x~ within half the x'-distance from x. The integer relation m for x' is for random x up to an average factor 2/sup /spl alpha//2/ a shortest integer relation for x'. Our algorithm uses, for arbitrary real input x, at most O(n/sup 4/(n+log A)) many arithmetical operations on real numbers. If a is rational the algorithm operates on integers having at most O(n/sup 5/+n/sup 3/(log /spl alpha/)/sup 2/+log(/spl par/qx/spl par//sup 2/)) many bits where q is the common denominator for x.
We study the following problem: given x element Rn either find a short integer relation m element Zn, so that =0 holds for the inner product <.,.>, or prove that no short integer relation exists for x. Hastad, Just Lagarias and Schnorr (1989) give a polynomial time algorithm for the problem. We present a stable variation of the HJLS--algorithm that preserves lower bounds on lambda(x) for infinitesimal changes of x. Given x \in {\RR}^n and \alpha \in \NN this algorithm finds a nearby point x' and a short integer relation m for x'. The nearby point x' is 'good' in the sense that no very short relation exists for points \bar{x} within half the x'--distance from x. On the other hand if x'=x then m is, up to a factor 2^{n/2}, a shortest integer relation for \mbox{x.} Our algorithm uses, for arbitrary real input x, at most \mbox{O(n^4(n+\log \alpha))} many arithmetical operations on real numbers. If x is rational the algorithm operates on integers having at most \mbox{O(n^5+n^3 (\log \alpha)^2 + \log (\|q x\|^2))} many bits where q is the common denominator for x.
Black box cryptanalysis applies to hash algorithms consisting of many small boxes, connected by a known graph structure, so that the boxes can be evaluated forward and backwards by given oracles. We study attacks that work for any choice of the black boxes, i.e. we scrutinize the given graph structure. For example we analyze the graph of the fast Fourier transform (FFT). We present optimal black box inversions of FFT-compression functions and black box constructions of collisions. This determines the minimal depth of FFT-compression networks for collision-resistant hashing. We propose the concept of multipermutation, which is a pair of orthogonal latin squares, as a new cryptographic primitive that generalizes the boxes of the FFT. Our examples of multipermutations are based on the operations circular rotation, bitwise xor, addition and multiplication.
Parallel FFT-hashing
(1994)
We propose two families of scalable hash functions for collision resistant hashing that are highly parallel and based on the generalized fast Fourier transform (FFT). FFT hashing is based on multipermutations. This is a basic cryptographic primitive for perfect generation of diffusion and confusion which generalizes the boxes of the classic FFT. The slower FFT hash functions iterate a compression function. For the faster FFT hash functions all rounds are alike with the same number of message words entering each round.
We report on improved practical algorithms for lattice basis reduction. We propose a practical floating point version of theL3-algorithm of Lenstra, Lenstra, Lovász (1982). We present a variant of theL3-algorithm with "deep insertions" and a practical algorithm for block Korkin—Zolotarev reduction, a concept introduced by Schnorr (1987). Empirical tests show that the strongest of these algorithms solves almost all subset sum problems with up to 66 random weights of arbitrary bit length within at most a few hours on a UNISYS 6000/70 or within a couple of minutes on a SPARC1 + computer.
We call a distribution on n bit strings (", e) locally random, if for every choice of e · n positions the induced distribution on e bit strings is in the L1 norm at most " away from the uniform distribution on e bit strings. We establish local randomness in polynomial random number generators (RNG) that are candidate one way functions. Let N be a squarefree integer and let f1, . . . , f be polynomials with coe±- cients in ZZN = ZZ/NZZ. We study the RNG that stretches a random x 2 ZZN into the sequence of least significant bits of f1(x), . . . , f(x). We show that this RNG provides local randomness if for every prime divisor p of N the polynomials f1, . . . , f are linearly independent modulo the subspace of polynomials of degree · 1 in ZZp[x]. We also establish local randomness in polynomial random function generators. This yields candidates for cryptographic hash functions. The concept of local randomness in families of functions extends the concept of universal families of hash functions by Carter and Wegman (1979). The proofs of our results rely on upper bounds for exponential sums.
We propose two improvements to the Fiat Shamir authentication and signature scheme. We reduce the communication of the Fiat Shamir authentication scheme to a single round while preserving the e±ciency of the scheme. This also reduces the length of Fiat Shamir signatures. Using secret keys consisting of small integers we reduce the time for signature generation by a factor 3 to 4. We propose a variation of our scheme using class groups that may be secure even if factoring large integers becomes easy.
We introduce novel security proofs that use combinatorial counting arguments rather than reductions to the discrete logarithm or to the Diffie-Hellman problem. Our security results are sharp and clean with no polynomial reduction times involved. We consider a combination of the random oracle model and the generic model. This corresponds to assuming an ideal hash function H given by an oracle and an ideal group of prime order q, where the binary encoding of the group elements is useless for cryptographic attacks In this model, we first show that Schnorr signatures are secure against the one-more signature forgery : A generic adversary performing t generic steps including l sequential interactions with the signer cannot produce l+1 signatures with a better probability than (t 2)/q. We also characterize the different power of sequential and of parallel attacks. Secondly, we prove signed ElGamal encryption is secure against the adaptive chosen ciphertext attack, in which an attacker can arbitrarily use a decryption oracle except for the challenge ciphertext. Moreover, signed ElGamal encryption is secure against the one-more decryption attack: A generic adversary performing t generic steps including l interactions with the decryption oracle cannot distinguish the plaintexts of l + 1 ciphertexts from random strings with a probability exceeding (t 2)/q.
Assuming a cryptographically strong cyclic group G of prime order q and a random hash function H, we show that ElGamal encryption with an added Schnorr signature is secure against the adaptive chosen ciphertext attack, in which an attacker can freely use a decryption oracle except for the target ciphertext. We also prove security against the novel one-more-decyption attack. Our security proofs are in a new model, corresponding to a combination of two previously introduced models, the Random Oracle model and the Generic model. The security extends to the distributed threshold version of the scheme. Moreover, we propose a very practical scheme for private information retrieval that is based on blind decryption of ElGamal ciphertexts.
Let b1, . . . , bm 2 IRn be an arbitrary basis of lattice L that is a block Korkin Zolotarev basis with block size ¯ and let ¸i(L) denote the successive minima of lattice L. We prove that for i = 1, . . . ,m 4 i + 3 ° 2 i 1 ¯ 1 ¯ · kbik2/¸i(L)2 · ° 2m i ¯ 1 ¯ i + 3 4 where °¯ is the Hermite constant. For ¯ = 3 we establish the optimal upper bound kb1k2/¸1(L)2 · µ3 2¶m 1 2 1 and we present block Korkin Zolotarev lattice bases for which this bound is tight. We improve the Nearest Plane Algorithm of Babai (1986) using block Korkin Zolotarev bases. Given a block Korkin Zolotarev basis b1, . . . , bm with block size ¯ and x 2 L(b1, . . . , bm) a lattice point v can be found in time ¯O(¯) satisfying kx vk2 · m° 2m ¯ 1 ¯ minu2L kx uk2.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, ein sicheres und trotzdem effizientes Preprocessing zu finden. Nach den zurückliegenden Untersuchungen können wir annehmen, dies erreicht zu haben. Wir haben gezeigt, daß eine minimale Workload von Attacken von 272 mit nur 16 Multiplikationen pro Runde und 13 gespeicherten Paaren (ri, xi) erreicht werden kann. Mit der in Abschnitt 12.3 erklärten Variation - der Wert rº k geht nicht in die Gleichungen mit ein - erreichen wir sogar eine Sicherheit von 274. In diesem Fall können wir die Anzahl der gespeicherten Paare auf 12 verringern. Auch von der in Abschnit 12.5 besprochenen Variation erwarten wir eine Erhöhung der Sicherheit. Ergebnisse dazu werden bald vorliegen. Folgender Preprocessing Algorithmus erscheint z.B. nach unserem derzeitigen Wissensstand geeignet: Setze k = 12, l0 = 7, l1 = 3, d0 = 4, d1 = 5, h = 4, ¯h = 1. Initiation: lade k Paare (r0 0, x00 ) . . . , (r0 k 1, x0 k 1) mit x0i = ®r0 i mod p. º := 1. º ist die Rundennummer 1. Wähle l1 2 verschiedene Zufallszahlen a(3, º), . . . , a(l1, º) 2 {º + 1 mod k, . . . , º 2 mod k} a(1, º) := º mod k, a(2, º) := º 1 mod k W¨ahle l1 2 verschiedene Zufallszahlen f(3, º), . . . , f(l1, º) 2 {0, . . . , d1 1}, f(1, º) zuf¨allig aus {h, . . . , d1 1} und f(2, º) zuf¨allig aus {¯h, . . . , d1 1} rº k := rº ºmodk + l1 Xi=1 2f(i,º)rº 1 a(i,º) mod q xk = xºº modk · l1 Yi=1 (xº 1 a(i,º))2f(i,º) mod p 2. w¨ahle l0 1 verschiedene Zufallszahlen b(2, º), . . . , b(l0, º) 2 {º + 1 mod k, . . . , º 1 mod k} b(1, º) := º mod k W¨ahle l0 verschiedene Zufallszahlen g(1, º), . . . , g(l0, º) 2 {0, . . . , d0 1} rº ºmodk := l0 Xi=1 2g(i,º)rº 1 b(i,º) mod q xºº modk = l0 Yi=1 (xº 1 b(i,º))2g(i,º) mod p 3. verwende (rº k, xº k) f¨ur die º te Signatur (eº, yº) gem¨aß yº = rº k + seº mod q 4. º := º + 1 GOTO 1. f¨ur die n¨achste Signatur Die Zufallszahlen a(3, º), . . . , a(l, º), b(2, º), . . . , b(l, º), f(1, º), . . . , f(l, º) und g(1, º), . . . , g(l, º) werden unabhängig gewählt. Dies ist selbstverständlich nur ein Beispiel. Unsere Untersuchungen sind noch nicht abgeschlossen. Wir glauben aber nicht, daß feste Werte a(i, º) und b(i, º) ein effizientes Preprocessing definieren. Wir haben einige Variationen mit solchen weniger randomisierten Gleichungen studiert und immer effiziente Attacken gefunden.
Es steht außer Zweifel, daß digitale Signaturen schon bald zu unserem Alltag gehören wer- den. Spätestens mit dem Inkrafttreten des Gesetzes zur digitalen Signatur (siehe [BMB]) sind sie zu einem wichtigen Instrument in der Telekommunikation geworden. Dabei kommt der Verwendung von Chipkarten eine wichtige Bedeutung zu: In ihnen lassen sich die sensiblen Daten (z.B. der geheime Schlüssel) auslesesicher aufbewahren; gleichzeitig können sie bequem mitgeführt werden. Aus diesen Gründen erlebt die Verwendung von Chipkarten zur Erzeugung von digitalen Signaturen zur Zeit einen enormen Aufschwung. Problematisch ist jedoch der oft unverhältnismäßig große Berechnungsaufwand für die Erzeugung von digitalen Signaturen. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, Methoden zu entwickeln und/oder zu untersuchen, welche die Berechnung digitaler Unterschriften wesentlich beschleunigen. Dabei spiegelt sich die Zweiteilung der in der Praxis hauptsächlich verwendeten Typen von Signaturverfahren in der Struktur der Arbeit wider. Der erste Teil dieser Arbeit untersucht Verfahren zur effizienten Berechnung von RSA-Unterschriften. Dabei entstanden die Untersuchungen in den Abschnitten 3.2.3 und 3.2.4 in Zusammenarbeit mit R. Werchner und der Inhalt der Abschnitte 3.1 - 3.2.4 ist bereits in [MW98] veröffentlicht. Im zweiten Teil entwickeln wir Verfahren zur effizienteren Generierung von Unterschriften, die auf dem diskreten Logarithmus basieren, und untersuchen deren Sicherheit. Dabei entstanden die Untersuchungen in den Abschnitten 4.2 (bis auf 4.2.2) und 4.3.1 in Zusammenarbeit mit C. P. Schnorr und sind teilweise in [MS98] zusammengefaßt. Obwohl diese Arbeit eine mathematische Abhandlung darstellt, versuchen wir, die praktische Anwendung nicht aus den Augen zu verlieren. So orientieren sich die betrachteten Verfahren stets an den durch die verfügbare Technologie gegebenen Rahmenbedingungen. Darüber hinaus richten wir unser Augenmerk weniger auf das asymptotische Verhalten der betrachteten Verfahren, als vielmehr auf konkrete, für die Anwendung relevante Beispiele.
Korrektur zu: C.P. Schnorr: Security of 2t-Root Identification and Signatures, Proceedings CRYPTO'96, Springer LNCS 1109, (1996), pp. 143-156 page 148, section 3, line 5 of the proof of Theorem 3. Die Korrektur wurde präsentiert als: "Factoring N via proper 2 t-Roots of 1 mod N" at Eurocrypt '97 rump session.