Biochemie und Chemie
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Life and biological resilience rely on the execution of precise gene expression profiles. A key mechanism to ensure cellular homeostasis is the regulation of protein synthesis. Recent studies have unveiled an intrinsic regulatory capacity of ribosomes, previously considered mere executors of mRNA translation. Neurons in particular finely regulate protein synthesis, at both global and local levels. This sustains their complex morphology and allows them to rapidly transmit, integrate, and respond to external stimuli. In this thesis, I investigated the neuronal ribosome and how subcellular environments and physiological perturbations shape it, by profiling its molecular composition, functional interconnections, and cellular distribution.
First, I used genetic engineering, biochemical purification, and mass spectrometry, to characterize in an unbiased manner the translation machinery specifically from excitatory and inhibitory neurons of the mouse cortex. I found that neuronal ribosomes commonly interact with RNA-binding proteins, components of the cytoskeleton, and proteins associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles. In line with the requirement for local protein synthesis in the distal parts of neurons, we observed that neuronal ribosomes preferentially interact with proteins involved in cellular transport. Remarkably, I observed a strong association between ribosomes and pre-synaptic vesicles, which suggests a potential regulatory interaction between local translation and neuronal activity.
Intriguingly, I and others have observed mRNAs encoding for core ribosomal proteins (RPs) among the genes most enriched in neuronal processes. This observation challenges two historical assumptions of ribosome biology: (1) new RPs are incorporated only into newly forming ribosomes, and (2) this incorporation occurs only in the nucleus and perinuclear region. In my PhD, I aimed to directly test these two assumptions and if proven wrong ask whether and why neurons would localize RP mRNAs far from their known assembly site.
Employing a combination of metabolic labeling and highly sensitive mass spectrometry techniques, I discovered that a subset of RPs rapidly and dynamically binds on and off mature ribosomes. Strikingly, this incorporation does not depend on the supply of new ribosomes from the nucleus. Therefore, my data refuted the assumption that ribosomes are built and degraded as a unit and revealed a more dynamic view of these machines, which can actively exchange core components. In particular, I found that the association of certain exchanging RPs is influenced by location (e.g., cell body versus neurites) and cellular state (e.g., post-oxidative stress). Neurons may use this mechanism to repair and/or specialize their protein synthesis machinery in a rapid and context-dependent manner.
Finally, I asked whether some steps of ribosome biogenesis could also take place in distal processes. Although most steps of ribosome assembly occur within the nucleus, the final stages of maturation are known to occur in the cytosol. By combining several imaging and biochemical approaches, I found that cytosolic (but not nuclear) pre-ribosomal particles are present in neuronal processes. Through the incorporation of new RPs into these immature particles, neurons may be able to locally “turn on” previously incompetent ribosomes. This may enable regions near synapses to enhance and customize their translational capacity, independently of the central pool of ribosomes from the cell body. Indeed, I observed that synaptic plasticity induces a maturation of cytosolic pre-ribosomes.
In summary, this thesis shows how neuronal ribosomes can sense cellular states, respond by adjusting their core composition, and in doing so influence the local capacity for protein synthesis. By overturning long-held assumptions in ribosome biology, this work highlights new molecular mechanisms of gene expression and enriches our understanding of the rapid and dynamic strategies cells employ to operate, thrive, and adaptively respond to environmental changes.
Lentiviral vectors mediate gene transfer into dividing and most non-dividing cells. Thereby, they stably integrate the transgene into the host cell genome. For this reason, lentiviral vectors are a promising tool for gene therapy. However, safety and efficiency of lentiviral mediated gene transfer still needs to be optimised. Ideally, cell entry should be restricted to the cell population relevant for a particular therapeutic application. Furthermore, lentiviral vectors able to transduce quiescent lymphocytes are desirable. Although many approaches were followed to engineer retroviral envelope proteins, an effective and universally applicable system for retargeting of lentiviral cell entry is still not available. Just before the experimental work of this thesis was started, retargeting of measles virus (MV) cell entry was achieved. This virus has two types of envelope glycoproteins, the hemagglutinin (H) protein responsible for receptor recognition and the fusion (F) protein mediating membrane fusion. For retargeting, the H protein was mutated in its interaction sites for the native MV receptors and a ligand or a single-chain antibody (scAb) was fused to its ectodomain. It was hypothesised that the retargeting system of MV can be transferred to lentiviral vectors by pseudotyping human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) derived vector particles with the MV glycoproteins. As the unmodified MV glycoproteins did not pseudotype HIV vectors, two F and 15 H protein variants carrying stepwise truncations or amino acid (aa) exchanges in their cytoplasmic tails were screened for their ability to form MV-HIV pseudotypes. The combinations Hcd18/Fcd30, Hcd19/Fcd30 and Hcd24+4A/Fcd30 led to most efficient pseudotype formation with titers above 10exp6 transducing units /ml, using concentrated particles. The F cytoplasmic tail was truncated by 30 aa and the H cytoplasmic tail was truncated by 18, 19 or 24 residues with four added alanines after the start methionine in the latter case. Western blot analysis indicated that particle incorporation of the MV glycoproteins was enhanced upon truncation of their cytoplasmic tails. With the MV-HIV vectors high titers on different cell lines expressing one or both MV receptors were obtained, whereas MV receptor-negative cells remained untransduced. Titers were enhanced using an optimal H to F plasmid ratio (1:7) during vector particle production. Based on the described pseudotyping with the MV glycoprotein variants, HIV vectors retargeted to the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or the B cell surface marker CD20 were generated. For the production of the retargeted vectors MVaEGFR-HIV and MVaCD20-HIV, Fcd30 together with a native receptor blind Hcd18 protein, displaying at its ectodomain either the ligand EGF or a scAb directed against CD20 were used. With these vectors, gene transfer into target receptor-positive cells was several orders of magnitude more efficient than into control cells. The almost complete absence of background transduction of non-target cells was e.g. demonstrated in mixed cell populations, where the CD20-targeting vector selectively eliminated CD20-positive cells upon suicide gene transfer. Remarkably, transduction of activated primary human CD20-positive B cells was much more efficient with the MVaCD20-HIV vector than with the standard pseudotype vector VSV-G-HIV. Even more surprisingly, MVaCD20-HIV vectors were able to transduce quiescent primary human B cells, which until then had been resistant towards lentiviral gene transfer. The most critical step during the production of MV-HIV pseudotypes was the identification of H cytoplasmic tail mutants that allowed pseudotyping while retaining the fusion helper function. In contrast to previously inefficient targeting strategies, the reason for the success of this novel targeting system must be based on the separation of the receptor recognition and fusion functions onto two different proteins. Furthermore, with the CD20-targeting vector transduction of quiescent B cells was demonstrated for the first time. Own data and literature data suggest that CD20 binding and hyper-cross-linking by the vector particles results in calcium influx and thus activation of quiescent B cells. Alternatively this feature may be based on a residual binding activity of the MV glycoproteins to the native MV receptors that is insufficient for entry but induces cytoskeleton rearrangements dissolving the post-entry block of HIV vectors. Hence, in this thesis efficient retargeting of lentiviral vectors and transduction of quiescent cells was combined. This novel targeting strategy should be easily adaptable to many other target molecules by extending the modified MV H protein with appropriate specific domains or scAbs. It should now be possible to tailor lentiviral vectors for highly selective gene transfer into any desired target cell population with an unprecedented degree of efficiency.
Identifizierung neuer Bindungspartner von Gephyrin, einem Strukturprotein inhibitorischer Synapsen
(2002)
Synapsen sind spezialisierte Zellkontakte, die der Kommunikation von Nervenzellen dienen. Für eine effiziente Signalübertragung ist es erforderlich, daß an diesem Prozeß beteiligte Proteine präzise und in hoher Dichte an der Synapse angereichert vorliegen. Die selektive Akkumulation von Glyzinrezeptoren sowie der verbreitetesten GABAARezeptoren an inhibitorischen Synapsen wird durch das periphere Membranprotein Gephyrin vermittelt. Gephyrin bindet direkt an die β-Untereinheit des Glyzinrezeptors und kann diesen vermittels seiner Affinität zu polymerisiertem Tubulin am Zytoskelett verankern. Um mehr über die Rolle dieses Proteins in der Entwicklung und Funktion von inhibitorischen Synapsen zu erfahren, sollten in der vorliegenden Arbeit neue Interaktionspartner von Gephyrin identifiziert werden. Hierzu wurde das Zwei-Hybrid-System in Saccharomyces cerevisiae zur Analyse einer cDNA-Bank aus dem Gehirn von Ratten verwendet. Dies resultierte in der Sequenzaufklärung von 24 potentiellen Gephyrin-bindenden Proteinen. Von diesen erwiesen sich vier in einem weiteren Bindungsexperiment als positiv und kommen daher als hochaffine Interaktionspartner in Frage. Es handelte sich um die eng verwandten Dynein light chains-1 und -2 (Dlc-1/-2), den Natrium-Kalzium-Austauscher NCX2 und ein Fragment eines bisher unbekannten Proteins, das nicht weiter untersucht wurde. Im Einklang mit einer möglichen Interaktion zwischen NCX2 und Gephyrin gelang es zu zeigen, daß NCX2 sowie das verwandte Protein NCX3 in neuronalen Primärkulturen an inhibitorischen Synapsen mit Gephyrin-Immunreaktivität kolokalisierten. Der Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit lag in der Untersuchung der Interaktion zwischen Gephyrin und Dlc-1/-2. Die Bindedomäne von Gephyrin für Dlc-1/-2 konnte auf den Bereich von Aminosäuren 181-243 eingegrenzt werden, und eine Gephyrinmutante ohne dieses Bindemotiv wies keine Affinität zu Dlc-1/-2 auf. Sowohl endogenes als auch rekombinant exprimiertes Dlc-Protein kolokalisierte mit aus der Überexpression in HEK-Zellen resultierenden zytosolischen Gephyrinaggregaten. Weiter gelang die Coimmunpräzipitation von Komplexen aus Gephyrin und Dlc-1/-2 aus transfizierten HEK-Zellen, und bakteriell exprimierte GST-Fusionsproteine von Dlc-1 bzw. Gephyrin reicherten den jeweils anderen Bindungspartner aus Hirnextrakt an. In neuronalen Primärkulturen waren Dlc-Proteine zu großen Anteilen zytoplasmatisch lokalisiert, darüberhinaus jedoch in Abhängigkeit von der Zelldichte an inhibitorischen Synapsen angereichert. Dlc-1/-2 sind Komponenten der Motorproteinkomplexe Dynein und Myosin-Va, in welchen sie möglicherweise als Adapter für zu transportierende Lasten dienen. Es ist daher denkbar, daß Gephyrin über Dlc-1/-2 mit einem aktiven Transportprozess verbunden wird. Zur Untersuchung dieser Frage wurden EGFP-epitopmarkierte Gephyrinproteine in hippokampalen Neuronen exprimiert und auf ihre subzelluläre Lokalisation untersucht. Sowohl EGFP-Gephyrin als auch die Deletionsmutante ohne Dlc-Bindemotiv waren zuverlässig an inhibitorischen Synapsen angereichert, ein Lokalisationsdefekt aufgrund fehlender Dlc-Bindung wurde nicht beobachtet. Dieses Ergebnis spricht gegen eine essentielle Rolle von Dlc-1/-2 und möglicherweise assoziierten Motorproteinen im Transport von Gephyrin zur Synapse. Aktiver Transport kann jedoch andere Funktionen im Zusammenhang mit der subzellulären Lokalisation von Gephyrin haben, wie etwa im retrograden Transport zum Zellkörper des Neurons. Diese Frage wird in weiteren Experimenten zu untersuchen sein.
Singlet oxygen (1Δg) was generated by a microwave discharge and bubbled through a solution of chlorophyll-a in dibutylphtalate at approximately 10-20 torr. It not only excited the dye to its first singlet state but also produced oxidized species which generated a very long lasting weak chemiluminescence. From quenching experiments for the generation of the excited species could computer simulation.
Die Schmelztemperaturen und Schmelzenthalpien verschiedener homologer und isomerer Reihen zeigen Alternanzverhalten. In einem Vergleich von über 140 Datenreihen wurde versucht, einen möglichen Zusammenhang von Molekülstruktureigenschaften und dem Auftreten von Alternanzen der genannten physikalischen Eigenschaften darzulegen.
In dieser Arbeit wird auf die Herkunft, Entwicklung und Verbreitung der Pfeilgiftfrösche (Dendrobatiden) Mittel- und Südamerikas eingegangen. Ebenso werden die Gewinnung, Verwendung, Strukturaufklärung und Wirkmechanismen der Pfeilgifte erklärt. Der Hauptteil befasst sich mit der biologischen und chemischen Synthese ausgewählter Pfeilgiftfroschtoxine (Pumiliotoxine, Histrionicotoxin). Eine Auflistung und Erläuterung aller innerhalb der Synthesen verwendeten Names- und Schlüsselreaktionen ist ebenfalls vorhanden.
The five-membered ring of the title compound, C10H14NO, is almost planar [mean deviation from best plane = 0.006 (1) Å]. The N-O bond is in the plane of the five-membered ring. The molecule is positioned about a pseudo-mirror plane at y = 0.375. In the crystal, molecules are connected by intermolecular C-H...O contacts into layers parallel to (010). Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 167 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; R factor = 0.062; wR factor = 0.157; data-to-parameter ratio = 27.3.
One of the most important tasks in chemistry and especially in structural biology has always been the elucidation of three-dimensional molecular structures - either of small molecules or large biopolymers. Among the (bio)physical methods to acquire structural data at atomic resolution electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is the most valuable technique for obtaining structural information about many different kinds of paramagnetic species. In biological systems, either paramagnetic metal ions/clusters, transient paramagnetic intermediates in electron transfer processes or artificially attached stable spin labels can be found. The usual approach to interpret EPR spectra is to perform simulations based on the so-called spin Hamiltonian (SH). This means that the well-defined numerical parameters (tensors) in the SH representing different types of interaction are obtained by fitting the experimental data. The SH parameters include electronic g-values, hyperfine coupling (HFC) and quadrupole coupling (&C) constants, zero-field splittings and constants to describe exchange and dipolar interactions between electron spin systems. However, since the SH only contains spin degrees of freedom, a direct translation of the SH EPR parameters into structural information is not straightforward. Therefore, methods to predict such SH interaction parameters starting from molecular structures are required. In this thesis it was investigated whether quantum chemical calculations of EPR parameters based on density functional theory (DFT) methods may be employed to overcome these problems thus enabling a correlation of experimental EPR data with molecular structure. It was the central goal of this work to point out the potential of a fruitful interplay between quantum chemistry and experiment and to study how both can benefit from each other. For this purpose DFT methods were applied to a variety of organic radical or transition metal systems to calculate different EPR parameters. Using the 'broken symmetry' formalism it was possible to compute the exchange coupling constant for a nitroxide biradical and furthermore decompose the exchange mechanism in different through-bond and through-space interactions. Spin density distributions, 14N and 1H HFC constants as well as dipole moments and polarizabilities were computed for a number of aromatic nitroxides to examine their properties and select promising candidates which may serve as DNA-intercalating spin labels. Systematic investigations of the influence of hydrogen bond geometry on the 14N QC parameters for imidazole-water and methylimidazole-benzosemiquinone complexes lead to the conclusion that especially the imidazole amino nitrogen &C parameters are very sensitive probes of the bond geometry, in particular of the hydrogen bond length. The results of this study may be applied to biological systems, e.g. to gain structural information about quinone binding sites. Moreover, quantum chemical methods were applied to elucidate the structure of a nitrogen-centered radical intermediate in the inhibition process of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR). It was possible to find a molecular structure in accordance with all experimentally available data, thus revealing the longsought structure of the No radical and providing evidence for the trapping of a 3'-ketonucleotide in the reduction process catalyzed by RNR. To test the capability of modern DFT methods to predict g- and molybdenum HFC tensors for MoV complexes, validation studies were carried out. Comparison of computed EPR parameters of a number of MoV compounds with corresponding experimental values showed that g- and HFC tensors could be predicted in good accuracy, although some systematic errors of the computational methods have to be considered for such heavy 4d1 transition meta1 systems. Furthermore, DFT calculations on a Mn2+ binding site model of the hammerhead ribozyme allowed to conclude that the structure of the binding site as studied by EPR spectroscopy in frozen solution is very likely to be identical to the site found occupied by Mn2+ in crystals. Finally, computational methods were employed to aid in the structural characterization of the Mn2+ binding site in Ras (rat sarcoma protein) by providing accurate starting parameters for spectral simulations and furthermore helping to interpret the experimental data. In conclusion, it was demonstrated in this thesis that the combination of sophisticated experimental and quantum chemical methods represents a powerful approach in the field of EPR spectroscopy and that it may be essential to employ EPR parameter computations to extract the full information content from EPR spectra. Therefore, great potential lies in future applications of DFT methods to the large number of systems where detailed and reliable experimental data is available but where an unequivocal correlation of these data with structural information is still lacking.
Studies on the transport of anions and zwitterions of acidic amino acids in Streptomyces hydrogenans
(1983)
n Streptomyces hydrogenans, acidic amino acfds are taken up either as anions by a specific transport system or as zwitterions via a nonspecific one. Variations in the zwitterion concentration caused by changes in pH influence the uptake and exchange diffusion by the nonspecific system. Differences in pH-optima for ʟ-glutamate and ʟ-aspartate transport are due to the different pK2-values of these amino acids. The anion transport by the specific system is accompanied by a short hyperpolarization of the membrane potential followed by a secondary influx of potassium ions into the cells.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde einerseits der Einsatz lichtaktivierbarer Oligonukleotide zur Kontrolle der Leitfähigkeit entlang von DNA untersucht sowie neue photoaktivierbare Verbindungen für die Peptidchemie und für eine neu entwickelte Variante des SELEX (Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponetial enrichment) Verfahrens synthetisiert.
DNA vermittelte Ladungsübertragung verläuft entlang des gestapelten π-Systems der heteroaromatischen Nukleobasen. Die Leitfähigkeit von Oligonukleotiden reagiert daher empfindlich auf Störungen in der Watson-Crick-Basenpaarung. Die in der Arbeitsgruppe Heckel etablierte Technik, Nukleobasen an für die Basenpaarung relevanten Positionen mit photolabilen Schutzgruppen zu modifizieren, sollte daher mit Systemen der Ladungsübertragung in DNA kombiniert werden. Im Verlauf dieses Projekts wurden zwei literaturbekannte Varianten, in denen Ladungstransport über einen lichtinduzierten Redoxprozess zwischen Metallkomplexen ablaufen und über eine dabei unterdrückte Fluoreszenz optisch verfolgt werden sollte, als ungeeignete Systeme identifiziert. Durch den Wechsel zu elektrodengestützter Leitfähigkeitsmessung konnte der prinzipielle Effekt von Leitfähigkeit in perfekt gepaarter DNA und deutlich reduziertem Stromfluss in Oligonukleotiden mit Fehlpaarungen gezeigt werden. Beim Einsatz photolabil geschützter Oligonukleotide konnte jedoch auch in diesem System noch nicht der gewünschte Effekt gefunden werden.
Im zweiten Projekt dieser Arbeit wurden neue photolabile Verbindungen hergestellt, die Peptide nach ihrem Einbau in das Peptidrückgrat durch Zwei-Photonen-Anregung mit IR-Licht spalten sollen. Drei entsprechende Nitrodibenzofuran-Verbindungen und ein Cumarin-Baustein konnten erfolgreich synthetisiert werden. Die neuen Moleküle zeigten im Rahmen der Peptid-Festphasensynthese Stabilitätsprobleme. Diese Schwierigkeiten konnten durch Peptid-Kopplungen in Lösung umgangen werden. Mit Hilfe eines der hergestellten Bausteine wurden zwei Tripeptide hergestellt, die jeweils mit dem Farbstoff ATTO565 markiert und hinsichtlich ihrer photochemischen Eigenschaften charakterisiert wurden. Der neue Baustein zeigte neben den Eigenschaften als photospaltbare Gruppe, dass er gleichzeitig ein Quencher für den Farbstoff ATTO565 darstellt. Nach Belichtung stieg die Fluoreszenz um den Faktor 81 an. Die Aktivierung gelang wie erwartet mit Ein- und Zwei-Photonen-Anregung. In Kollaboration mit der Arbeitsgruppe von Prof. Heilemann konnten Antiköper mit einem der Tripeptide modifiziert werden und die Kompatibilität der Verbindung mit hochaufgelöster Einzelmolekül-Fluoreszenzmikroskopie demonstriert werden.
Im letzten in dieser Arbeit thematisierten Projekt wurden neue lichtspaltbare Verbindungen für eine Variante des SELEX-Prozesses hergestellt. Diese Verbindungen erlauben die temporäre Einführung einer Indol Modifikation an Alkin-modifizierte Oligonukleotide über die sogenannte Click-Chemie. Neue chemische Modifikationen wie die hier verwendeten Indole erhöhen die chemische Vielfalt der Oligonukleotide. Eine größere Vielfalt führt zu neuen potentiellen Wechselwirkungen gegenüber Verbindungen, gegen die mit Hilfe herkömmlicher SELEX-Verfahren keine Aptamere erzeugt werden konnten. Da die chemische Modifikation über eine photolabile Gruppe an die Oligonukleotide gebunden wird, kann sie photochemisch von der DNA gespalten werden, wodurch eine Interferenz der Modifikation mit den enzymatisch katalysierten Schritten innerhalb der SELEX ausgeschlossen werden kann.