Biochemie und Chemie
Refine
Year of publication
Document Type
- Article (1112)
- Doctoral Thesis (728)
- Book (46)
- Preprint (32)
- Contribution to a Periodical (14)
- Conference Proceeding (11)
- Report (11)
- Review (9)
- diplomthesis (3)
- Part of a Book (2)
Has Fulltext
- yes (1974)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (1974)
Keywords
- crystal structure (37)
- Crystal Structure (25)
- Synthesis (15)
- ESR Spectra (14)
- RNA (14)
- NMR-Spektroskopie (12)
- hydrogen bonding (11)
- IR Spectra (10)
- NMR spectroscopy (10)
- RNS (9)
Institute
- Biochemie und Chemie (1974)
- Medizin (83)
- Exzellenzcluster Makromolekulare Komplexe (68)
- Biowissenschaften (64)
- Präsidium (64)
- Zentrum für Biomolekulare Magnetische Resonanz (BMRZ) (63)
- Pharmazie (52)
- MPI für Biophysik (49)
- Sonderforschungsbereiche / Forschungskollegs (48)
- Georg-Speyer-Haus (22)
Im Rahmen einer genomumfassenden Suche nach biologisch aktiven Proviren des Typs HERV-K konnten insgesamt zwei Genorte den humanen Chromosomen C7 bzw. C19 zugeordnet werden. Beide Proviren weisen ORF für die retroviralen Gene gag, pol und env auf. Während der Genort HERV-K(C19) infolge eine Punktmutation ein defektes Proteasegen trägt und durch eine Deletion der 5´LTR transkriptionell inaktiv ist, besitzt der Genort HERV- K(C7) zwei intakte LTRs, deren Homologiegrad auf ein phylogenetisch junges Alter hindeutet. Mit Ausnahme eines Aminosäureaustausches innerhalb eines hochkonservierten Sequenzmotivs der reversen Transkriptase, der den Verlust der enzymatischen Aktivität zur Folge hat, kann der Genort HERV-K(C7) als das derzeit intakteste Provirus der Familie HERV-K angesehen werden. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit sprechen für eine HTDV- Partikelproduktion durch Komplementation unterschiedlicher Genorte und gegen die Existenz eines funktionellen und vermehrungsfähigen HERV-K Provirus mit allen retroviralen Charakteristika im menschlichen Genom. Desweiteren wurden mit HERV-K10 und HERV-K18 zwei bekannte Vertreter der Familie HERV-K eingehend untersucht. Zusätzlich zu der chromosomalen Zuordnung der Proviren gelang der experimentelle Nachweis eines intakten gag Genes für HERV-K10. Für HERV- K18 konnten ausgeprägte Homologien zu dem Superantigen-kodierenden Provirus IDDMK1,222 festgestellt werden. Bei den in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Klonen pPERV-B(33), pPERV-A(42) und pPERV- B(43) handelt es sich um die ersten intakten Proviren der xenotropen Klassen PERV-A und PERV-B. Die vollständige Sequenzierung ermöglichte eine eingehende molekularbiologische Charakterisierung dieser C-Typ Viren. Computergestützt konnte eine PBS für eine tRNAGly4 sowie das Polyadenylierungssignal identifiziert werden. Der Sequenzvergleich offenbarte ein repetitives 39 bp Motiv, welches in unterschiedlicher Anzahl in den jeweiligen LTRs vorzufinden ist. Experimentell wurden der Transkriptionsstart und die verwendeten Spleißstellen identifiziert. Durch Rekombination konnten die molekularen Klone pPERV- B(33)/ATG und pPERV-B(43)/LTR generiert werden, die nach Transfektion in 293 Zellen zur Produktion infektiöser Partikel führten, welche sich seriell passagieren liessen. Mit Kenntnis der Genomorganisation und der RNA Expressionscharakteristika von PERV wurde eine RT PCR Virusdiagnostik etabliert mit deren Hilfe hochsensitiv differentiell PERV-A und PERV-B Transkripte detektiert werden können.
Small molecule inhibitors sensitize neuroblastoma cells for chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis
(2015)
Neuroblastoma (NB) is one of the most common solid extracranial pediatric tumors, deriving from undifferentiated cells of the peripheral nervous system. It accounts for approximately 10% of all childhood cancers. High stage tumors usually show poor prognosis despite aggressive treatment such as radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to find novel treatment strategies in order to improve existing chemotherapy protocols. Combination treatment offers advantages, as chemotherapeutic drugs can be applied in low and subtoxic doses, reducing possible side-effects. Here, we report in a two-part study that small molecule inhibitors (SMI), namely BI 2536, a PLK1 inhibitor and BV6, a SMAC mimetic (SM), sensitize neuroblastoma cells for chemotherapeutic drug-induced cell death. By using i) BI 2536 in combination with vinca alkaloids and ii) BV6 in combination with either doxorubicin or vinca alkaloids, we show that cell death is synergistically enhanced compared to monotherapy. Furthermore, combination treatment significantly reduces survival of NB cells in long-term assays, compared to single treatment. We identify that vinca alkaloid/SMI combinations induce mitotic arrest, as shown by phosphorylation of histone H3, which results in the induction of intrinsic apoptosis and inhibition of CDK1 by RO-3306 could abolish these findings. Mechanistically, upon vinca alkaloid/SMI-induced mitotic arrest, anti-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins such as MCL-1, BCL-2 or BCL-XL are degraded or inactivated by phosphorylation, which induces the activation of the proapoptotic BCL-2 family proteins BAX and BAK. The importance of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in vinca alkaloid/SMI-induced cell death was further highlighted by the fact that ectopic expression of BCL-2 inhibits vinca alkaloid/SMI-induced DNA fragmentation and BAK- and caspase-activation. In contrast to the vinca alkaloid/SMI cotreatment, DOX/SMI (DOX/BV6)-induced apoptosis only partially involves the mitochondrial pathway. Instead, we clarify that RIP1 is required for DOX/BV6-induced apoptosis, as pharmacological and genetic inhibition of RIP1 rescues from apoptosis induction. Although it has been shown in previous studies that SM-treatment (e.g. BV6) can induce the NF-κB pathway and auto-/paracrine TNFα production through cIAP1/2 depletion, DOX/BV6-induced apoptosis is completely independent of NF-κB activation in our setting, despite fast cIAP1 depletion. This conclusion is based on the fact that inhibition of the NF-κB pathway by exogenously expressed dominant-negative IκBα as well as application of a TNFα blocking antibody does not reduce DOX/BV6-induced cell death. In summary, we unravel two new promising treatment strategies for neuroblastoma patients by using a combination treatment of two different small molecule inhibitors, combined with well-characterized chemotherapeutic agents. Furthermore we give detailed insights into cell death pathways induced by these combination treatments, in which mitochondria and RIP1 have a differential role in chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis.
The title compound, C15H25N5, is an aminalization product between 2,6-diacetylpyridine and 1,3-diaminopropane. It crystallizes with two independent molecules in the asymmetric unit with different conformations. In the first molecule, the methyl groups are cis oriented with respect to the pyridine ring [N—C—C—C torsion angles = 72.5 (1) and 80.3 (1)°], while they are trans oriented in the second molecule [N—C—C—C torsion angles = 82.6 (1) and -90.8 (1)°]. Each of the two molecules forms centrosymmetric dimers held together by N—H[cdots, three dots, centered]N hydrogen bonds, thus forming R 2 2(16) rings. The two dimers are interlinked by additional N—H[cdots, three dots, centered]N bonds into R 4 4(14) rings, building chains along the a axis. These patterns influence the orientation (either equatorial or axial) of the N—H bonds.
Crystals of the title compound, C12H8N2·C7H8O2, were obtained during cocrystallization experiments of a compound with two hydrogen-bond donors (2-hydroxybenzyl alcohol) with another compound containing two hydrogen-bond acceptors (phenanthroline). Unexpectedly, the two molecules do not form dimers with two O—H ... N hydrogen bonds connecting the two molecules. However, one of the hydroxy groups forms a bifurcated hydrogen bond to both phenanthroline N atoms, whereas the other hydroxy group forms an O—H ... O hydrogen bond to a symmetry-equivalent 2-hydroxybenzyl alcohol molecule. In addition, the crystal packing is stabilized by Pi – Pi interactions between the two phenanthroline ring systems, with a centroid–centroid distance of 3.570 Å.
In the crystal of the title compound [systematic name: 2-(3,5-diamino-6-chloropyrazin-2-ylcarbonyl)guanidinium chloride methanol disolvate], C6H9ClN7O+·Cl-·2CH3OH , the components are connected by N—H ... N, N—H ... Cl, N—H ... O, O—H ... Cl and O—H ... O hydrogen bonds into a three-dimensional network. The dihedral angle between the aromatic ring and the guanidine residue is 6.0 (2)°.
The title compound, C6H5NO2·C6H6O2, crystallizes with one pyridinium-2-carboxylate zwitterion and one molecule of benzene-1,2-diol in the asymmetric unit. The crystal structure is characterized by alternating molecules forming zigzag chains running along the a axis: the molecules are connected by O—H ... O and N—H ... (O,O) hydrogen bonds.
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Synthese von nicht-kovalenten supramolekularen Komplexen, um nachfolgend aus den Kristallstrukturen dieser Verbindungen bessere Einsichten über die H-Brückenwechselwirkungen zwischen den organischen Molekülen zu erlangen. Um an dieses Ziel zu kommen, wurde ein Konzept zur gezielten Synthese von supramolekularen Komplexen entwickelt. Die Steuerung des Co-Kristallisationsprozesses ist keine einfache Aufgabe, deshalb darf der Verlauf einer solchen Synthese von nicht-kovalenten Verbindungen nicht einfach dem Zufall überlassen werden. Der Start erfolgt mit einer gründlichen Auswahl der Verbindungen durch Intuition mit Hilfsmitteln (Chemikalienkataloge und chemische Datenbanken). In einem Selektionsabschnitt werden chemische Datenbanken, analytische Methoden und rechnergestützte Programme zu Hilfe genommen. Aussichtsreiche Kandidaten werden mit dem Programm SUPRA getestet; so zeigt sich, ob das gewünschte H-Brückenmuster prinzipiell realisierbar ist. Auch die verschiedenen Vorproben zum Test auf H-Brücken gebundene Komplexe (siehe Kapitel 8 und 9) liefern wertvolle Informationen. Mit den so ausgewählten Kandidaten wurden schließlich Kristallisationsversuche angesetzt. Falls möglich können Strukturvorhersagen der jeweiligen Komplexe mit Hilfe von Strukturvorhersageprogrammen getroffen werden (siehe Kapitel 7). Die erhaltenen Co-Kristalle werden anschließend am Einkristalldiffraktometer gemessen und darauf folgend die Kristallstrukturen gelöst. Um die Reaktionsbedingungen zur Bildung von bestimmten supramolekularen Komplexen kontrollieren zu können, wurden die Gitterenergie des Komplexes berechnet und die Schmelzpunkte bestimmt. Mit Kenntnis der Gitterenergie des Komplexes, der Edukte bzw. der Pseudokomplexe kann die Reaktionsbedingung so eingestellt werden, dass nur eine bestimmte Verbindung bei einer vorgegebenen Reaktionsbedingung auskristallisiert. Der Einfluss bzw. die Auswahl von Lösungsmitteln darf bei Co-Kristallisationsprozessen nicht vernachlässigt werden. Der erste Abschnitt dieser Arbeit befasst sich mit der Synthese von supramolekularen Komplexen aus Komponenten, die ausschließlich zwei Protonen-Akzeptoren bzw. zwei Protonen-Donoren (AA-DD-Muster) beinhalten. Die fehlgeschlagenen Experimenten passen zur Trefferquote dieser Verbindungsklasse in der CSD. Der Grund für diesen Misserfolg ist grundsätzlich auf die geometrische Anordnung der freien Elektronenpaare der Akzeptoren zurückzuführen. Sind Sauerstoffatome an solchen H-Brückenmustern als H-Akzeptoren beteiligt, ist es oft nicht möglich, eine lineare Anordnung der H-Donorengruppe mit diesen Sauerstoffatomen als Akzeptoren zu bewerkstelligen. Nach erfolglosen Bemühungen wandten wir uns Verbindungen zu, die mindestens drei Akzeptoren bzw. Donoren im jeweiligen Molekül aufweisen. Für dieses Experiment wurden zunächst starre, kleine organische Moleküle ausgesucht. Das AAA-DDD-Muster konnte im gesamten Verlauf dieser Arbeit nicht hergestellt werden. Es ist nicht leicht, eine Verbindung zu synthetisieren, bei der alle H-Akzeptorgruppen auf einer Seite benachbart angeordnet sind. Eine Literaturaussage, dass Verbindungen mit dem AAA-DDD-Muster die stabilsten aller dreifach gebildeten Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen sind, konnte daher nicht experimentell verifiziert werden. Unsere Gruppe hat daraufhin versucht, die bekannten H-Brückenmuster aus den Watson-Crick-Basenpaarungen (AAD-DDA) sowie das ADA-DAD-Muster nachzuahmen. Nur mit dem Muster ADA-DAD konnten Erfolge erzielt werden. Die entsprechenden Komplexe konnten nicht nur erfolgreich synthetisiert, sondern auch durch die Einführung sterisch anspruchsvoller Substituenten die Bildung von unerwünschten Wasserstoffbrückenmustern gezielt verhindert werden. Nachdem die Synthese von zahlreichen Komplexen gelang, sind wir zu pharmazeutischen Wirkstoffen übergegangen. Mit diesem Schritt soll eine Brücke zur Pharmazie geschlagen werden. Vier pharmazeutische Wirkstoffe mit definiertem Wasserstoffbrückenmuster wurden ausgesucht und anschließend mit den passenden Gegenstücken zur Kristallisation angesetzt. Nur für Trimethoprim konnten Co-Kristalle erhalten werden. Mit diesem Wirkstoff konnte anschließend gezeigt werden, wie sich Moleküle in bestimmten chemischen Umgebungen im Festkörper anpassen und ihre geometrische Anordnung ändern, um die bestmöglichen Wechselwirkungen zu erreichen. Sämtliche Kristallstrukturen von Trimethoprim, die in der CSD in neutraler Form aufzufinden sind, demonstrieren, wie flexibel diese Verbindung in Abhängigkeit von der Umgebung ihre Konformation ändert. In dieser Arbeit konnte auch gezeigt werden, wie Kristallisationsbedingungen verändert werden sollten, um den gewünschten Komplex herstellen zu können. Die Schmelzpunktbestimmung sowie die Kombination mit der Gitterenergie dienten dazu, für die gegebenen Verbindungen die passenden Bedingungen für den Kristallisationsprozess zu ermitteln. Die Schmelztemperaturen von drei in der Struktur ähnlichen Komplexen liegen jeweils zwischen den Schmelztemperaturen ihrer Ausgangsverbindungen, was zu der Annahme verleitet, dass bei höheren Temperaturen die Verbindungen mit höheren Schmelztemperaturen und somit stabileren Kristallgittern bevorzugt gebildet werden. Wird die Temperatur gesenkt, so könnten alle Formen von Kristallen (die der Edukte, Pseudokomplexe und der supramolekularen Komplexe) in einer einzigen Probe anfallen. Um die Gültigkeit dieser Annahme zu überprüfen, bedarf es der Durchführung von Pulveraufnahmen der gesamten Proben. Diese konnten aufgrund der geringen Mengen an Kristallsubstanz nicht realisiert werden. In Zukunft wird das Augenmerk besonders auf die Erforschung von supramolekularen Komplexen mit anspruchsvolleren Freiheitsgraden gelegt. Diese Komplexe sollen mehrere Rotationsfreiheitsgrade besitzen bzw. aus mehr als vier H-Brücken komplementär zusammengesetzt sein. Darüber hinaus ist unsere Gruppe immer noch bemüht, Komplexe zu co-kristallisieren, die am Ende die Muster bzw. die Konstellationen aufweisen, die von vornherein konzeptionell ausgearbeitet wurden.
The centerpiece of all neuronal processes is the synaptic transmission. It consists of a complex series of events. Two key elements are the binding of synaptic vesicles (SV) to the presynaptic membrane and the subsequent fusion of the two membranes. SV are neurotransmitter-filled membranous spheres with many integral and peripheral proteins. The synaptic SNARE complex consists of three interacting proteins, which energize and regulate the fusion of the SV membrane with the presynaptic membrane. Both processes are closely orchestrated to ensure a specific release of neurotransmitter. Already many experiments have been performed, such as genetic screens and proteome analysis of SV, to determine the functions of the various proteins involved. Nevertheless, the functions of the identified proteins are still not fully elucidated. The aim of this thesis was initially applying a tandem affinity purification (TAP) of SV to identify unknown interaction partner of SV and to determine their role. This was supposed to be performed in the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). The underlying mechanisms are conserved throughout the phylogentic tree and identified interaction partners will help to understand the processes in the mammalian brain. Although there is no neuron-rich tissue in C. elegans as in other model organisms, the diverse genetic methods allows a rapid creation of modified organisms and a prompt determination of the function of identified proteins. The integral SV protein synaptogyrin has been fused to a TAP-tag. The TAP-tag consists of a ProteinA, a TEV protease cleavage site and a calmodulin binding peptide (CBP). Both affinity purification steps are performed sequentially and allow a highly specific native purification of proteins and their interaction partners. Due to technical difficulties the purification strategy was modified several times during the course of this thesis and then finally abandoned for a more promising project, the SNARE complex purification. In conclusion, one of the reasons was the necessary lack of detergent.
The amended aim of this thesis has been the TAP of solubilized SNARE complex to identify unknown interaction partner and to determine their role. In order to increase the specificity of the purification, in terms of formed complexes, the two SNARE subunits, synaptobrevin (SNB-1 in C. elegans) and syntaxin (UNC-64 in C. elegans), were separately fused to the different affinity tags. As the modifications of the proteins could impair their function and lead to false interaction partners, their functionality was tested. For this purpose, the corresponding fusion constructs were expressed in strains with mutated snb¬1 and unc-64. Non-functional synaptic proteins display an altered course of paralysis in an aldicarb assay. The fusion proteins which were expressed in their respective mutant strains displayed a near to wild-type (WT) behavior in contrast to the naive mutant strains. Multiple TAP demonstrated SNB-1 signals in Western blot analysis and complex sets of proteins in the final elution step in a silver staining of SDS-PAGEs. These samples were sent with negative control (WT purification) for MS analysis to various cooperation partners. 119 proteins were identified which appeared only in data sets with SNARE proteins and not in WT samples. If proteins were detected in ≥ 2 SNARE positive MS analysis and had known neural functions or homologies to neuronal proteins in other species, they were selected for further analysis. These candidates were knocked down by RNAi and tested for synaptic function in a following aldicarb assay. The treatment with their specific RNAi resulted for mca-3 in a strong resistance, while frm-2, snap-29, ekl-6, klb-8, mdh-2, pfk-2, piki-1 and vamp-8 resulted in hypersensitivity. The most responsive genes frm-2, snap-29 and mca-3 were examined, whether they displayed a co-localization together with synaptobrevin in promoter fusion constructs or functional fusion constructs. In fluorescence microscopy images only MCA-3::YFP demonstrated neuronal expression.
In order to substantiate the synaptic nature and functionality of the MCA-3::YFP a swimming assay was performed. Here, fusion construct expressing strains, which contained mutated mca-3, were compared with untreated mutant strains and WT strains according to their behavior. In this swimming assay a partial restoration of WT behavior was shown in the MCA-3::YFP expressing mutant strains. Based on these data, we discovered with MCA 3 a new interaction partner of the SNARE complex. MCA-3 is a plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase and was initially seen only in their role in the endocytosis. Its new putative role is the reduction of Ca2+ concentration at the bound SNARE complex. Since an interaction of syntaxin with Ca2+ channels has been demonstrated, it would be comprehensible to reduce the local concentration of Ca2+ to a minimum by tethering Ca2+ transporters to the SNARE complex.
The cytochrome bc1 complex recycles one of the two electrons from quinol (QH2) oxidation at center P by reducing quinone (Q) at center N to semiquinone (SQ), which is bound tightly. We have analyzed the properties of SQ bound at center N of the yeast bc1 complex. The EPR-detectable signal, which reports SQ bound in the vicinity of reduced bH heme, was abolished by the center N inhibitors antimycin, funiculosin, and ilicicolin H, but was unchanged by the center P inhibitors myxothiazol and stigmatellin. After correcting for the EPR-silent SQ bound close to oxidized bH, we calculated a midpoint redox potential (Em) of approximately 90 mV for all bound SQ. Considering the Em values for bH and free Q, this result indicates that center N preferentially stabilizes SQ.bH(3+) complexes. This favors recycling of the electron coming from center P and also implies a >2.5-fold higher affinity for QH2 than for Q at center N, which would potentially inhibit bH oxidation by Q. Using pre-steady-state kinetics, we show that Q does not inhibit the initial rate of bH reduction by QH2 through center N, but does decrease the extent of reduction, indicating that Q binds only when bH is reduced, whereas QH2 binds when bH is oxidized. Kinetic modeling of these results suggests that formation of SQ at one center N in the dimer allows stabilization of SQ in the other monomer by Q reduction after intradimer electron transfer. This model allows maximum SQ.bH(3+) formation without inhibition of Q binding by QH2.
We have investigated the mechanism responsible for half-of-the-sites activity in the dimeric cytochrome bc(1) complex from Paracoccus denitrificans by characterizing the kinetics of inhibitor binding to the ubiquinol oxidation site at center P. Both myxothiazol and stigmatellin induced a 2-3 nm shift of the visible absorbance spectrum of the b(L) heme. The shift generated by myxothiazol was symmetric, with monophasic kinetics that indicate equal binding of this inhibitor to both center P sites. In contrast, stigmatellin generated an asymmetric shift in the b(L) spectrum, with biphasic kinetics in which each phase contributed approximately half of the total magnitude of the spectral change. The faster binding phase corresponded to a more symmetrical shift of the b(L) spectrum relative to the slower binding phase, indicating that approximately half of the center P sites bound stigmatellin more slowly and in a different position relative to the b(L) heme, generating a different effect on its electronic environment. Significantly, the slow stigmatellin binding phase was lost as the inhibitor concentration was increased. This implies that a conformational change is transmitted from one center P site in the dimer to the other upon stigmatellin binding to one monomer, rendering the second site less accessible to the inhibitor. Because the position that stigmatellin occupies at center P is considered to be analogous to that of the quinol substrate at the moment of electron transfer, these results indicate that the productive enzyme-substrate configuration is prevented from occurring in both monomers simultaneously.
NMR and chromatography methods combined with mass spectrometry are the most important analytical techniques employed for plant metabolomics screening. Metabolomic analysis integrated to transcriptome screening add an important extra dimension to the information flow from DNA to RNA to protein. The most useful NMR experiment in metabolomics analysis is the proton spectra due the high receptivity of 1H and important structural information, through proton–proton scalar coupling. Routinely, databases have been used in identification of primary metabolites, however, there is currently no comparable data for identification of secondary metabolites, mainly, due to signal overlap in normal 1H NMR spectra and natural variation of plant. Related to spectra overlap, alternatively, better resolution can be find using 1H pure shift and 2D NMR pulse sequence in complex samples due to spreading the resonances in a second dimension. Thus, in data brief we provide a catalogue of metabolites and expression levels of genes identified in soy leaves and roots under flooding stress.
Mammalian oocytes are arrested in the dictyate stage of meiotic prophase I for long periods of time, during which the high concentration of the p53 family member TAp63α sensitizes them to DNA damage-induced apoptosis. TAp63α is kept in an inactive and exclusively dimeric state but undergoes rapid phosphorylation-induced tetramerization and concomitant activation upon detection of DNA damage. Here we show that the TAp63α dimer is a kinetically trapped state. Activation follows a spring-loaded mechanism not requiring further translation of other cellular factors in oocytes and is associated with unfolding of the inhibitory structure that blocks the tetramerization interface. Using a combination of biophysical methods as well as cell and ovary culture experiments we explain how TAp63α is kept inactive in the absence of DNA damage but causes rapid oocyte elimination in response to a few DNA double strand breaks thereby acting as the key quality control factor in maternal reproduction.
The research presented in this thesis characterizes U2AF homology motifs (UHM) and their interactions with UHM ligand motifs (ULM) in the context of splicing regulation. UHM domains are a subgroup of RNA recognition motifs (RRM) originally discovered in the proteins U2AF65 and U2AF35. Whereas canonical RRMs are usually involved in binding of RNA, UHM domains bind tryptophan containing linear protein motifs (ULM) instead. In the first article, we analyze the complex network of interactions between splicing factors and RNA that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´ splice site of an intron. The protein U2AF65 binds a pyrimidine-rich element in introns and recruits U2snRNP by binding its protein component SF3b155. My contribution was to define the binding site of the protein U2AF65 to the intrinsically unstructured N-terminus of the scaffolding protein SF3b155. I could show that the UHM domain of U2AF65 recognizes a ULM in SF3b155, and that this binding site is not overlapping with the binding sites of other splicing factors, like p14, to SF3b155. As the U2AF65-UHM:SF3b155-ULM interaction is mutually exclusive with an interaction between U2AF65-UHM and a ULM in the splicing factor SF1, which was reported to initially recognize the branch point sequence, my results provide the molecular details on how SF3b155 replaces SF1 during spliceosomal reorganizations. In the second article, we show that overexpression of the UHM domain of the splicing factor SPF45 induces exon 6 skipping in the pre-mRNA of Fas (CD95/APO-1). I provide evidence for in vitro binding of SPF45-UHM to ULM sequences in the splicing factors U2AF65, SF1, and SF3b155. I crystallized free and SF3b155-bound SPF45 UHM and solved both structures by X-ray crystallography. The analysis of the complex interface and sequence differences in the ULMs allowed me to design mutations of SPF45-UHM, which selectively inhibit binding to distinct ULMs. After assessing the ULM binding properties in vitro, we could show that the activity of SPF45-UHM in influencing the splicing pattern of Fas relies on interactions with SF3b155 and/or SF1, but that an interaction with U2AF65 is dispensable. A mechanism for the activity of SPF45-UHM could thus be engaging in ULM interactions and thus interfering with the network of interactions that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´splice site, as described above. In the third article, we describe an unusual flexible homodimerization mode of the UHM in the splicing factor Puf60, which enables simultaneous interactions with ULM sequences on other splicing factors. I could show that the NMR relaxation properties of Puf60-UHM are inconsistent with a model of a rigid dimer, but rather indicate a dimerization via a flexible linker. I identified a flexible loop in the peptide backbone of Puf60-UHM, and showed that mutiation of acidic residues in this loop impairs the dimerization. To analyze the dimerization interface in further detail, I solved the structure of Puf60-UHM by X-ray crystallography. The acidic residues in the flexible loop of one UHM dimer subunit mediate the dimerization by contacting basic residues on the β-sheet surface of the other dimer subunit. Differences in the four dimer interfaces observed for the eight molecules in the asymmetric unit of the crystal support the model of an undescribed, flexible mode of dimerization, and thus complement the NMR relaxation data. Furthermore, I could show that the Puf60-UHM dimer and U2AF65-UHM contact different ULM sequences on the SF3b155 N-terminus in vitro, thus providing a possible explanation for the mutual cooperative activation of Puf60 and U2AF65 in splicing assays described in the literature. The fourth article is a review about recent research on the recognition of DNA double strand breaks (DSB) by covalent histone modifications. The p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is a DSB sensor and a checkpoint protein for mitosis. Recent crystallographic evidence indicates that 53BP1 recognizes DSB sites by binding histone H4 dimetylated at lysine 20 (H4-K20). We provide a comprehensive overview of the atomic resolution structures that revealed how proteins can specifically recognize histone tail modifications, especially methylated lysines, to read the information stored in what is called the histone code.
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are currently the standard chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). However, due to TKI resistance acquisition in CML patients, identification of new vulnerabilities is urgently required for a sustained response to therapy. In this study, we have investigated metabolic reprogramming induced by TKIs independent of BCR-ABL1 alterations. Proteomics and metabolomics profiling of imatinib-resistant CML cells (ImaR) was performed. KU812 ImaR cells enhanced pentose phosphate pathway, glycogen synthesis, serine-glycine-one-carbon metabolism, proline synthesis and mitochondrial respiration compared with their respective syngeneic parental counterparts. Moreover, the fact that only 36% of the main carbon sources were utilized for mitochondrial respiration pointed to glycerol-phosphate shuttle as mainly contributors to mitochondrial respiration. In conclusion, CML cells that acquire TKIs resistance present a severe metabolic reprogramming associated with an increase in metabolic plasticity needed to overcome TKI-induced cell death. Moreover, this study unveils that KU812 Parental and ImaR cells viability can be targeted with metabolic inhibitors paving the way to propose novel and promising therapeutic opportunities to overcome TKI resistance in CML.
Excitation of CO molecules into the lowest vibrational level of the B1Σ+ electronic state by absorption of the (B 1Σ+υ′=0 →X 1Σ+ ,υ′′=0) resonance band at 1150 Å has been studied under various experimental conditions by observing the steady state fluorescence of the (B 1Σ+→A1Π) Angstrom bands. Stern-Volmer plots of the fluorescence intensities at the addition of various foreign gases yielded straight lines whose slopes k̃qм = kqм · τeff were strongly dependent on the CO sample pressure. This effect was found to be due to changes of the effective radiative lifetime of the B 1Σ+υ′=0 because of resonance trapping of the (0,0) band of the (B → X) fluorescence. The CO(B 1Σ+υ′=0) molecules are found to be quenched by He, Ne, Ar, H2 and D2 with effective collision cross sections of 0.23, 0.48, 22.4, 10.7, and 11.4 Å2, respectively, at 298 °K. In addition, an approximate value for the ratio ABA/ (ABA+ABX)of the radiative transition probabilities of the (B → A) and (B → X) transitions could be derived from the measurements.
Das OH-Radikal, bestehend aus einem Sauerstoff- und einem Wasserstoffatom, ist verantwortlich für den Selbstreinigungsmechanismus der Atmosphäre. Als Oxidationsmittel reagiert es mit praktisch allen Spurengasen, wie z. B. dem giftigen Kohlenmonoxid, dem Treibhausgas Methan und dem Schwefeldioxid, und macht sie wasserlöslich, so daß sie im Regen gelöst ausgewaschen werden können (Waschmitteleffekt). Welche Schlüsselstellung das OH-Radikal in der Atmosphärenchemie hat, beschreibt der Chemiker Franz Josef Comes. Gleichzeitig stellt er das weltweit empfindlichste Absolutverfahren zur Bestimmung von troposphärischen OH-Konzentrationen vor, das in Frankfurt entwikkelt und zur Zeit getestet wird.
Photofragmentation spectroscopy—the study of "half collisions" with polarized light of subdoppler line width—opens a window to look into the structure of molecules. The energy partitioning among the particular degrees of freedom of the products of the fragmentation reaction is described by the scalar properties, the direction and magnitude of a particular type of motion is described by the vector properties. The measurement of the scalar and vector properties allows a pictorial view of the intermediate state. The forces which make the fragments fly apart or rotate and vibrate can be "seen" from the line shapes. Information on the unstable intermediate state is gained from the stable fragments long after the dissociation of the parent molecule. In particular, information on the "lifetime" of the intermediate on a femtosecond time scale can be obtained.
A number of molecules, mainly three and four atomic, have been studied by this technique. Hydrogen peroxide has shown up as a textbook example. A complete analysis was possible including not only correlation of different types of fragment motion but also a correlation of the two coincident particles formed from the same parent molecule. The experimental results are in full agreement with recent calculations of the dynamics of the fragmentation on newly obtained potential energy surfaces. Hydrogen peroxide shows a strong dependence of its potential energy on the dihedral angle in the two electronic states amenable to laser excitation. This experiment further demonstrates that an analysis is also possible if two states are excited simultaneously.
Another good example is the fragmentation of hydrazoic acid for which also coincident pair correlation has been treated. Here again the results agree excellently with a qualitative picture which can be drawn from recently calculated ab initio potential energy surfaces. The HN3 example is much more complicated than the former one due to its higher structured upper potential energy surface. Strong rotational excitation is observed in the N2 fragment leaving the NH fragment rotationally cold.
The treatment of vector correlations in molecular photofragmentation is a powerful tool for the study of the dynamics of molecular dissociation reactions.
The MAM (meprin/A5-protein/PTPmu) domain is present in numerous proteins with diverse functions. PTPμ belongs to the MAM-containing subclass of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) able to promote cell-to-cell adhesion. Here we provide experimental evidence that the MAM domain is a homophilic binding site of PTPμ. We demonstrate that the MAM domain forms oligomers in solution and binds to the PTPμ ectodomain at the cell surface. The presence of two disulfide bridges in the MAM molecule was evidenced and their integrity was found to be essential for MAM homophilic interaction. Our data also indicate that PTPμ ectodomain forms oligomers and mediates the cellular adhesion, even in the absence of MAM domain homophilic binding. Reciprocally, MAM is able to interact homophilically in the absence of ectodomain trans binding. The MAM domain therefore contains independent cis and trans interaction sites and we predict that its main role is to promote lateral dimerization of PTPμ at the cell surface. This finding contributes to the understanding of the signal transduction mechanism in MAM-containing PTPs.
The O-K-spectra of α- and γ-Al2O3, β-Ga2O3 and In2O3 were measured with a high-resolution grating spectrograph using the method of electron excitation. The spectra were corrected for the nonlinear response of the photographic emulsions. A shift of the O - K-emission band edge of γ-Al2O3 to lower energy with respect to that of α-Al2O3 and a fine structure within all O -K-bands were observed for the first time. The details of the spectra are discussed in relation to the energy level diagrams, crystal structure, and chemical bond of these oxides.
This paper reports about the fine structure in the O—K-spectra of the oxides BeO, MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, Sc2O5, Y2O3, La2O3, Sm2O3, Yb2O3, NiO and ZnO. The spectra show the satellite lines α3, α4, α5, α6 on the short wavelength side of the main line α1,2 and a shoulder β′ on its long wavelength side. The wavelengths of all lines depend on the nature of the oxide. For the positions of the lines Kα1.2 in the spectra no systematic relation to other data of the oxides is observed. On the other hand the distance of the a4-satellite from the α1,2-line decreases with increasing electronegativity of the metal atom in the oxide. This distance can be used as a measure for the ionic character of the metal-oxygen bond in these compounds.
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic T cell-mediated autoimmune disorder that results in the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic ß cells leading to life-long dependence on exogenous insulin. Attraction, activation and transmigration of inflammatory cells to the site of ß-cell injury depend on two major molecular interactions. First, interactions between chemokines and their receptors expressed on leukocytes result in the recruitment of circulating inflammatory cells to the site of injury. In this context, it has been demonstrated in various studies that the interaction of the chemokine CXCL10 with its receptor CXCR3 expressed on circulating cells plays a key role in the development of T1D. Second, once arrived at the site of inflammation adhesion molecules promote the extravasation of arrested cells through the endothelial cell layer to penetrate the site of injury. Here, the junctional adhesion molecule (JAM) JAM-C expressed on endothelial cells is involved in the process of leukocyte diabedesis. It was recently demonstrated that blocking of JAM-C efficiently attenuated cerulein-induced pancreatitis in mice. In my thesis I studied the influence of the CXCL10/CXCR3 interaction on the one hand, and of the adhesion molecule JAM-C on the other hand, on trafficking and transmigration of antigen-specific, autoaggressive T cells in the RIP-LCMV mouse model. RIP-LCMV mice express the glycoprotein (GP) or the nucleoprotein (NP) of the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) as a target autoantigen specifically in the ß cells of the islets of Langerhans and turn diabetic after LCMV-infection. In my first project I found that pharmacologic blockade of CXCR3 during development of virus-induced T1D results in a significant delay but not in an abrogation of overt disease. However, neither the frequency nor the migratory properties of islet-specific T cells was significantly changed during CXCR3 blockade. In the second project I was able to demonstrate that JAM-C was upregulated around the islets in RIP-LCMV mice after LCMV infection and its expression correlated with islet infiltration and functional ß-cell impairment. Blockade with a neutralizing anti-JAM-C antibody slightly reduced T1D incidence, whereas overexpression of JAM-C on endothelial cells did not accelerate virus-induced diabetes. In summary, our data suggest that both CXCR3 as well as JAM-C are involved in trafficking and transmigration of antigen-specific autoaggressive T cells to the islets of Langerhans. However, the detection of only a moderate influence on the onset of clinical disease during CXCR3 or JAM-C blockade reflects the complex pathogenesis of T1D and indicates that several different inflammatory factors need to be neutralized in order to achieve a stable and persistent protection from disease.
Reactivation of autophagy by spermidine ameliorates the myopathic defects of collagen VI-null mice
(2015)
Autophagy is a self-degradative process responsible for the clearance of damaged or unnecessary cellular components. We have previously found that persistence of dysfunctional organelles due to autophagy failure is a key event in the pathogenesis of COL6/collagen VI-related myopathies, and have demonstrated that reactivation of a proper autophagic flux rescues the muscle defects of Col6a1-null (col6a1(-/-)) mice. Here we show that treatment with spermidine, a naturally occurring nontoxic autophagy inducer, is beneficial for col6a1(-/-) mice. Systemic administration of spermidine in col6a1(-/-) mice reactivated autophagy in a dose-dependent manner, leading to a concurrent amelioration of the histological and ultrastructural muscle defects. The beneficial effects of spermidine, together with its being easy to administer and the lack of overt side effects, open the field for the design of novel nutraceutical strategies for the treatment of muscle diseases characterized by autophagy impairment.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde nachgewiesen, dass bei Krebspatienten Tumorspezifische Gedächtnis T-Zellen im Verlauf einer Tumorerkrankung generiert und erhalten werden. Dies konnte sowohl für einen soliden Tumor, das Mammakarzinom, als auch für eine hämatologische Neoplasie, das Multiple Myelom, verifiziert werden. Dabei konnte zum ersten Mal belegt werden, dass im Verlauf einer MM-Erkrankung MUC-1 als autologes Tumor-assoziiertes Antigen immunologisch erkannt wird und zur Generierung von Gedächtnis T-Zellen mit einer Anreicherung im Knochenmark der Patienten führt. Weiterhin konnte eine Anreicherung TAA-spezifischer Gedächtnis T-Zellen innerhalb der EM Zellpopulation bei Mammakarzinom-Patientinnen demonstriert werden. Die Analyse der Funktionalität und Langlebigkeit von EM und CM T-Zellen im Hinblick auf ihre klinische Relevanz zeigte wesentliche Unterschiede zwischen beiden Gedächtniszell- Populationen. So war eine IFN-gamma Induktion und Proliferation in CM T-Zellen in stärkerem Ausmaß von einer zusätzlichen Costimulation abhängig verglichen zu EM T-Zellen. Außerdem fiel eine Apoptose-Induktion in CM stärker aus als in EM T-Zellen. Unterschiede in Funktion und Viabilität von CM und EM T-Zellen korrelierten dabei mit der Expression des Chemokinrezeptors CCR7. ELISpot-Analysen der Polarisierung induzierter TH-Antworten beim Mammakarzinom ergaben eine große Heterogenität zwischen den Patienten. So exhibierte ein Teil der Patienten dominante TH1-Antworten, während bei einem anderen Teil lediglich TH2- oder toleranzinduzierende IL-10-Antworten induziert werden konnten. Darüber hinaus traten auch gemischt-polarisierte TH-Antworten auf. Eine Analyse ausgewählter Zytokine resultierte in der Detektion immunsuppressiver und immunstimulatorischer Zytokine im Tumorgewebe, wobei die Zytokinprofile interindividuell stark schwankten und kein einheitliches Muster erkennen ließen. Interessanterweise bestand jedoch eine inverse Korrelation zwischen der Induktion einer TH1-Antwort im ELISpot und dem erhöhten Vorkommen immunsuppressiver Zytokine im autologen Tumorgewebe von Mammakarzinom-Patienten. Eine derartige Korrelation impliziert, dass das vorherrschende Milieu der Tumorumgebung bei einer tumorspezifischen Aktivierung einen Einfluss auf infiltrierende Dendritische Zellen und ihre nachfolgende Polarisierung von T-Zellantworten hat. Folglich könnte die Untersuchung eines breiten Spektrums an Zytokinen in der Tumor-Mikroumgebung zu relevanten Zeitpunkten einer Tumorentwicklung, einen wichtigen Beitrag zum Verständnis von Tumor-Immun Interaktionen liefern.
Two types of proteins transport ions across the membrane – ion channels and ion pumps. Ion pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradient by co-transporting another ion or a substrate molecule through a concentration gradient or by coupling this process to an energy source like ATP. Those that couple ATP hydrolysis to ion transport are called ion motive ATPases and can be classified as ‘V’, ‘F’ and ‘P’ types. In this thesis, two sub-classes of P-type ATPases, PIIIA and PIB were studied. Attempts were made to over-express and crystallize the plant proton pump AHA2 (a PIIIA-ATPase). Also, the two putative copper transporting ATPases, CtrA3 (CopB-like) and CtrA2 (CopA-like) from Aquifex aeolicus (both PIB pumps) were over-expressed in E. coli and characterized. PIIIA-type pumps transport protons across the membrane and are found exclusively in plants and fungi, and probably some archaea. One of the most characterized proton pump biochemically is the A. thaliana proton pump AHA2. An 8Å projection map of this enzyme is already available (Jahn 2001). PIBATPases, also called CPX type pumps transport heavy metal ions such as Cu+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Co2+ across biological membranes and play an important role in homeostasis and biotolerance of these metals. CopA and CopB are two such proteins that transport copper across cell membrane found in many prokaryotes. CopB-like proteins are found almost exclusively in bacteria, with CPH sequence motif, while CopA-like proteins have CPC sequence motif, also found in eukaryotic copper transporters including human ATP7A and ATP7B. CopB extrudes Cu2+ across the membrane. CopA is activated by and transports Cu+ but the direction of transport is debated. Attempts were made to over-express the plant proton pump AHA2 in yeast Pichia pastoris. However, the yeast expressed only a truncated protein, which could not be used for further studies. It can be concluded that P. pastoris strain SMD1163 is not a good host for expression of AHA2. Focus was then shifted to AHA2 that has been over-expressed and purified from S. cerevisiae strain RS72. Growth and purification protocols had to be changed from published methods because of laboratory constraints and this probably had an effect on the protein produced. The protein purified from S. cerevisiae could not be crystallized reproducibly for structural studies by electron microscopy. CtrA3 was expressed in E. coli and purified using Ni2+-NTA matrix. Like CopB of A. fulgidus (Mana Capelli 2003), it was active only in the presence of Cu2+ and to some extent in Ag+. The protein was maximally active at 75°C, at pH 7 and in presence of cysteine. Lipids were essential for the activity of CtrA3. However, when the protein was purified in Cymal-6, CtrA3 could not hydrolyze ATP, even when lipids were added to the reaction mixture. For reconstitution of CtrA3 into liposomes for 2D crystallization, several lipids were tested. To screen the lipids compatible for protein incorporation, CtrA3 was dialyzed with different lipids at a high lipid-to-protein ratio of 10:1 and centrifuged by sucrose density gradient. Protein incorporated in lipids localized with liposome fraction in the gradient. Most of the CtrA3 was incorporated into DPPC with no aggregation. This lipid was used for reconstitution of CtrA3 at low LPRs, and at an LPR of 0.3-0.5, the protein formed 2D crystals. A NaCl concentration of 50mM was necessary for the formation of crystals. However, salt removal by dialysis prior to harvesting was essential for obtaining wellordered lattices of CtrA3. Addition of preservatives like trehalose and tannin or direct plunging in liquid ethane for cryo-microscopy destroyed the crystal lattice. Similar to CtrA3, the gene responsible for expression of CtrA2 was amplified from genomic DNA of A. aeolicus and expressed in E. coli and purified by Ni2+-NTA. Functional characterization of CtrA2 was done by analyzing ATP hydrolysis activity of the enzyme. Similar to CopA of A. fulgidus (Mandal 2002), CtrA2 was activated in the presence of Ag+ and to some extent, Cu+. It is possible that both the copper ATPases of A. aeolicus have different ion selectivity- CtrA3, specific for Cu2+ and CtrA2, specific for Cu+. Maximal activity of CtrA2 was also at 75°C. Cysteine was essential for activity of CtrA2, but the protein was not dependent on addition of lipids for activation. Reconstitution of CtrA2 was done similar to CtrA3 for screening of lipids for 2D crystallization. Of the lipids tested, DOPC reconstituted the protein best. However, screening at low LPRs did not yield any crystals. Even though both CtrA3 and CtrA2 are similar heavy metal transporting Ptype ATPases from the same organism and have 36% identity, they behaved completely different in their expression levels in E. coli, purification profiles, activity and reconstitution in lipids.
Purification and characterization of heterologously produced cannabinoid receptor 1 and G proteins
(2007)
G protein coupled receptors form the largest group of transmembrane proteins, which are involved in signal transduction and are targeted directly or indirectly by 40-50% of the drugs in the market. Even though a lot of biochemical and pharmacological information was acquired for these receptors in the past decades, structural information is still insufficient. G protein coupled receptors are expressed in a very minute scale in the tissues. Purification of G protein coupled receptors, in amounts needed for structural studies, from native tissue is tedious and almost impossible. To overcome this first hurdle of insufficient protein, several heterologous protein expression systems are being used. Another difficulty in structural determination of a G protein coupled receptor is that it is a membrane protein. Membrane proteins are difficult targets for structural studies. One of the possible reasons is the little hydrophilic surface area on the membrane protein, reducing the chances of crystal contact between the molecules. The present work is an attempt to investigate possible ways to overcome these problems. Aim of the project was to use G proteins to increase the hydrophilic area of the G protein coupled receptor. G protein is a physiological partner to the G protein coupled receptor which makes the complex functionally relevant. In the present work five G alpha proteins were purified to homogeneity by a two step purification using metal affinity and ion-exchange chromatography. The G alpha subunits purified were tested for their detergent susceptibility. It was found that only some G proteins were active in the presence of detergent. Observation from contemporary reports also suggest that the G alpha proteins expressed in Escherichia coli, alone may not be sufficient to bind to the G protein coupled receptors in solution. So the project was extended towards expressing a G protein coupled receptor which was reported to exist in a complex with the G proteins, in the cells. Purifying such a functional complex could be more beneficial to use for crystallization. Cannabinoid receptors were chosen for heterologous expression and purification. Production of recombinant cannabinoid receptor 2 was investigated in Pichia pastoris. The protein obtained was highly heterogenous. There were several oligomeric forms as well as degradation products in the cell membranes. Most of the protein was lost in the purification steps leading to a poor yield. Several oligomeric forms and other impurities were still present in the protein sample after purification. Alternatively, a baculovirus mediated insect cell expression system was investigated, to produce the receptors. Cannabinoid receptor 1 was investigated in insect cell expression system because of its better biochemical understanding and pharmacological importance than cannabinoid receptor 2. Cannabinoid receptor 1 was produced in two forms, a full length and a distal carboxy terminal truncated version. All the several gene constructs made could be expressed in the Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells. Expression levels (Bmax) for the constructs with a decahistidine tag at the amino terminus and Strep-tagII at the carboxy terminus were 40 pmol/mg and 53 pmol/mg respectively, for full length and truncated versions. These expression levels are 2 fold higher than the levels reported till now in the literature. As was quite evident from previous experiences of other research groups, purification of this receptor was a challenge. Protein purified from immobilized metal affinity chromatography (Ni-nitrilo tri acetate)(Ni-NTA) was not even 50% pure. A second purification by immobilized monomeric avidin or Streptactin agarose, making use of Biotag and StreptagII respectively, drastically reduced the protein recovery. Later on, purification of receptor was investigated on different metal chelating resins. His-Select, a Ni-NTA based matrix from Sigma, with much lesser density than Ni-NTA from Qiagen, showed a better purification profile. Purification was optimized to get 80% homogeneity but with low yield (20%). Further efforts are needed to improve the yield and purity of the receptor, to use it for crystallization. Cannabinoid receptors are known to exist in a precoupled form to G proteins in the cells. The existence of such precoupled forms of the receptor was investigated using the fluorescence techniques. Guanosine-5-triphosphate binding assay on the cell membranes, in the absence of agonists confirmed the active precoupled form of the receptor. It was found that it is possible to co-immunoprecipitate the complex. These results show that the truncated cannabinoid receptor can be produced in functional form in insect cells in much higher yields than reported. This receptor exists as a complex with G proteins even in the absence of ligands. It was also shown that the receptor/G protein complex can be coimmunoprecipitated. Further work is required to investigate the possibility of purifying this complex to use it for co-crystallization.
The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a key component of the cellular immune system. As a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily, TAP hydrolyzes ATP to energize the transport of peptides from the cytosol into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. TAP is composed of TAP1 and TAP2, each containing a transmembrane domain and a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). Here we investigated the role of the ABC signature motif (C-loop) on the functional non-equivalence of the NBDs, which contain a canonical C-loop (LSGGQ) for TAP1 and a degenerate C-loop (LAAGQ) for TAP2. Mutation of the leucine or glycine (LSGGQ) in TAP1 fully abolished peptide transport. However, TAP complexes with equivalent mutations in TAP2 still showed residual peptide transport activity. To elucidate the origin of the asymmetry of the NBDs of TAP, we further examined TAP complexes with exchanged C-loops. Strikingly, the chimera with two canonical C-loops showed the highest transport rate whereas the chimera with two degenerate C-loops had the lowest transport rate, demonstrating that the ABC signature motifs control peptide transport efficiency. All single site mutants and chimeras showed similar activities in peptide or ATP binding, implying that these mutations affect the ATPase activity of TAP. In addition, these results prove that the serine of the C-loop is not essential for TAP function but rather coordinates, together with other residues of the C-loop, the ATP hydrolysis in both nucleotide-binding sites.
The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) plays a pivotal role in the adaptive immune response against virus-infected or malignantly transformed cells. As member of the ABC transporter family, TAP hydrolyzes ATP to energize the transport of antigenic peptides from the cytosol into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. TAP forms a heterodimeric complex composed of TAP1 and TAP2 (ABCB2/3). Both subunits contain a hydrophobic transmembrane domain and a hydrophilic nucleotide-binding domain. The aim of this work was to study the ATP hydrolysis event of the TAP complex and gain further insights into the mechanism of peptide transport process. To analyze ATP hydrolysis of each subunit I developed a method of trapping 8- azido-nucleotides to TAP in the presence of phosphate transition state analogs followed by photocross-linking, immunoprecipitation, and high-resolution SDS-PAGE. Strikingly, trapping of both TAP subunits by beryllium fluoride is peptide-specific. The peptide concentration required for half-maximal trapping is identical for TAP1 and TAP2 and directly correlates with the peptide-binding affinity. Only background levels of trapping were observed for low affinity peptides or in the presence of the herpes simplex viral protein ICP47, which specifically blocks peptide binding to TAP. Importantly, the peptideinduced trapped state is reached after ATP hydrolysis and not in a backward reaction of ADP binding and trapping. In the trapped state, TAP can neither bind nor exchange nucleotides, whereas peptide binding is not affected. In summary, these data support the model that peptide binding induces a conformation that triggers ATP hydrolysis in both subunits of the TAP complex within the catalytic cycle. The role of the ABC signature motif (C-loop) on the functional non-equivalence of the NBDs was investigated. The C-loops of TAP transporter contain a canonical C-loop (LSGGQ) for TAP1 and a degenerated ABC signature motif (LAAGQ) for TAP2. Mutation of the leucine or glycine (LSGGQ) in TAP1 fully abolished peptide transport. TAP complexes with equivalent mutations in TAP2 showed however still residual peptide transport activity. To elucidate the origin of the asymmetry of the NBDs of TAP, we further examined TAP complexes with exchanged C-loops. Strikingly, the chimera with two canonical C-loops showed the highest transport rate whereas the chimera with two degenerated C-loops had the lowest transport rate, demonstrating that the ABC signature motifs control the peptide transport efficiency. All single-site mutants and chimeras showed similar activities in peptide or ATP binding, implying that these mutations affect the ATPase activity of TAP. In addition, these results prove that the serine of the C-loop is not essential for TAP function, but rather coordinates, together with other residues of the C-loop, the ATP hydrolysis in both nucleotide-binding sites. To study the coupling between the ATP binding/hydrolysis and the peptide binding, the putative catalytic bases of the TAP complex were mutated to generate the so-called EQ mutants. The mutations did not influence the peptide-binding ability. Dimerization of the NBDs of EQ mutants upon ATP binding does not alter the peptide binding property. At 27°C, both ATP and ADP could induce the loss of peptide-binding ability (Bmax) only in the variants bearing a mutated TAP2. Further studies are required to deduce at which stage in the catalytic cycle the peptide-binding site is affected. In addition, mutation of the putative catalytic base of both subunits showed a magnesium-dependent peptide transport activity, demonstrating these mutants did not abolish the ATP hydrolysis. Thus, the function of this acidic residue as the catalytic base is not likely to be universe for all ABC transporters.
Cells perform a wide range of functions such as signalling, transportation, immunoprotection and metabolism. Unravelling the molecular mechanism behind those processes will provide a platform for more targeted and rational drug design. This is achieved by discerning the structural and functional aspects of the biological macromolecules involved. This thesis discusses about the biophysical characterization of protein structures and the biological importance of protein dynamics. Membrane receptors and enzymes which are ubiquitously present in our biological systems and regulate wide variety of functions are excellent choice for such study. From a pharmaceutical point of view, receptor and enzymes are exceptionally important drug targets as they represent the major share (receptor, 30% and enzymes, 47%) of all marketed drugs. Therefore, apart from biological insights, the detailed study of receptors and enzymes will provide the basis for new pharmaceutical applications. Most information about receptor activation and enzyme activity come from the structural and functional analysis of target members of the above mentioned systems.
In “Chapter 1 – General Introduction” the readers are introduced to the world of proteins with special focus on G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and methyltransferases. The first part of this chapter discusses about GPCRs with emphasis on their classification, structural features and functions. GPCRs are the most abundant membrane receptors present in mammalian cells, accounting for almost 15% of all membrane proteins. The GPCR superfamily consists of ~800 members and can be subdivided into six classes (A-F). Class A containing rhodopsin, peptide hormones, olfactory GPCRs, is the most abundant with a large share of 85% of GPCR protein family. GPCRs share a common architecture of 7 transmembrane a-helices, with different ligand binding sites. Although a variety of ligands ranging from subatomic particles (a photon) to large proteins can activate a GPCR, their mechanism of signal transduction is almost similar. There are two major signal transduction pathways identified for GPCRs: the cAMP pathway and the phosphatidylinositol pathway. The therapeutic relevance of GPCRs has also been pointed out here since a large share (30%) of modern marketed drugs target GPCRs.
In the second part of this chapter, the structural and functional characterizations of methyltransferases (MTs) are discussed in detail. Several important biological processes in cells e.g. drug metabolism, gene transcription, epigenetic regulations are modulated by methylation of targets ranging from small biomolecules to large proteins. MTs are the proteins which catalyze this methylation reaction and transfer the methyl group to an acceptor molecule through SN2 like nucleophilic substitution reaction. The MTs can be classified on the basis of the substrate atoms they methylate: O (54% of all MTs), N (23%), C (18%), S (3%) and other acceptors (such as halides; 2%). They can also be categorized into five different classes (Class I-V) depending upon distinctive structural features facilitating substrate binding or catalytic activity. Rossmann fold and SET (acronym acquired from the Drosophila Su(var)3-9 and 'Enhancer of zeste' proteins) domain are the two characteristic structural motifs commonly found in MTs. Similar to GPCRs, MTs dysfunction has been shown to be involved in various diseases including neuropsychiatric diseases and cancer. Therefore they are also interesting targets for drug development. The final part of this chapter discusses the importance of structural biology in gathering information related to structure and conformational dynamics of proteins. The two prominent biophysical techniques used in structural biology, X-ray crystallography and NMR, are discussed with focus on their advantages and limitation. The importance of NMR spectroscopic techniques to investigate different dynamic processes of protein at atomic resolution under physiological conditions is also discussed. Real time NMR spectroscopy required for the analysis of slow protein dynamic processes (protein folding, enzyme catalysis, domain rearrangement) has been explained in detail.
The second part of the thesis (Chapters 3-4), which is the cumulative part, comprises the original publications grouped into 2 chapters according to their topic:
• NMR-spectroscopic characterization of the transiently populated photointermediates of bovine rhodopsin and it’s interaction with arrestin (Chapter 3)
• Structural and biophysical characterization of PaMTH1, a putative SAM dependent O-methyltransferase from filamentous fungi Podospora anserina (Chapter 4)
Each chapter is initiated by a detailed introduction to the topic, providing the framework for the following papers. The personal contribution of this thesis’ author to each publication is stated in the introduction to the respective article.
The SLC26 family of transporters maintains anion equilibria in all kingdoms of life. The family shares a 7 + 7 transmembrane segments inverted repeat architecture with the SLC4 and SLC23 families, but holds a regulatory STAS domain in addition. While the only experimental SLC26 structure is monomeric, SLC26 proteins form structural and functional dimers in the lipid membrane. Here we resolve the structure of an SLC26 dimer embedded in a lipid membrane and characterize its functional relevance by combining PELDOR distance measurements and biochemical studies with MD simulations and spin-label ensemble refinement. Our structural model reveals a unique interface different from the SLC4 and SLC23 families. The functionally relevant STAS domain exerts a stabilizing effect on regions central in this dimer. Characterization of heterodimers indicates that protomers in the dimer functionally interact. The combined structural and functional data define the framework for a mechanistic understanding of functional cooperativity in SLC26 dimers.
The effect of NNMG on the template activities of different polynucleotides (polyuridylic acid, polycytidylic acid, polyadenylic acid and copolymer of adenylic and guanylic acid 5,5:1) and t-RNS was studied. The maximum inhibition of the messenger activity was found for poly-C, followed by poly-Α and poly-U. The acceptor activity of t-RNA was found to be inhibited by NNMG: maximum for proline, followed by serine, leucine, phenylalanine and lysine. The mechanism of these inhibitions was studied using NNMG radioactively labelled on the methyl group. Different amounts of radioactivity were found in the various polynucleotides and t-RNS.
The P300/CBP-associated factor plays a central role in retroviral infection and cancer development, and the C-terminal bromodomain provides an opportunity for selective targeting. Here, we report several new classes of acetyl-lysine mimetic ligands ranging from mM to low micromolar affinity that were identified using fragment screening approaches. The binding modes of the most attractive fragments were determined using high resolution crystal structures providing chemical starting points and structural models for the development of potent and selective PCAF inhibitors.
Structural determinants for substrate specificity of the promiscuous multidrug efflux pump AcrB
(2013)
Opportunistic Gram-negative pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter Baumanii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are becoming more and more multiresistant against many commonly available antibiotics [39, 40]. An important resistance mechanism of Gram-negative bacteria is the efflux of noxious compounds by tripartite systems [39, 41-44]. The best studied and most clinically relevant tripartite system is the AcrA-AcrB-TolC system of Escherichia coli, where substrate recognition and energy transduction takes place in the inner membrane protein AcrB. AcrB has a remarkably huge substrate spectrum and can recognize structurally diverse molecules, such as hexan in contrast to erythromycin, as its substrates [45]. Therefore, overproduction of the tripartite system can render a Gram-negative pathogen resistant against multiple antibiotics at once. The mechanisms of how AcrB is able to recognize such an enormous spectrum of molecules as substrates, without compromising its specificity (e.g. by neglecting essential compounds like lipids or gluclose as its susbtates), remained puzzling. Structural insight into substrate specificity was so far limited to two co-crystal structures of AcrB, where minocycline and doxorubicin, respectively, were identified bound to an internal binding pocket of AcrB. This binding pocket is particularly deeply buried into internal parts of the T monomer of AcrB and was, therefore, denoted deep binding pocket (DBP). Analysis of several AcrB co-crystal structures with substrate molecules bound to the DBP [4, 23, 25] indicated that the substrate promiscuity involved multisite binding modes within the DBP. Multisite binding modes, where different substrate molecules can bind to slightly different positions and orientations to the same binding pocket, is a common feature of multidrug recognizing proteins such as QacR or BmrR [27-29]. Nevertheless, AcrB's substrate spectrum is much broader than substrate spectra of most other multidrug recognizing proteins. Therefore, it is likely that additional mechanisms are involved in mediating the observed high substrate promiscuity of AcrB. In our recently published high-resolution AcrB/doxorubicin co-crystal structure (pdb entry: 4DX7 [23]) we were able to identify two additional substrate binding pockets in the L monomer of AcrB: i) the access pocket (AP), with an opening towards the periplasm, and ii) a putative binding site in a groove between transmembrane helices 8 and 9 (TM8/TM9 groove), accessible from the lipid layer of the inner membrane. Both binding pockets are likely to be access sites for substrates towards AcrB. Furthermore, each of the binding pockets are possibly specialized to recognize a specific subset of the entire substrate spectrum of AcrB, i.e. highly hydrophobic substrates (e.g. n-dodecyl-ß-d-maltoside or sodium dodecylsulfate) might access AcrB towards the TM8/TM9 groove and water soluble substrates (e.g. berberine) might access AcrB towards the AP. Since substrates will accumulate in the membrane or the periplasm according to their hydrophilic or hydrophobic nature, substrates will be "pre-selected" by the medium, rather than by the protein itself, and guided to their appropriate access site. This process is proposed to be called "medium- mediated pre-selection". The AcrB/doxorubicin co-crystal structure (pdb entry: 4DX7 [23]) furthermore revealed that the AP and DBP are in next neighborhood to each other and are separated by a switch loop. This switch loop adopts distinct conformations in the L, T and O monomers. Specific switch loop conformations are strongly involved in coordinating the selective occupation of both binding pockets, the AP and the DBP. The conformation of the switch loop in the L monomer (L-switch loop) opens the AP and closes the DBP, whereas the conformation of the switch loop in the T monomer (T-switch Loop) opens the DBP and closes the AP. An analysis of all asymmetric AcrB structures indicated that the L-switch loop is able to adopt multiple distinct conformations, whereas the conformation of T-switch loop remained largely congruent in all crystal structures. Moreover, each distinct switch loop conformation, observed in co-crystal structures of AcrB with occupied AP [4, 23], was perfectly adapted to the bound substrate molecule. Therefore, the putatively flexible switch loop is likely to act as an adaptive module and mediates a high binding pocket plasticity without altering the global protein structure. This binding mode is called adaptor-mediated binding mechanism, where an flexible adaptive module (like the switch loop) is able to adapt the surface shape of an binding pocket to different substrate molecules. Furthermore, structural and biochemical analyses of an AcrB G616N variant, revealed the involvement of specific switch loop conformations in the substrate specificity of AcrB. A substitution of G616, located on the switch loop, to N616 was able to alter the conformation of the switch loop exclusively in the L monomers of AcrB, whereas the switch loop conformations in T and O monomers remained congruent to the conformations observed in crystal structures of wildtype AcrB. Moreover, cells producing the AcrB G616N and MexB, both bearing the G616N amino acid substitution, exhibited a reduced resistance against certain substrates, whereas the resistance against most other substrates remained on the level of wildtype AcrB. Correlations of the phenotypes with minimal projection areas, a novel 2-spatiodimensional parameter which approximates the size of a substrate molecule, revealed that AcrB variants with a G616N substitution have a reduced efflux activity for exclusively large substrate molecules. The rejection of large substrates is most likely connected with altered L-switch loop conformations....
During the last decade of the 20th century, the field of mass spectrometry has seen a revolutionary change in its application and scope. The introduction of soft ionization methods for the analysis of biological molecules has expanded the area of mass spectrometry from its early roots in the analysis of inorganic and organic species into the fields of biology and medicine.
Today, the use of the mass spectrometry is extended to a wide range of applications in biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry, in geological, environmental and clinical research. In biochemistry, the principles of mass spectrometry are, however, broadly applicable in accurate molecular weight determination, reaction monitoring, amino acid sequencing, oligonucleotide sequencing and protein structure.
In order to carry out their biological activities, proteins interact most often to each other and form transient or stable complexes. In addition, some proteins specifically interact also with other proteins or with non-protein molecules, such as DNA, RNA or metabolites, these interactions being critical for their function. Hence, defining the composition of protein complexes, as well as understanding how protein complexes are assembled and regulated yield invaluable insights into protein function. Coupled with an isolation technique to purify a specific protein complex of interest, mass spectrometry can rapidly and reliably identify the components of complexes. In addition, quantitative MS techniques offer the possibility of studying dynamically regulated interactions....
In dieser Arbeit sollte die Bindung von Tetrahydromethanopterinderivaten an zwei Enzyme des methanogenen, CO2-reduzierenden Energiestoffwechselweges strukturell charakterisiert werden. In jenem Stoffwechselweg verläuft die schrittweise Reduktion von CO2 über die Bindung an den C1-Carrier Tetrahydromethanopterin (H4MPT), ein Tetrahydrofolat-Analogon, welches unter anderem in methanogenen Archaeen zu finden ist. Die thermophilen bzw. hyperthermophilen Ursprungsorganismen der untersuchten Enzyme, Methanothermobacter marburgensis, Methanocaldococcus jannaschii und Methanopyrus kandleri, sind aufgrund ihrer Anpassung an extreme Habitate durch spezielle genomische, strukturelle und enzymatische Eigenschaften von strukturbiologischem Interesse. Beim ersten in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Enzym handelte es sich um den aus acht Untereinheiten bestehenden membrangebundenen N5-Methyl-H4MPT:Coenzym M-Methyltransferasekomplex (MtrA-H). Dieser katalysiert in einem zweistufigen Mechanismus den Methyltransfer von H4MPT zum Co(I) der prosthetischen Gruppe 5’-Hydroxybenzimidazolylcobamid (Vitamin B12a), um die Methylgruppe dann auf Coenzym M zu übertragen. Gleichzeitig findet ein der Energiekonservierung dienender vektorieller Natriumtransport über die Membran statt. Für den Mtr-Komplex aus M. marburgensis (670 kDa) lag bereits ein Protokoll zur Reinigung unter anaeroben Bedingungen vor. Dieses wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit verbessert, für die Isolierung und Reinigung unter aeroben Bedingungen vereinfacht und für die Erfordernisse der zur Strukturbestimmung verwendeten elektronenmikroskopischen Einzelpartikelmessung optimiert. Neben der Präparation des kompletten Komplexes MtrA-H wurde als Alternative die Präparation des Enzymkomplexes MtrA-G unter möglichst vollständiger Abtrennung der hydrophilsten Untereinheit MtrH gewählt. Mit der zu diesem Zweck entwickelten Methode konnte das Abdissoziieren von MtrH besser als im etablierten Protokoll kontrolliert und somit die Homogenität der Probe deutlich verbessert werden. Dies schafft zum einen die Vorraussetzungen für eine Kristallisation zur Röntgenstrukturanalyse, zum anderen war auch in bei der elektronenmikroskopischen Einzelpartikelmessung erkennbar, dass mit dem Mtr-Komplex ohne MtrH bessere Ergebnisse zu erzielen sind. Parallel zu den Untersuchungen am Gesamtkomplex sollten die den Cobamid-Cofaktor bindende Untereinheit MtrA sowie die H4MPT-bindende Untereinheit MtrH in für die Kristallisation und röntgenkristallographische Untersuchung ausreichender Menge und Qualität gereinigt werden. Hierfür wurden MtrA und MtrH aus oben genannten Organismen für die heterologe Expression in E. coli kloniert, die Expressionsbedingungen optimiert und Reinigungsprotokolle etabliert. Anschließend wurden die Untereinheiten umfangreichen Kristallisationsversuchen unterzogen. Die Untereinheit MtrA aus M. jannaschii konnte ohne die C-terminale Transmembranhelix als lösliches Protein in E. coli produziert und als Holoprotein bis zur Homogenität gereinigt werden. Bei M. kandleri MtrA gelang die Herstellung von geringen Mengen teilweise löslichen StrepII-Fusionsproteins ohne C-terminale Transmembranhelix in E. coli. Eine Produktion der Untereinheit MtrH in E. coli als lösliches Protein war bei keiner der in dieser Arbeit getesteten Varianten möglich. Mit dem in Einschlusskörperchen exprimierten Protein aus M. marburgensis wurde eine Reinigung und Rückfaltung versucht. Auch eine Co-Expression der Untereinheiten MtrA und MtrH, durch welche eine bessere Faltung und Löslichkeit erreicht werden sollte, war nur in Einschlusskörperchen möglich. Das zweite in dieser Arbeit untersuchte Enzym, die F420 abhängige N5,N10 Methylen-H4MPT-Dehydrogenase (Mtd), katalysiert den reversiblen, stereospezifischen Hydrid-Transfer zwischen reduziertem F420 (F420H2) und Methenyl-H4MPT+, welches hierbei zu Methylen-H4MPT reduziert wird. Die Reaktion verläuft über einen ternären Komplex bestehend aus Protein, Substrat (Methylen-H4MPT) und Cosubstrat (F420), welcher strukturell charakterisiert werden sollte. Das gereinigte, rekombinante Enzym aus M. kandleri wurde mit verschiedenen H4MPT- und F420-Derivaten co-kristallisiert, die Struktur des ternären Komplexes röntgenkristallographisch bestimmt und die Bindung von H4MPT und F420 analysiert. Methenyl-H4MPT+ und F420H2 sind in der in dieser Arbeit gelösten Kristallstruktur in katalytisch aktiver Konformation gebunden, jedoch kann bei einer Auflösung von 1,8 Å nicht beurteilt werden, ob Methylen-H4MPT und F420 oder Methenyl-H4MPT+ und F420H2 vorlagen. Ein Vergleich mit der Struktur von M. kandleri-Mtd (KMtd) ohne Substrat und Cosubstrat ergab nur äußerst geringe Abweichungen in der Proteinkonformation, sodass sich KMtd überraschenderweise als Beispiel für ein Enzym mit ungewöhnlich starrer, vorgegebener Bindetasche erwies.
HER2 belongs to the ErbB sub-family of receptor tyrosine kinases and regulates cellular proliferation and growth. Different from other ErbB receptors, HER2 has no known ligand. Activation occurs through heterodimerization with other ErbB receptors and their cognate ligands. This suggests several possible activation paths of HER2 with ligand-specific, differential response, which so far remained unexplored. Using single-molecule tracking and the diffusion profile of HER2 as a proxy for activity, we measured the activation strength and temporal profile in live cells. We found that HER2 is strongly activated by EGFR-targeting ligands EGF and TGFα, yet with a distinguishable temporal fingerprint. The HER4-targeting ligands EREG and NRGβ1 showed weaker activation of HER2, a preference for EREG, and a delayed response to NRGβ1. Our results indicate a selective ligand response of HER2 that may serve as a regulatory element. Our experimental approach is easily transferable to other membrane receptors targeted by multiple ligands.
HER2 belongs to the ErbB sub-family of receptor tyrosine kinases and regulates cellular proliferation and growth. Different from other ErbB receptors, HER2 has no known ligand. Activation occurs through heterodimerization with other ErbB receptors and their cognate ligands. This suggests several possible activation paths of HER2 with ligand-specific, differential response, which has so far remained unexplored. Using single-molecule tracking and the diffusion profile of HER2 as a proxy for activity, we measured the activation strength and temporal profile in live cells. We found that HER2 is strongly activated by EGFR-targeting ligands EGF and TGFα, yet with a distinguishable temporal fingerprint. The HER4-targeting ligands EREG and NRGβ1 showed weaker activation of HER2, a preference for EREG, and a delayed response to NRGβ1. Our results indicate a selective ligand response of HER2 that may serve as a regulatory element. Our experimental approach is easily transferable to other membrane receptors targeted by multiple ligands.
HER2 belongs to the ErbB sub-family of receptor tyrosine kinases and regulates cellular proliferation and growth. Different from other ErbB receptors, HER2 has no known ligand. Activation occurs through heterodimerization with other ErbB receptors and their cognate ligands. This suggests several possible activation paths of HER2 with ligand-specific, differential response, which so far remained unexplored. Using single-molecule tracking and the diffusion profile of HER2 as a proxy for activity, we measured the activation strength and temporal profile in live cells. We found that HER2 is strongly activated by EGFR-targeting ligands EGF and TGFα, yet with a distinguishable temporal fingerprint. The HER4-targeting ligands EREG and NRGβ1 showed weaker activation of HER2, a preference for EREG and a delayed response to NRGβ1. Our results indicate a selective ligand response of HER2 that may serve as a regulatory element. Our experimental approach is easily transferable to other membrane receptors targeted by multiple ligands.
Highlights
HER2 exhibits heterogeneous motion in the plasma membrane
The fraction of immobile HER2 correlates with phosphorylation levels
Diffusion properties serve as proxies for HER2 activation
HER2 exhibits ligand-specific activation strength and temporal profiles
We previously proposed that the dimeric cytochrome bc(1) complex exhibits half-of-the-sites reactivity for ubiquinol oxidation and rapid electron transfer between bc(1) monomers (Covian, R., Kleinschroth, T., Ludwig, B., and Trumpower, B. L. (2007) J. Biol. Chem. 282, 22289-22297). Here, we demonstrate the previously proposed half-of-the-sites reactivity and intermonomeric electron transfer by characterizing the kinetics of ubiquinol oxidation in the dimeric bc(1) complex from Paracoccus denitrificans that contains an inactivating Y147S mutation in one or both cytochrome b subunits. The enzyme with a Y147S mutation in one cytochrome b subunit was catalytically fully active, whereas the activity of the enzyme with a Y147S mutation in both cytochrome b subunits was only 10-16% of that of the enzyme with fully wild-type or heterodimeric cytochrome b subunits. Enzyme with one inactive cytochrome b subunit was also indistinguishable from the dimer with two wild-type cytochrome b subunits in rate and extent of reduction of cytochromes b and c(1) by ubiquinol under pre-steady-state conditions in the presence of antimycin. However, the enzyme with only one mutated cytochrome b subunit did not show the stimulation in the steady-state rate that was observed in the wild-type dimeric enzyme at low concentrations of antimycin, confirming that the half-of-the-sites reactivity for ubiquinol oxidation can be regulated in the wild-type dimer by binding of inhibitor to one ubiquinone reduction site.
The ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase is a key component of several aerobic respiratory chains in different organisms. It is an integral membrane protein complex, made up of three catalytic subunits (cytochrome b, cytochrome c1 and Rieske iron sulphur protein) and up to eight additional subunits in mitochondria. The complex oxidizes one quinol molecules and reduces two cytochrome c during the Q cycle, originally described by Peter Mitchell. Electrons are split between the low and the high potential chain and protons are released on the positive side of the membrane, increasing the protonmotive force needed by the ATP-synthase for energy transduction. The cytochrome bc1 complex from P. denitrificans is a perfect model for structural and functional studies. Bacteria are easy to grow and the genetic material is readily accessible for genetic manipulation. Moreover, the P. denitrificans aerobic respiratory chain is very close to the mitochondrial one: the complexes involved in electron transfer resemble the ones found in mitochondria, but lack most of the additional subunits. As a unique feature, P. denitrificans has a strongly acidic domain at the N-terminal region of the cytochrome c1, a sequence of 150 aminoacids which does not correlate with any known protein. An analogous composition can be found in the eukaryotic cytochrome bc1 complex as a part of an accessory subunit, proposed to be involved in facilitating electron transfer between the complex and the electron acceptor cytochrome c. In order to study the function of this domain in the P. denitrificans cytochrome bc1 complex, a deletion mutant has been previously cloned and modified with an affinity tag as a C-terminal extension of cytochrome b. The complex is purified by affinity chromatography and characterized by steady-state kinetics using not only horse heart cytochrome c but also the endogenous electron acceptor, the membrane bound cytochrome c552, employed here as a soluble fragment. Steady–state kinetics indicate that the deletion of the long acidic domain had effects neither on the turnover rate nor on the apparent affinity for the substrate. To understand wether the deletion affects the reaction between the cytochrome bc1 complex and the substrate, laser flash photolysis experiments are performed, showing that the interaction observed was not changed in the complex missing the acidic domain. The results presented in this work confirm the ones previously obtained by Julia Janzon using soluble fragments of the same interaction partners. The deletion, however, affected the oligomerization state of the complex, as shown by LILBID (Laser Induced Liquid Bead Ion Desorption) analysis. The wild type complex has a tetrameric structure, better described as a “dimer of dimers”. The deletion of the acidic domain on the cytochrome c1 results in the separation of the two dimers, yielding the canonical dimer. Therefore, the complex deleted in the acidic domain is used for cloning and expression of a heterodimeric complex, containing an inactivating mutation in the quinol oxidation site in only one monomer, thus allowing a selective switch-off for half the complex. Such a complex is needed for the verification of an internal regulation mechanism, the half-of-the-sites reactivity. According to it, the dimeric structure of the cytochrome bc1 complex has functional implications, since the two monomers can communicate and work in a coordinated manner. This approach confirms that substrate oxidation does effectively take place only in one of the two monomers constituting the dimer, and that the binding of substrate at the Qo and Qi site regulates the switch between active and inactive monomer. Moreover, this mechanism works also as an effective protection against the reaction of quinone intermediates with oxygen and the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), responsable for cellular aging. The motion of the ISP head domain is also addressed in this work; in particular the mechanism which regulates the movements towards the cytochrome c1 and the electron bifurcation at the quinol oxidation site. Laser flash kinetics in presence of several inhibitors and the substrate allow studying the response of the ISP to the binding of different species at the quinol oxidation site. The binding of ligand at the Qo site in the complex triggers the conformational switch in the ISP head domain, supporting the mechanism proposed in the literature according to which the Qo site is able to “sense” the presence of substrate and transfer the information to the ISP, regulating its mobility. The internal electron pathway between the ISP and the cytochrome c1 has been analyzed also by stopped-flow kinetics, in presence and absence of inhibitors. The results indicate that two kinetic phases describe the reduction of cytochrome c1 by the ISP, and a model for the simulation of the data is proposed.
The development of single-photon-counting detectors, such as the PILATUS, has been a major recent breakthrough in macromolecular crystallography, enabling noise-free detection and novel data-acquisition modes. The new EIGER detector features a pixel size of 75 × 75 µm, frame rates of up to 3000 Hz and a dead time as low as 3.8 µs. An EIGER 1M and EIGER 16M were tested on Swiss Light Source beamlines X10SA and X06SA for their application in macromolecular crystallography. The combination of fast frame rates and a very short dead time allows high-quality data acquisition in a shorter time. The ultrafine φ-slicing data-collection method is introduced and validated and its application in finding the optimal rotation angle, a suitable rotation speed and a sufficient X-ray dose are presented. An improvement of the data quality up to slicing at one tenth of the mosaicity has been observed, which is much finer than expected based on previous findings. The influence of key data-collection parameters on data quality is discussed.
Sucrose- and H+-dependent charge movements associated with the gating of sucrose transporter ZmSUT1
(2010)
Background: In contrast to man the majority of higher plants use sucrose as mobile carbohydrate. Accordingly proton-driven sucrose transporters are crucial for cell-to-cell and long-distance distribution within the plant body. Generally very negative plant membrane potentials and the ability to accumulate sucrose quantities of more than 1 M document that plants must have evolved transporters with unique structural and functional features.
Methodology/Principal Findings: To unravel the functional properties of one specific high capacity plasma membrane sucrose transporter in detail, we expressed the sucrose/H+ co-transporter from maize ZmSUT1 in Xenopus oocytes. Application of sucrose in an acidic pH environment elicited inward proton currents. Interestingly the sucrose-dependent H+ transport was associated with a decrease in membrane capacitance (Cm). In addition to sucrose Cm was modulated by the membrane potential and external protons. In order to explore the molecular mechanism underlying these Cm changes, presteady-state currents (Ipre) of ZmSUT1 transport were analyzed. Decay of Ipre could be best fitted by double exponentials. When plotted against the voltage the charge Q, associated to Ipre, was dependent on sucrose and protons. The mathematical derivative of the charge Q versus voltage was well in line with the observed Cm changes. Based on these parameters a turnover rate of 500 molecules sucrose/s was calculated. In contrast to gating currents of voltage dependent-potassium channels the analysis of ZmSUT1-derived presteady-state currents in the absence of sucrose (I = Q/τ) was sufficient to predict ZmSUT1 transport-associated currents.
Conclusions: Taken together our results indicate that in the absence of sucrose, ‘trapped’ protons move back and forth between an outer and an inner site within the transmembrane domains of ZmSUT1. This movement of protons in the electric field of the membrane gives rise to the presteady-state currents and in turn to Cm changes. Upon application of external sucrose, protons can pass the membrane turning presteady-state into transport currents.
Cardiac progenitor cells hold great potential for regenerative therapies in heart disorders. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating cardiac progenitor cell expansion and differentiation remain poorly defined. Here we show that the multi- adaptor protein Ldb1, which mediates interactions between different classes of LIM domain transcription factors, is a multifunctional regulator of cardiac progenitor cell differentiation. Ldb1-deficient embryonic stem cells (ESCs) show a markedly decreased expression of second heart field (SHF) marker genes and subsequently impaired cardiomyocyte differentiation. Conditional ablation of Ldb1 in the early SHF using an Isl1-Cre driver led to embryonic lethality at Embryonic day (E)10.5 with cardiac abnormalities including a significantly smaller right ventricle and a shortened outflow tract, supporting a crucial role of Ldb1 in the SHF. Mechanistically we show that the importance of Ldb1 for SHF development is two-fold: On the one hand, Ldb1 binds to Isl1 and protects it from proteasomal degradation, as a consequence of which Ldb1-deficiency leads to an almost complete loss of Isl1+ cardiovascular progenitor cells. On the other hand the Isl1/Ldb1 complex promotes long-range promoter-enhancer interactions at the loci of the core cardiac transcription factors Mef2c and Hand2. Chromosome conformation capture followed by sequencing (3C- seq) identified specific Ldb1-mediated interactions of the Isl1/Ldb1 responsive Mef2c anterior heart field enhancer with genes which play key roles in cardiac progenitor cell function and cardiovascular development. These interactions are of critical importance to regulate the expression of the downstream target genes since their expression levels are strongly dependent on the Ldb1/Isl1 levels. Overexpression of an Ldb1 mutant, which contains the LIM interaction domain and thereby can protect Isl1 protein from degradation, but lacks the dimerization domain and thus cannot promote long-range interactions, does not collaborate with Isl1 to regulate the expression of their common targets and results in defects in Isl1+ cardiac progenitor differentiation. In this thesis we show one of the first examples of genome-wide chromatin reorganization mediated by a developmental regulated, cell type specific, transcription complex. Ldb1 in concert with Isl1 promotes long range promoter- enhancer and enhancer-enhancer interactions in order to create active chromatin hub where gene important for heart development can be co-regulated. Moreover, Isl1 and Ldb1 genetically interact during heart development, as Isl1/Ldb1 haplodeficient embryos show various cardiac anomalies. The dosage-sensitive interdependence between Isl1 and Ldb1 in the expression of these key factors in cardiogenesis, further supports a key role of the Isl1/Ldb1 complex in coordinating a three dimensional genome organization, upstream of a regulatory network driving cardiac differentiation and heart development.
In conclusion, the Isl1/Ldb1 complex orchestrate a genome-wide three dimensional chromatin reorganization resulting in a transcriptional program responsible for the differentiation of multipotent cardiac progenitor cells into cardiomyocytes.
Der Name Histamin hat seinen Ursprung aus dem griechischen Wort "histos" (Gewebe) und spielt auf sein breites Spektrum an Aktivitäten, sowohl unter physiologischen als auch unter pathophysiologischen Bedingungen an. Histamin ist eines der Moleküle mit welchem man sich im letzten Jahrhundert am intensivsten beschäftigt hat.
Im Jahr 1907 wurde das Histamin erstmals synthetisiert. Drei Jahre später gelang es, dieses Monoamin erstmals aus dem Mutterkornpilz Claviceps purpurea zu isolieren. Weitere 17 Jahre vergingen, ehe Best et al. Histamin aus der humanen Leber und der humanen Lunge isolieren konnten. Best konnte somit beweisen, dass dieses biogene Amin einen natürlichen Bestandteil des menschlichen Körpers darstellt. Nach der Entdeckung wurden dem Histamin mehrere Effekte zugeschrieben. Dale et al. beobachteten, dass Histamin einen stimulierenden Effekt auf die glatte Muskulatur des Darms und des Respirationstraktes hat, stimulierend auf die Herzkontraktion wirkt, Vasodepression und ein schockähnliches Syndrom verursacht.
Popielski demonstrierte, dass Histamin dosisabhängig einen stimulierenden Effekt auf die Magensäuresekretion von Hunden hat. Lewis wiederum beschrieb erstmals, dass Histamin einen Effekt auf der Haut hervorruft. Dies zeigte sich durch verschiedene Merkmale, wie geröteter Bereich aufgrund der Vasodilatation und Quaddeln aufgrund der erhöhten Gefäßpermeabilität. Des Weiteren wurde Histamin eine mediatorische Eigenschaft bei anaphylaktischen und allergischen Reaktionen zugeschrieben. Zusätzlich spielt das biogene Amin eine entscheidende Rolle im zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS), unter anderem beim Lernen, bei der Erinnerung, beim Appetit und beim Schlaf-Wach-Rhythmus. Von den zahlreichen physiologischen Effekten des Histamins ist seine Rolle bei Entzündungsprozessen, der Magensäuresekretion und als Neurotransmitter am besten verstanden.
Die Replikation und Pathogenese von HIV ist in hohem Maße von zellulären Faktoren abhängig. Das Virus muss einerseits die protektiven und antiviralen Abwehrmechanismen der Wirtszelle umgehen können und gleichzeitig ist seine Replikation an die Nutzung zellulärer Faktoren adaptiert. Neben der Interaktion mit konstitutionell exprimierten zellulären Proteinen bewirkt das HI-Virus auch eine transkriptionelle Regulation zellulärer Gene, um sich einen für seine Replikation vorteilhaften Funktionszustand der Wirtszelle zu schaffen. Durch eine HIV-Infektion differentiell exprimierte Gene stellen daher potentielle Kandidatengene zur Identifizierung essentieller Wirtsfaktoren oder zellulärer Restriktionsfaktoren der HIV-Replikation dar. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die durch HIV-Infektion differentiell regulierten Gene LEREPO4, GLiPR, SCC-112 und Moesin auf eine mögliche Funktion bei der HIV-Replikation analysiert. Dabei wurden diese durch RNA Interferenz (RNAi) im Kontext einer HIV-Infektion reprimiert. Als zelluläres Modellsystem wurden P4-CCR5-Zellen verwendet, bei denen eine Infektion mit dem Virusstamm HIV-1Bru eine Induktion der Gene LEREPO4, GLiPR und Moesin sowie eine Repression von SCC-112 bewirkte. Die RNA-Interferenz vermittelte Suppression dieser Gene erfolgte durch Applikation von synthetischen siRNA Oligonukleotiden oder durch intrazelluläre Expression von short hairpin RNAs (shRNA). Durch den Einsatz von shRNAs konnte jedoch unter den vorliegenden Versuchsbedingungen nur eine unzureichende Gensuppression erreicht werden. Aus diesem Grund wurden synthetische siRNA Oligonukleotide verwendet. Es konnte eine deutliche Reduktion der jeweiligen Zielgene bewirkt werden, ohne dass nennenswerte Effekte auf den Phänotyp und die Viabilität der Zellen beobachtet wurden. Der Einfluss der siRNA-vermittelten Gensuppression auf die HIV-Replikation wurde durch Infektion der Zellen ermittelt. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Depletion von GLiPR und LEREPO4 eine deutliche Inhibition der HIV-Replikation bewirkte. Das Ausmaß der Inhibition war ähnlich ausgeprägt, wie durch Verwendung einer bereits publizierten, gegen das virale Gen p24 gerichteten siRNA. Die Depletion von SCC-112 hatte im Gegensatz hierzu keine eindeutige Wirkung auf die HIV-Replikation, so dass nicht ausgeschlossen werden kann, dass seine Repression während einer HIV-Infektion ein unspezifischer bzw. sekundärer Effekt ist. Die siRNA-vermittelte Suppression von Moesin führte zu einem unerwarteten Ergebnis, da eine deutliche Steigerung der HIV-Replikation im Vergleich zur Kontrolle festgestellt wurde. Damit konnte erstmals belegt werden, dass Moesin nicht für die HIV-Replikation benötigt wird, wie es durch andere Arbeiten postuliert wurde. Diese Annahme begründete sich auf der Beobachtung, dass Moesin in Viruspartikel inkorporiert wird. Daher wurde eine Beteiligung an der Zusammenlagerung oder Abschnürung viraler Partikel vermutet. Die in dieser Arbeit ermittelten Ergebnisse lassen vermuten, dass LEREPO4 und GLiPR notwendige Faktoren der HIV-Replikation sind, wohingegen Moesin einen negativen Effekt zu vermitteln scheint. Die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen dieser Wirkung auf die HIVReplikation sind jedoch weitgehend unklar. Da die Proteine LEREPO4, SCC-112 und GLiPR nicht oder nur unzureichend charakterisiert sind, war ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit zelluläre Funktionen dieser Proteine zu ermitteln, um Rückschlüsse auf ihre Funktion bei der HIV-Replikation zu gewinnen. Es konnten polyklonale Antikörper gegen LEREPO4 generiert werden, mit denen eine Bestimmung der zellulären Lokalisation möglich war. Mittels Co-Immunopräzipitation wurde die Interaktion von LEREPO4 und TRAF-2 nachgewiesen. Die Bestimmung des Einflusses von LEREPO4 auf die NF-κB-Aktivierung lässt vermuten, dass LEREPO4 an der TRAF-vermittelten Signaltransduktion beteiligt ist. Untersuchungen zur Funktion von GLiPR zeigten, dass es sich möglicherweise um ein sekretorisches Protein handeln könnte, wie durch den fluoreszenzmikroskopischen Nachweis eines GLiPR-EGFP-Fusionsproteins in HeLa-Zellen ermittelt wurde. Weiterhin konnte mittels Annexin-V-Färbung und TUNEL-Assay belegt werden, dass eine exogene Expression des GLiPRs in HeLa Zellen zu einem deutlichen Anstieg der Apoptoserate führte. Zusätzlich wurden für jedes Protein Genexpressionsprofile nach siRNA vermittelter Repression mittels Microarray-Analyse erstellt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass LEREPO4 und GLiPR mögliche Kofaktoren der HIV-Replikation darstellen. Im Gegensatz hierzu scheint Moesin einen negativen Effekt zu vermitteln. Auf Grundlage der in dieser Arbeit ermittelten Daten können weiterführende Untersuchungen durchgeführt werden, um die genaue Funktion der oben genannten Proteine bei der HIV-Replikation zu klären.
Complex I (proton-pumping NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) is the largest enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and a significant source of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We hypothesized that during energy conversion by complex I, electron transfer onto ubiquinone triggers the concerted rearrangement of three protein loops of subunits ND1, ND3, and 49-kDa thereby generating the power-stoke driving proton pumping. Here we show that fixing loop TMH1-2ND3 to the nearby subunit PSST via a disulfide bridge introduced by site-directed mutagenesis reversibly disengages proton pumping without impairing ubiquinone reduction, inhibitor binding or the Active/Deactive transition. The X-ray structure of mutant complex I indicates that the disulfide bridge immobilizes but does not displace the tip of loop TMH1-2ND3. We conclude that movement of loop TMH1-2ND3 located at the ubiquinone-binding pocket is required to drive proton pumping corroborating one of the central predictions of our model for the mechanism of energy conversion by complex I proposed earlier.
Rezeptortyrosinkinasen der Familie der epidermalen Wachstumsfaktorrezeptoren (EGFR) sind in vielen Krebsarten dereguliert und ursächlich an der malignen Transformation beteiligt. Da die Aktivierung vom Rezeptor ausgehender Signaltransduktionskaskaden auf spezifischen Protein-Protein-Interaktionen basiert, kann durch gezielte Interferenz mit diesen Interaktionen das proliferative Signal ausgeschaltet und das Tumorwachstum angehalten werden. Für diese gezielte Interferenz wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit das Peptid-Aptamer-System eingesetzt, mittels dem Peptide, die in ein Gerüstprotein inseriert sind, aufgrund ihrer Affinität zu einem Zielprotein selektiert werden können. Drei Peptid-Aptamere (KDI1, KDI3, KDI4), die spezifisch mit dem EGF-Rezeptor interagieren, konnten isoliert werden. lntrazelluläre Expression von Peptid-Aptamer KDI1 oder Einbringung des bakteriell exprimierten Peptid-Aptamers KDI1 mittels einer Proteintransduktionsdomäne führte zu reduzierter EGF-abhängiger Proliferation und Transformation. Durch Interferenz des Aptamers mit dem EGF-Rezeptor war die EGF-induzierte Phosphorylierung von Tyrosin 845, 1068 und 1148, sowie die Aktivierung von p46 Shc und STAT3 reduziert. Daher wurde gefolgert, dass das Peptid-Aptamer die EGF-abhängige Rekrutierung der zytoplasmatischen Kinase c-Src an den Rezeptor inhibiert. Durch Fusion einer zusätzlichen Domäne wie der SOCS-Box-Domäne konnte den Peptid-Aptameren eine zusätzliche inhibitorische Funktion gegeben werden. Hierbei handelt es sich um eine Domäne, die spezifisch Kontakt mit E3-Ubiquitin-Ligasen aufbauen kann. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch Transduktion eines solchen Peptid-Aptamers der Rezeptor spezifisch ubiquitinyliert und damit degradiert wird. Das Peptid-Aptamer-System eignet sich somit dazu, Inhibitoren für vorgegebene Zielmoleküle zu isolieren, die sowohl in der Grundlagenforschung als auch in der Tumortherapie Anwendung finden können.