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Zusammenfassung Die Alzheimersche Krankheit (AD) ist mit 60% die am häufigsten auftretende Art der Demenz. Weltweit sind ca. 24 Mio. Menschen von der neurodegenerativen Krankheit betroffen, welche sich durch den Verlust der kognitiven Fähigkeiten auszeichnet. Es gibt zwei Ausprägungen der Demenz, zum einen die sporadische Verlaufsform, die bei Menschen in einem Alter ab 65 Jahren auftritt und zum anderen die familiäre Alzheimersche Krankheit (FAD), die schon weitaus jüngere Menschen betrifft und auf genetische Mutationen zurück zu führen ist. Beide Formen der Demenz zeigen den gleichen neuropathologische Phänotyp, der zur Ausbildung von extrazellulären Plaques und intrazellulären Neurofibrillen führt. Durch die Entstehung der Plaques und der Neurofibrillen werden die Verbindungen zwischen den einzelnen Neuronen verringert und die Neuronen sterben ab. Für das Auftreten der FAD sind Mutationen in den Genen des Amyloid Vorläufer Proteins (APP, Substrat) sowie der Aspartatprotease Einheit des γ-Sekretase Komplexes, Presenilin 1 (PS1) oder Presenilin 2 (PS2), verantwortlich. Die γ-Sekretase ist ein membranständiger Komplex bestehend aus den vier Untereinheiten PS1 oder PS2, Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 und Pen-2. Um ausreichende Informationen über den γ-Sekretase Komplex bezüglich seiner Interaktionsflächen, seines Katalysemechanismus und seiner Substraterkennung zu erhalten, wäre es hilfreich seine 3 Dimensionale Struktur aufzuklären, wozu große Mengen der sauberen und homogenen Proteine benötigt werden. Die Herstellung von ausreichenden Proteinmengen stellt derzeit aber einen Engpass für die strukturelle und funktionelle Charakterisierung des γ-Sekretase Komplexes in-vitro dar. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, which affects 24 million people worldwide. It is a neurodegenerative disorder, which occurs either in its most common form in people over 65 years or in the rare early-onset familial AD (FAD). Responsible for the autosomal dominant FAD are mutations in the genes encoding for the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the two homologues integral membrane proteins Presenilin 1 (PS1) and Presenilin 2 (PS2). The two PSs are major but alternative components of the intramembrane aspartyl protease γ-secretase. Further components are the membrane proteins Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 and Pen-2. Production of sufficient amounts of protein samples is still the major bottleneck for the detailed functional and structural in-vitro characterization of the γ-secretase complex. Due to toxicity, stability and targeting problems, the overproduction of MPs in conventional in-vivo systems often has only limited success. Therefore, efficient expression protocols using the cell-free (CF) system were established in this work. After optimization, I was able to produce up to milligram amounts of the single proteins PS1 and PS2, the cleavage products PS1-NTF and PS1-CTF, and Pen-2. The in-vitro produced γ-secretase subunits were further characterized, concerning their purity, secondary fold, thermal stability and homogeneity. Highest purities with over 90% after affinity chromatography could be achieved for PS1-CTF and Pen-2. Reconstitution of PS1, PS1-NTF, PS1-CTF and Pen-2 into E. coli liposomes results in a homogeneously distribution, which gives evidence for a structural folding. This was confirmed by CD spectroscopy of PS1-CTF and Pen-2. The thermal stability of Pen-2 shows a transition at 68°C, whereas PS1-CTF is stable up to 95°C. Both proteins show in addition homogeneous elution profiles investigated by analytical SEC and exhibit a monomeric (Pen-2) or dimeric (PS1-CTF) character analyzed by blue native PAGE. Different methods were performed to get evidence about the assembly of the complex, like pull-down experiments, immunoprecipitation, co-expression of radioactive labeled subunits and titration assays by liquid-state NMR. First hints for an interaction of the CF synthesized proteins could be observed by co-expression. Supplemental, Pen-2 and CTF could be purified in sufficient amounts and to apparent homogeneity that allow structural approaches by X-ray crystallography and liquid-state NMR spectroscopy. First conditions for protein crystals were achieved for Pen-2 and structural investigations of PS1-CTF by liquid-state NMR could be performed after optimization of the expression-, purification- and detergent conditions.
Die 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) ist das Schlüsselenzym in der Biosynthese proinflammatorischer Leukotriene, die maßgeblich an der Entstehung allergischer und entzündlicher Erkrankungen wie Arthritis, Asthma und kardiovaskulären Erkrankungen beteiligt sind (23). Humane 5-LO besteht aus 673 Aminosäuren und besitzt ein Molekulargewicht von 77,8 kDa (25). Das Protein besteht aus einer größeren katalytischen Domäne, die ein zentrales Eisen(II)-Atom enthält, dass für die zweistufige LTA4-Bildung aus Arachidonsäure benötigt wird, und einer kleineren C2-ähnlichen Domäne, die Bereiche für die Membran- sowie Ca2+-Bindung enthält. Durch Stimulation von intakten Zellen kommt es zu einer Translokation der 5-LO an die Kernmembran. Die Wechselwirkung mit dem membranständigen FLAP fördert die 5-LO-Leukotrienbildung. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigte sich mit niedermolekularen Modifikationen der 5-LO durch U-73122 und Glutathion sowie mit der Charakterisierung von 5-LO-Inhibitoren. U-73122 ist ein Inhibitor, der in vitro und in vivo mit einem IC50-Wert von 30 nM bzw. 2,4 µM die 5-LO-Aktivität hemmt (2). U-73122 verfügt über eine thiol-reaktive Maleinimid-Gruppe, wodurch die Substanz kovalent an einige 5-LO-Cysteine (Cys-99, -159 und weitere) binden kann. Entsprechende U-73122-5-LO-Peptide konnten nach Trypsin-Verdau der 5-LO mit MALDI-MS-Messungen nachgewiesen werden. Für diesen Zweck musste eine effiziente Aufreinigung für native 5-LO (Reinheit > 95%) entwickelt werden. Um die Veränderung der 5-LO-Aktivität nach U-73122-Zugabe zu untersuchen, wurden Cystein/Serin-5-LO-Mutanten hergestellt. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Mutante C416S-5-LO nicht mehr effektiv durch U-73122 gehemmt werden konnte. Daher ist anzunehmen, dass U-73122 an Cystein-416 der 5-LO bindet und die 5-LO-Produktbildung hemmt. Auf der 5-LO-Oberfläche kann ein Bereich lokalisiert werden, der einen Zugang für das Substrat zum aktiven Zentrum der 5-LO bilden könnte (238,239). Dieser Bereich liegt in unmittelbarer Nähe zu Cystein-416. Daher besteht die Möglichkeit, dass U-73122, nachdem es an Cystein-416 gebunden hat, diesen Bereich hemmend beeinflussen kann. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass Glutathion an mehrere Cysteine der 5-LO (Cystein-99, -264 und -449) kovalent binden kann. Um Veränderungen der 5-LO-Aktivität durch in vivo Glutathionylierungen zu zeigen, wurden HeLa-Zellen mit 5-LO, Cystein-/Serin-5-LO-Mutanten sowie FLAP transfiziert und mit Diamid inkubiert. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die native sowie FLAP-gesteigerte 5-LO-Produktbildung durch Diamid gehemmt wird. Dies konnte ebenfalls für die Mutante 3W-5-LO beobachtet werden. Zusätzlich wurden verschiedene Cystein-/Serin-5-LO-Punktmutanten sowie eine 4fach Mutante (C159S/C300S/C416S/C418S-5-LO = 2D-5-LO) untersucht. Das Verhalten dieser Mutanten konnte in drei Gruppen eingeteilt werden. Gruppe A (C159S-, C300S- und C418S-5-LO) wurde durch Diamid nicht beeinflusst. Gruppe B (C416S- und 2D-5-LO) zeigte eine sehr starke Stimulation der 5-LO±FLAP-Leukotrienbildung nach Zugabe von Diamid. Bei Gruppe C (C99S-, C264S- und C449S-5-LO) konnte eine FLAP-gesteigerte 5-HETE-Bildung beobachtet werden. Durch Diamid kommt es zu Glutathionylierungen von zellulären Proteinen, da reduziertes Glutathion (GSH) zu reaktiveren oxidierten Glutathion (GSSG) umgesetzt wird. An der 5-LO-Oberfläche können in Folge an verschiedenen Cysteinen Glutathione binden. Durch die Glutathion-Bindung wird eine stark polare Struktur auf der 5-LO-Oberfläche eingebracht. Dadurch kommt es zu einer verminderten Membranbindung und Produktbildung der nativen 5-LO. Die 5-LO-Oberfläche der 2D-5-LO-Mutante kann an verschiedenen Positionen keine Glutathione mehr binden, es kommt es zu einer stärkeren Wechselwirkung mit Membranbestandteilen und zu einer erhöhten 5-LO-Leukotrienbildung. Für Celecoxib konnte gezeigt werden, dass neben der COX2-Hemmung auch die 5-LO-Aktivität mit einem IC50-Wert von 3-10 µM gehemmt werden kann (268). Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden HeLa-Zellen mit 5-LO±FLAP transfiziert, um den Einfluss von Celecoxib auf FLAP zu untersuchen. Celecoxib führt zu einer direkten Hemmung der 5-LO. ML3000 (Licofelon) wurde als dualer COX/5-LO-Inhibitor entwickelt und hemmt die 5-LO-Aktivität in intakten Zellen, aber nicht im Homogenat. Daher wurden Versuche mit 5-LO±FLAP-tranfizierten HeLa-Zellen durchgeführt, um den Einfluss von ML3000 auf die FLAP-gesteigerte 5-LO-Leukotrienbildung zu zeigen. Aus diesen und weiteren Ergebnissen unserer Arbeitsgruppe konnte gefolgert werden, dass ML3000 ein FLAP-Inhibitor ist (277). Garsubellin A ist strukturverwandt zu Hyperforin, einem dualen COX/5-LO-Inhibitor (204). Garsubellin A hemmt die 5-LO-Aktivität im Homogenat von PMNL und am gereinigten Enzym mit einer IC50 von 10-30 µM. Verbindungen, die den Bicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-Grundkörper des Garsubellin A und Hyperforin enthalten, wurden auf ihr inhibitorisches Potential getestet. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Bicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-Grundkörper alleine nicht für eine 5-LO-Hemmung ausreicht, sondern eine freie Carbonsäure sowie eine bis zwei Prenylierungen vorliegen müssen, um eine 5-LO-Hemmung zu erzielen. Sind diese Voraussetzungen vorhanden, wird die 5-LO-Aktivität in intakten PMNL mit einer IC50 von 10 µM und an gereinigter 5-LO mit 0,3-1 µM gehemmt.
Background: Nitric oxide (NO) is an essential vasodilator. In vascular diseases, oxidative stress attenuates NO signaling by both chemical scavenging of free NO and oxidation and down-regulation of its major intracellular receptor, the alpha/beta heterodimeric heme-containing soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC). Oxidation can also induce loss of sGC's heme and responsiveness to NO.
Results: sGC activators such as BAY 58-2667 bind to oxidized/heme-free sGC and reactivate the enzyme to exert disease-specific vasodilation. Here we show that oxidation-induced down-regulation of sGC protein extends to isolated blood vessels. Mechanistically, degradation was triggered through sGC ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. The heme-binding site ligand, BAY 58-2667, prevented sGC ubiquitination and stabilized both alpha and beta subunits.
Conclusion: Collectively, our data establish oxidation-ubiquitination of sGC as a modulator of NO/cGMP signaling and point to a new mechanism of action for sGC activating vasodilators by stabilizing their receptor, oxidized/heme-free sGC.
Poster presentation: NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclases (sGCs) are cytosolic receptors for nitric oxide (NO) catalyzing the conversion of GTP to cGMP. sGCs are obligate heterodimers composed of one alpha and beta subunit each. The allosteric mechanism of sGC activation via NO is well understood, however, our knowledge about alternative mechanisms such as protein-protein interactions regulating activity, availability, translocation and expression of sGC is rather limited. In a search by the yeast two-hybrid system using the catalytic domain of the alpha1 subunit as the bait, we have identified two structurally related proteins AGAP1 [1] and MRIP2 as novel sGC interacting proteins. MRIP2 is a multi-domain protein of 75 kDa comprising a single PH and ArfGAP domain each and two ankyrin repeats. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments using COS1 cells overexpressing both proteins demonstrated the interaction of MRIP2 with both subunits of the sGC alpha1beta1. Confocal microscopical analysis showed a prominent plasma membrane staining of MRIP2. This membrane association is mediated through an N-terminal myristoylation site and through binding of its PH domain to phospholipids such as phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P2). We hypothesize that MRIP2 may represent an acceptor protein for sGC that mediates recruitment of cytosolic sGC to the plasma membrane or other subcellular compartments.
Poster presentation: NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclases (GC) are the principal receptors for nitric oxide (NO) and convert GTP into the second messenger cGMP. We showed that GC is prone to tyrosine phosphorylation in COS1 cells overexpressing the human holoenzyme. Similar results were obtained in PC12 cells and in rat aortic tissue slices. The major phosphorylation site was mapped to position 192 in the regulatory domain of the beta1 subunit. Tyrosine phosphorylation of GC was reduced in the presence of the inhibitors PP1 and PP2 indicating that Src-like kinases are critically involved in phosphorylation. Moreover, co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed an interaction between Src and GC. To further analyse the relevance of this posttranslational modification we generated a phospho-specific antibody raised against pTyr192. This antibody clearly distinguishes between phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated GC and may be a powerful tool to analyse the subcellular localisation of the phosphorylated enzyme.
Poster presentation NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclases (soluble guanylyl cyclase, sGC) are among the key regulators of intracellular cGMP concentration. The mechanisms underlying NO-mediated activation of sGC are quite well understood, however, little is known about the fine-tuning of sGC activity through alternative mechanisms such as protein phosphorylation. Several reports have demonstrated the reversible phosphorylation of sGC on serine/threonine residues, and it has been speculated, though not experimentally proven, that sGC might also be phosphorylated on tyrosine residues. Using broad-spectrum phosphatase inhibitors we were able to demonstrate tyrosine phosphorylation at Tyr192 of the beta 1 subunit of human sGC in COS1 cells. This residue forms part of a sequence segment (YEDL) representing a preferential binding site for SH2 domains of Src-like kinases. Pull-down assays and co-immunoprecipitation experiments showed that Src can indeed bind via its SH2 domain to pTyr192 of beta 1 indicating that tyrosine phosphorylation of sGC may be followed by recruitment of Src-like kinases to the phosphorylated beta 1 subunit. In support of this hypothesis, immunofluorescence studies showed a colocalization of overexpressed sGC and Src at the plasma membrane of COS1 and Hela cells. Together, our results point to an unexpected crosstalk between tyrosine kinase pathway(s) and the NO/cGMP signalling cascade which may result in translocation of the predominantly cytosolic sGC to the cytosolic face of the plasma membrane.
A generic drug product (World Health Organization (WHO) terminology: multisource product) is usually marketed and manufactured after the expiry date of the innovator’s patent. Generic drugs are less expensive than the innovator products because generic manufacturers do not have to amortize the investment costs of research, development, marketing, and promotion. Multisource products must contain the same active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) as the original formulation and have to be shown to be interchangeable with the original formulation. Multisource products have to be shown bioequivalent to the innovator counterpart with respect to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Multisource products are therefore identical in dose, strength, route of administration, safety, efficacy, and intended use. Bioequivalence can be demonstrated by in vitro dissolution, pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic or clinical studies. Since 2000, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allows the approval of certain multisource products solely on the basis of in vitro studies, i.e. by waiving in vivo studies in humans (“Biowaiver”), based on the Biopharmaceutics Classification Scheme (BCS). The BCS characterizes APIs by their solubility and permeability in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The different BCS Classes I-IV (Class I: high solubility, high permeability; Class II: low solubility, high permeability; Class III: high solubility, low permeability and Class IV: low solubility, low permeability) result from all possible combinations of high and low solubility with high and low permeability. Since the adoption of the BCS by the FDA in 1995, the BCS criteria have been under continuous development. In 2006, the WHO has released the most recent bioequivalence guidance including relaxed criteria for bioequivalence studies based on modified BCS criteria. According to this guidance, APIs belonging to the BCS classes I – and under defined conditions - II and III – are eligible for a biowaiver-based approval. The principal objective of this work was to characterize the first-line anti tuberculosis APIs, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, ethambutol dihydrochloride and rifampicin, according to their physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacological properties and to classify them according to the BCS. Ethambutol dihydrochloride and isoniazid were classified as borderline BCS class I/III APIs. Pyrazinamide was classified as a BCS class III and rifampicin as a BCS class II API. Based on the BCS classification and the additional criteria defined in the WHO bioequivalence guidance, the possibility of biowaiver-based approval for immediate release (immediate release) solid oral dosage forms containing the first-line antituberculosis drugs was evaluated. A biowaiver-based approval with defined constraints was recommended for immediate release solid oral dosage forms containing isoniazid (interaction with reducing sugars), pyrazinamide and ethambutol dihydrochloride (relative narrow therapeutic index). Rifampicin was classified as a BCS class II API, and it was concluded that rifampicin containing solid oral immediate release drug products as well as Scale-Up and Post-Approval Changes (SUPAC) changes should not be approved by a biowaiver on the following basis: (i) its solubility and dissolution are highly variable due to polymorphism and instability, (ii) concomitant intake of food and antacids reduces its absorption and bioavailability, (iii) no in vitro predictive dissolution test has been found which correlates to in vivo absorption and (iv) several publications reporting cases of non-bioequivalent and bioinequivalent rifampicin products have been located in the literature. Thus, it is recommended that bioequivalence of rifampicin containing solid oral immediate release drug products should be established by in vivo pharmacokinetic studies in humans. This risk-benefit benefit assessment of a biowaiver-based approval was presented as a poster at the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) 2005 and subsequently published as “Biowaiver Monographs” in the Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Based on the assessment of the dissolution properties of the antituberculosis drugs for a biowaiver approval, quality control dissolution methodologies for the International Pharmacopoeia (Pharm. Int.) were developed, presented at the WHO expert meeting and adopted in the Pharm. Int. (http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/pharmprep/OMS_TRS_948.pdf). Additionally, preliminary biowaiver recommendations were also developed for four firstline antimalarial drugs listed on the WHO Essential Medicines List (EML): Quinine, as both the hydrochloride and sulphate, and proguanil hydrochloride were classified as borderline BCS class I/III APIs. Since quinine is a narrow therapeutic index drug and many cases of non-bioequivalence have been reported in the literature, a biowaiverbased approval was not recommended. For solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing proguanil a biowaiver-based approval was recommended under the condition that they dissolve very rapidly. Primaquine phosphate was classified as a BCS class I API. Therefore, a biowaiver-based approval was recommended for immediate release solid oral dosage forms containing primaquine phosphate. Mefloquine hydrochloride was classified as a basic, BCS class IV/II API, making it ineligible for the biowaiver. Additionally, reports of non-bioequivalence and a narrow therapeutic index were found in the scientific literature. Consequently, bioequivalence of solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing mefloquine hydrochloride should be established by in vivo pharmacokinetic studies. The results for quinine hydrochloride and sulphate, proguanil hydrochloride, primaquine diphosphate and mefloquine hydrochloride were presented as a poster at the Pharmaceutical Sciences World Congress (PSWC) 2007 and published as a WHO Collaborating Center Report in June 2006. The aim of this project was to collect, evaluate, generate and publish relevant information for a biowaiver-based approval of essential medicines in order to provide a summary to local regulatory authorities. This information complements the selected list of essential medicines by providing information about the biopharmaceutical properties and pharmaceutical quality of solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing these APIs. The aim of the biowaiver project, inspired by the WHO and brought in life by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP), is to enable access to essential medicines in standardized quality at an affordable price. In this work, a significant contribution to this aim in the form of four biowaiver monographs for the antituberculosis drugs and several reports on the antimalarials has been achieved.
Background: Microarray analysis still remains a powerful tool to identify new components of the transcriptosome and it has helped to increase the knowledge of targets triggered by stress conditions such as hypoxia and nitric oxide. However, analysis of transcriptional regulatory events remain elusive due to the contribution of altered mRNA stability to gene expression patterns, as well as changes in the half-life of mRNAs, which influence mRNA expression levels and their turn over rates. To circumvent these problems, we have focused on the analysis of newly transcribed (nascent) mRNAs by nuclear run on (NRO), followed by microarray analysis. Result: We identified 188 genes that were significantly regulated by hypoxia, 81 genes were affected by nitric oxide, and 292 genes were induced by the co-treatment of macrophages with both NO and hypoxia. Fourteen genes (Bnip3, Ddit4, Vegfa, Trib3, Atf3, Cdkn1a, Scd1, D4Ertd765e, Sesn2, Son, Nnt, Lst1, Hps6 and Fxyd5) were common to hypoxia and/or nitric oxide treatments, but with different levels of expression. We observed that 166 transcripts were regulated only when cells were co-treated with hypoxia and NO but not with either treatment alone, pointing to the importance of a crosstalk between hypoxia and NO. In addition, both array and proteomics data supported a consistent repression of hypoxia regulated targets by NO. Conclusion: By eliminating the interference of steady state mRNA in gene expression profiling, we increased the sensitivity of mRNA analysis and identified previously unknown hypoxia-induced targets. Gene analysis profiling corroborated the interplay between NO- and hypoxia-induced signalling.
Photo-initiated processes, like photo-excitation and -deexcitation, internal conversion, excitation energy transfer and electron transfer, are of importance in many areas of physics, chemistry and biology. For the understanding of such processes, detailed knowledge of excitation energies, potential energy surfaces and excited state properties of the involved molecules is an essential prerequisite. To obtain these informations, quantum chemical calculations are required. Several quantum chemical methods exist which allow for the calculation of excited states. Most of these methods are computationally costly what makes them only applicable to small molecules. However, many biological systems where photo-processes are of interest like light-harvesting complexes in photosynthesis or the reception of light in the human eye by rhodopsin are quite large. For large systems, however, only few theoretical methods remain applicable. The currently most widely used method is time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT), which can treat systems of up to 200–300 atoms with the excitation energies of some excited states exhibiting errors of less than 0.5 eV. Yet, TD-DFT has several drawbacks. The most severe failure of TD-DFT is the false description of charge transfer states which is particularly problematic in case of larger systems where it yields a multitude of artificially low-lying charge transfer states. But also Rydberg states and states with large double excitation character are not described correctly. Still, if these deficiencies are kept in mind during the interpretation of results, TD-DFT is a useful tool for the calculation of excited states. In my thesis, TD-DFT is applied in investigations of excitation energy and electron transfer processes in light-harvesting complexes. Since light-harvesting complexes, which consist of thousands of atoms, are by far too large to be calculated, model complexes for the processes of interest are constructed from available crystal structures. The model complexes are used to calculate potential energy curves along meaningful reaction coordinates. Artificial charge transfer states are corrected with the help of the so-called ∆DFT method. The resulting potential energy curves are then interpreted by comparison with experimental results. For the light-harvesting complex LH2 from purple bacteria the experimentally observed formation of carotenoid radical cations is studied. It is shown that the carotenoid radical cation is formed most likely via the optically forbidden S1 state of the carotenoid. In light-harvesting complex LHC-II of green plants the fast component of the so-called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is investigated. Two of several different hypotheses on the mechanism of NPQ, which have been proposed recently, are studied in detail. The first one suggests that NPQ proceeds via simple replacement of violaxanthin by zeaxanthin in the binding pocket in LHC-II. However, the calculated potential energy curves exhibit no difference between violaxanthin and zeaxanthin in the binding pocket. In combination with experimental results it is thus shown that simple replacement alone does not mediate NPQ in LHC-II. The second hypothesis proposes conformational changes of LHC-II that lead to quenching at the central lutein and chlorophyll molecules during NPQ. My TD-DFT calculations demonstrate that if this mechanism is operative, only the lutein 1 which is one of two central luteins present in LHC-II can take part in the quenching process. This is corroborated by recent experiments. Though several conclusions can be drawn from the investigations using TD-DFT, the interpretability of the results is limited due to the deficiencies of the method and of the models. To overcome the methodological deficiencies, more accurate methods have to be employed. Therefore, the so-called algebraic diagrammatic construction scheme (ADC) is implemented. ADC is a widely overlooked ab initio method for the calculation of excited states, which is based on propagator theory. Its theoretical derivation proceeds via perturbation expansion of the polarization propagator, which describes electronic excitations. This yields separate schemes for every order of perturbation theory. The second order scheme ADC(2), which is employed here, is the equivalent to the Møller-Plesset ground state method MP(2), but for excited states. It represents the computationally cheapest excited state method which can correctly describe doubly excited states, as well as Rydberg and charge transfer states. The quality of ADC(2) results is demonstrated in calculations on linear polyenes which serve as model systems for the larger carotenoid molecules. The calculations show that ADC(2) describes the three lowest excited states of polyenes sufficiently well, particularly the optically forbidden S1 state which is known to possess large double excitation character. Yet, the applicability of the method is limited compared to TD-DFT due to the much larger computational requirements. To facilitate the calculation of larger systems with ADC(2) a new variant of the method is developed and implemented. The variant employs the short-range behavior of electron correlation to reduce the computational effort. As a first step, the working equations of ADC(2) are transformed into a basis of local orbitals. In this basis negligible contributions of the equations which are due to electron correlation can be identified based on the distances of local orbitals. A so-called “bumping” scheme is implemented which removes the negligible parts during a calculation. This way, the computation times as well as the disk space requirements can be reduced. With the “bumping” scheme several new parameters are introduced that regulate the amount of “bumping” and thereby the speed and the accuracy of computations. To determine useful values for the parameters an evaluation is performed using the linear polyene octatetraene as test molecule. From the evaluation an optimal set of parameter values is obtained, so that the computation times become minimal, while the errors in the excitation energies due to the “bumping” do not exceed 0.15 eV. With further calculations on various molecules of different sizes it is tested if these parameter values are universal, i.e. if they can be used for all molecules. The test calculations show that the errors in the excitation energies are below 0.15 eV for all test systems. Additionally, no trend is visible for the errors that their magnitude might depend on the system. In contrast, the amount of disregarded contributions in the calculations increases drastically with growing system size. Thus, the local variant of ADC(2) can be used in future to reliably calculate excited states of systems which are not accessible with conventional ADC(2).
In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei verschiedenen Hämostasedefekten eine unterschiedliche Aktivierung des Gerinnungssystems besteht. So wiesen Personen mit heterozygoter Prothrombin-Mutation (G20210A) eine massiv erhöhte Thrombinbildung auf, während sie in den üblichen Globaltests (Prothrombinzeit (PT) und aktivierte partielle Thromboplastinzeit (aPTT)) und der Thrombinzeit (TZ) nicht pathologisch waren. Bei Personen mit reaktiv aktiviertem Gerinnungssystem war ebenfalls eine erhöhte Thrombinbildung nachweisbar, zudem war die aPTT verkürzt. Dagegen zeigten Personen mit Antiphospholipidsyndrom und Personen mit heterozygoter/homozygoter FV-Leiden-Mutation eine leicht gesteigerte Thrombinbildung, ferner waren die anderen plasmatischen Tests (PT, aPTT, TZ), außer der Lupus-Antikoagulans-sensitiven aPTT, unauffällig. In dieser Arbeit wurde mit dem Thrombingenerierungstest (TGT) eine Methode etabliert und evaluiert, um die in-vitro Wirksamkeit neuer Antithrombotika auf die Blutgerinnung zu untersuchen. Die verwendeten Antithrombotika repräsentieren 3 Klassen oral applizierbarer, niedermolekularer Substanzen: 1. Thrombininhibitoren (Dabigatran und Melagatran) 2. FXa-Inhibitoren (Rivaroxaban und Apixaban) 3. Duale Thrombin/FXa-Inhibitoren (BR4965 und BR4966) Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass Antithrombotika je nach Wirkmechanismus (FXa-Hemmung, Thrombinhemmung oder duale Thrombin/FXa-Hemmung) unterschiedliche Effekte auf die TGT-Parameter ETP (endogenes Thrombinpotential) und PEAK (größte Thrombinbildungsgeschwindigkeit) haben. Während der PEAK gut geeignet war, die antihämostatische Wirkung von selektiven FXa-Inhibitoren abzubilden, wurde das ETP durch die FXa-Inhibitoren nicht so stark beeinflusst, insbesondere in plättchenarmen Plasma (PPP). Im Gegensatz dazu hatten die selektiven Thrombininhibitoren eine gute dosisabhängige Wirkung auf das ETP, jedoch keine auf den PEAK. Mehr noch wurde für Inhibitoren mit thrombinhemmender Komponente beobachtet, dass sie den PEAK der Thrombinbildung erhöhen statt reduzieren, wenn sie in niedrigen Konzentrationen zugegeben wurden. Dieses Phänomen war umso stärker ausgeprägt, je höher die Thrombinselektivität der Substanz war. Erwartungsgemäß zeigten die beiden dualen Thrombin/FXa-Inhibitoren sowohl Eigenschaften von FXa-Inhibitoren, als auch von selektiven Thrombininhibitoren, wobei die Substanz BR4965 in ihrer Wirkung eher den FXa-Inhibitoren ähnelte und BR4966 eher den selektiven Thrombininhibitoren. In PPP und PRP (plättchenreichem Plasma) von Personen mit aktiviertem Gerinnungssystem (heterozygote/homozygote FV-Leiden Mutation, heterozygote Prothrombin-Mutation oder reaktiv aktiviertes Gerinnungssystem) zeigten die Antithrombotika ähnliche Effekte auf die Thrombinbildung wie bei gesunden Probanden. Lediglich in PRP von Patienten mit Antiphospholipidsyndrom verursachten die Inhibitoren eine stärkere Hemmung der Thrombinbildung, insbesondere die FXa-Hemmer. Der Einfluss des FXa-Inhibitors Rivaroxaban auf die PT erwies sich als dosisabhängig und korreliert eng mit dem Plasmaspiegel, so dass mit diesem Globaltest ein einfacher Monitoring-Test zur Verfügung steht. Es ist aber zu beachten, dass die PT in Sekunden abgelesen werden muss, denn nur für eine Ablesung in Sekunden, aber nicht in % (= Quick-Wert) ergab sich eine enge Korrelation mit den Plasmaspiegeln. Für das Monitoring von selektiven Thrombininhibitoren wie Dabigatran war die aPTT besser geeignet. Die Heparin-induzierte Thrombozytopenie Typ II (HIT Typ II) ist eine schwerwiegende Komplikation der Heparin-Therapie. Daher wurde untersucht, ob die neu entwickelten Antithrombotika auch das Risiko für die Enstehung einer HIT Typ II bergen. Hierzu wurde auf Basis der Thrombinbildung ein Testsystem entwickelt, in dem gezeigt wurde, dass Plättchenfaktor 4 (PF4) die gerinnungshemmende Aktivität von Heparinen, aber nicht die der neuen Antithrombotika neutralisiert. Hieraus ist zu schließen, dass PF4 an Heparine binden kann, aber nicht an die neuen Antithrombotika. Folglich sollte das Risiko einer HIT Typ II unter den neuen Antithrombotika gering sein, da hierfür zunächst Antikörper an den Komplex aus PF4 und Heparin (bzw. PF4/Antithrombotikum) binden müssen. Abschließend wurde der Einfluss der neuen Inhibitoren auf die Ausbildung der Thrombozyten- Leukozyten-Aggregate untersucht, da bei akuten thromboembolischen Ereignissen (z.B. Herzinfarkt) erhöhte Werte von Thrombozyten-Leukozyten-Aggregaten nachgewiesen wurden. Alle untersuchten Substanzen hatten eine inihibitorische Wirkung auf die Ausbildung der Thrombozyten-Leukozyten-Aggregate, wobei der hemmende Effekt umso stärker ausgeprägt war, je höher die Thrombinselektivität des Inhibitors war. In dieser Arbeit wurde mit dem Thrombingenerierungstest (TGT) eine Methode etabliert und evaluiert, um die in-vitro Wirksamkeit neuer Antithrombotika auf die Blutgerinnung zu untersuchen. Die verwendeten Antithrombotika repräsentieren 3 Klassen oral applizierbarer, niedermolekularer Substanzen: 1. Thrombininhibitoren (Dabigatran und Melagatran) 2. FXa-Inhibitoren (Rivaroxaban und Apixaban) 3. Duale Thrombin/FXa-Inhibitoren (BR4965 und BR4966) Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass Antithrombotika je nach Wirkmechanismus (FXa-Hemmung, Thrombinhemmung oder duale Thrombin/FXa-Hemmung) unterschiedliche Effekte auf die TGT-Parameter ETP (endogenes Thrombinpotential) und PEAK (größte Thrombinbildungsgeschwindigkeit) haben. Während der PEAK gut geeignet war, die antihämostatische Wirkung von selektiven FXa-Inhibitoren abzubilden, wurde das ETP durch die FXa-Inhibitoren nicht so stark beeinflusst, insbesondere in plättchenarmen Plasma (PPP). Im Gegensatz dazu hatten die selektiven Thrombininhibitoren eine gute dosisabhängige Wirkung auf das ETP, jedoch keine auf den PEAK. Mehr noch wurde für Inhibitoren mit thrombinhemmender Komponente beobachtet, dass sie den PEAK der Thrombinbildung erhöhen statt reduzieren, wenn sie in niedrigen Konzentrationen zugegeben wurden. Dieses Phänomen war umso stärker ausgeprägt, je höher die Thrombinselektivität der Substanz war. Erwartungsgemäß zeigten die beiden dualen Thrombin/FXa-Inhibitoren sowohl Eigenschaften von FXa-Inhibitoren, als auch von selektiven Thrombininhibitoren, wobei die Substanz BR4965 in ihrer Wirkung eher den FXa-Inhibitoren ähnelte und BR4966 eher den selektiven Thrombininhibitoren. In PPP und PRP (plättchenreichem Plasma) von Personen mit aktiviertem Gerinnungssystem (heterozygote/homozygote FV-Leiden Mutation, heterozygote Prothrombin-Mutation oder reaktiv aktiviertes Gerinnungssystem) zeigten die Antithrombotika ähnliche Effekte auf die Thrombinbildung wie bei gesunden Probanden. Lediglich in PRP von Patienten mit Antiphospholipidsyndrom verursachten die Inhibitoren eine stärkere Hemmung der Thrombinbildung, insbesondere die FXa-Hemmer. Der Einfluss des FXa-Inhibitors Rivaroxaban auf die PT erwies sich als dosisabhängig und korreliert eng mit dem Plasmaspiegel, so dass mit diesem Globaltest ein einfacher Monitoring-Test zur Verfügung steht. Es ist aber zu beachten, dass die PT in Sekunden abgelesen werden muss, denn nur für eine Ablesung in Sekunden, aber nicht in % (= Quick-Wert) ergab sich eine enge Korrelation mit den Plasmaspiegeln. Für das Monitoring von selektiven Thrombininhibitoren wie Dabigatran war die aPTT besser geeignet. Die Heparin-induzierte Thrombozytopenie Typ II (HIT Typ II) ist eine schwerwiegende Komplikation der Heparin-Therapie. Daher wurde untersucht, ob die neu entwickelten Antithrombotika auch das Risiko für die Enstehung einer HIT Typ II bergen. Hierzu wurde auf Basis der Thrombinbildung ein Testsystem entwickelt, in dem gezeigt wurde, dass Plättchenfaktor 4 (PF4) die gerinnungshemmende Aktivität von Heparinen, aber nicht die der neuen Antithrombotika neutralisiert. Hieraus ist zu schließen, dass PF4 an Heparine binden kann, aber nicht an die neuen Antithrombotika. Folglich sollte das Risiko einer HIT Typ II unter den neuen Antithrombotika gering sein, da hierfür zunächst Antikörper an den Komplex aus PF4 und Heparin (bzw. PF4/Antithrombotikum) binden müssen. Abschließend wurde der Einfluss der neuen Inhibitoren auf die Ausbildung der Thrombozyten- Leukozyten-Aggregate untersucht, da bei akuten thromboembolischen Ereignissen (z.B. Herzinfarkt) erhöhte Werte von Thrombozyten-Leukozyten-Aggregaten nachgewiesen wurden. Alle untersuchten Substanzen hatten eine inihibitorische Wirkung auf die Ausbildung der Thrombozyten-Leukozyten-Aggregate, wobei der hemmende Effekt umso stärker ausgeprägt war, je höher die Thrombinselektivität des Inhibitors war.
The title compound, C16H14N2O2, was derived from 1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,3-dione. The molecule is essentially planar (r.m.s. deviation for all non-H atoms = 0.089 Å). Two intramolecular hydrogen bonds stabilize the molecular conformation and one N-H...O hydrogen bond stabilizes the crystal structure. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.003 Å; R factor = 0.035; wR factor = 0.091; data-to-parameter ratio = 9.3.
The title compound, [Fe2(C5H5)2(C24H22BP2)(CO)4][FeCl4]·CHCl3, is an oxidation product of CpFe(CO)2PPh2BH3. One pair of phenyl rings attached to the two different P atoms are almost parallel, as are the other pair [dihedral angles = 8.7 (5) and 8.9 (5)°]. The planes of the two cyclopentadienyl rings are inclined by 26.8 (7)° with respect to each other. The carbonyl groups at each Fe atom are almost perpendicular [C-Fe-C = 92.6 (6) and 94.3 (5)°]. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.019 Å; R factor = 0.112; wR factor = 0.177; data-to-parameter ratio = 16.8.
Geometric parameters of the title compound, C24H20N2O2S, are in the usual ranges. The central heterocycle makes dihedral angles of 41.29 (4) and 72.94 (5)° with the phenyl ring and the methoxyphenyl ring, respectively. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; R factor = 0.038; wR factor = 0.103; data-to-parameter ratio = 14.1.
The title compound, [Re2(OH)(C10H8N2)2(CO)6][ReO4], is a mixed-valence rhenium compound containing discrete anions and cations. The ReI atoms are in a slightly distorted octahedral environment, whereas the ReVII atoms show the typical tetrahedral coordination mode. The dihedral angle between the two bipyridine groups is 34.3 (7)°. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.044 Å; R factor = 0.093; wR factor = 0.262; data-to-parameter ratio = 13.9.
In the title compound, C14H12N2O3, the dihedral angle between the two aromatic rings is 41.48 (5)°. The nitro group is twisted by 24.7 (3)° out of the plane of the aromatic ring to which it is attached. The molecules are connected by N-H...O hydrogen bonds into chains running along the alpha axis. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 273 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.003 Å; R factor = 0.031; wR factor = 0.078; data-to-parameter ratio = 7.7.
Geometric parameters of the title compound, C14H12N2O4, are in the usual ranges. The dihedral angle between the two aromatic rings is 28.9 (1)°. The nitro group is twisted by 40.2 (1)° out of the plane of the aromatic ring to which it is attached. The crystal structure is stabilized by an N-H...O hydrogen bond. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.004 Å; R factor = 0.045; wR factor = 0.111; data-to-parameter ratio = 7.3.
Bromotriphenylsilane
(2008)
The title compound, C18H15BrSi, crystallizes with two almost identical molecules (r.m.s. deviation for all non-H atoms = 0.074 Å) in the asymmetric unit. It is isomorphous with chlorotriphenylsilane. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.010 Å; R factor = 0.095; wR factor = 0.288; data-to-parameter ratio = 17.0.
The complete molecule of the title compound, [Sn(C6H5)2Cl2(C9H21OP)2], is generated by crystallographic inversion symmetry, the Sn atom is located on a special position of site symmetry \overline{1}. The Sn atom adopts an all-trans SnC2O2Cl2 octahedral geometry. As a consequence of the bulky substituents at the O atom, the P-O-Sn bond angle is 163.9 (3)°. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.012 Å; R factor = 0.058; wR factor = 0.099; data-to-parameter ratio = 18.6.
The molecule of the title compound, C14H16N2O2, is located on a crystallographic twofold rotation axis. The central O-C-C-O bridge adopts a gauche conformation. One of the amine H atoms is disordered over two equally occupied positions. The crystal structure is stabilized by N-H...O and N-H...N hydrogen bonds. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; disorder in main residue; R factor = 0.049; wR factor = 0.119; data-to-parameter ratio = 17.9.
In the title compound, C27H16F6N2O6, the nitro groups are almost coplanar with the aromatic rings to which they are attached [dihedral angles = 3.5 (5) and 6.2 (3)°]. The dihedral angles between adjacent aromatic rings are 78.07 (8) and 71.11 (8)° for nitrophenyl/phenyl and 69.50 (8)° for phenyl/phenyl. An intermolecular C-H...[pi] interaction seems to be effective in the stabilization of the structure. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.004 Å; R factor = 0.045; wR factor = 0.092; data-to-parameter ratio = 12.5.