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By adopting a variety of shapes, proteins can perform a wide number of functions in the cell, from being structural elements or enabling communication with the environment to performing complex enzymatic reactions needed to sustain metabolism. The number of proteins in the cell is limited by the number of genes encoding them. However, several mechanisms exist to increase the overall number of protein functions. One of them are post-translational modifications, i.e. covalent attachment of various molecules onto proteins. Ubiquitin was the first protein to be found to modify other proteins, and, faithful to its evocative name, it is involved in nearly all the activities of a cell. Ubiquitylation of proteins was believed for a long time only to be responsible for proteasomal degradation of modified proteins. However, with the discovery of various types of ubiquitylation, such as mono-, multiple- or poly-ubiquitylation, new functions of this post-translational modification emerged. Mono-ubiquitylation has been implicated in endocytosis, chromatin remodelling and DNA repair, while poly-ubiquitylation influences the half-life of proteins or modulates signal transduction pathways. DNA damage repair and tolerance are example of pathways extensively regulated by ubiquitylation. PCNA, a protein involved in nearly all types of DNA transaction, can undergo both mono- and poly-ubiquitylation. These modifications are believed to change the spectrum of proteins that interact with PCNA. Monoubiquitylation of PCNA is induced by stalling of replication forks when replicative polymerases (pols) encounter an obstacle, such as DNA damage or tight DNA-protein complexes. It is believed that monoubiquitylation of PCNA stimulates the exchange between replicative pols to one of polymerases that can synthesize DNA across various lesions, a mechanism of damage tolerance known as translesion synthesis (TLS). Our work has helped to understand why monoubiqutylation of PCNA favours this polymerase switch. We have identified two novel domains with the ability to bind Ub non-covalently. These domains are present in all the members of Y polymerases performing TLS, and were named Ub-binding zinc finger (UBZ) (in polη and polκ) and Ub-binding motif (UBM) (in polι and Rev1). We have shown that these domains enable Y polymerases to preferentially gain access to PCNA upon stalling of replication, when the action of translesion polymerases is required. While the region of direct interaction between Y pols and PCNA had been known (BRCT domain in Rev1 and PIP box motif (PIP) in three others members), we propose that Ub-binding domains (UBDs) in translesion Y pols enhance the PIP- or BRCT-domain-mediated interaction between these polymerases and PCNA by binding to the Ub moiety attached onto PCNA. Following these initial studies, we have also discovered that Y polymerases themselves undergo monoubiquitylation and that their UBDs mediate this modification. This auto-ubiquitylation is believed to lead to an intramolecular interaction between UBD and Ub attached in cis onto the UBD-containing protein. We have mapped monoubiquitylation sites in polη in the C-terminal portion of the protein containing the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and the PIP box. Beside PIP, the NLS motif is also involved in direct interaction of polη with PCNA. Based on these findings, we propose that monoubiquitylation of either NLS or PIP masks them from potential interaction with PCNA. Lastly, using several functional assays, we have demonstrated the importance of all these three motifs in the C-terminus of polη (UBZ, NLS and PIP) for efficient TLS. We have also constructed a mimic of monoubiquitylated polη by genetically fusing polη with Ub. Interestingly, this chimera is deficient in TLS as compared to the wild-type protein. Altogether, these studies demonstrate that the C-terminus of polη constitutes a regulatory module involved in multiple-site interaction with monoubiquitylated PCNA, and that monoubiquitylation of this region inhibits the interaction between polη and PCNA. Our work has also revealed that the UBDs of Y pols as well as of other proteins implicated in DNA damage repair and tolerance, such as the Werner helicase-interacting protein 1 (Wrnip1), are required for their proper sub-nuclear localization. All these proteins localize to discrete focal structures inside the nucleus and mutation of their UBDs results in inability to accumulate in these foci. Interestingly, by exchanging UBDs between different proteins we have learned that each UBD seems to have a distinct functional role, surprisingly not limited to Ubbinding ability. In fact, swapping the UBZ of Wrnip1 with the UBM of polι abolished the localization of Wrnip1 to foci despite preserving the Ub-binding ability of the chimeric protein. In summary, this work provides an overview of how post-translation modification of proteins by Ub can regulate several DNA transactions. Firstly, key regulators (e.g. PCNA) can be differentially modified by Ub. Secondly, specialized UBDs (e.g. UBM, UBZ) embedded only in a subset of proteins act as modules able to recognize these modifications. Thirdly, by means of mediating auto-ubiquitylation, UBDs can modulate the behaviour of host proteins by allowing for either in cis or in trans Ub-UBD interactions.
[4-(3-Bromoacetylpyridinio)-butyl]adenosine pyrophosphate as a structural analog of NAD+ reacts covalently with the sulfhydryl groups of thiopropyl agarose. 10-20 μmol can be bound to 1 ml gel. Stabilization of the insoluble coenzym e is attained by treatment with sodium boro hydride (NaBH4). This complex when applied to column chromatography, allow s the separation of various dehydrogenases as a result of their different complex stability coefficients. Alcohol dehydrogenase from liver, lactate dehydrogenase, and adenylate kinase, which all bind to the ADP-analog residues of the gel matrix, can thus be separated by different salt gradients. Alcohol dehydrogenase from yeast, however, does not form a complex and can easily be eluted from the column with phosphate buffer. Glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate and aldehyde dehydrogenases can be eluted by the addition of NAD+ or NADH to the buffer. The uncharged 1,4-dihydropyridin ring of the reduced coenzyme produces a more stable complex with the dehydrogenases than the oxidized form.
The title compound, C14H11NO4, crystallizes with two molecules in the asymmetric unit. The major conformational difference between these two molecules is the dihedral angle between the aromatic rings, namely 36.99 (5) and 55.04 (5)°. The nitro groups are coplanar with the phenyl rings to which they are attached, the O—N—C—C torsion angles being -1.9 (3) and 1.0 (3)° in the two molecules.
4-Nitrophenyl 1-naphthoate
(2010)
In the title compound, C17H11NO4, the dihedral angle between the two benzene rings is 8.66 (3)°. The nitro group is twisted by 4.51 (9)° out of the plane of the aromatic ring to which it is attached. The presence of intermolecular C—H ... O contacts in the crystal structure leads to the formation of chains along the c axis.
P2X receptors represent the third superfamily of ligand gated ion channels with ATP as their natural ligand. Most of the mammalian P2X receptors are non-selective cation channels, which upon activation, mediate membrane depolarization and have physiological roles ranging from fast excitatory synaptic transmission, modulation of pain-sensation, LTP to apoptosis etc. In spite of them being an attractive drug target, their potential as a drug target is limited by the lack of basic understanding of the structure-function relationship of these receptors. In my thesis, I have investigated the behavior of homomeric P2X receptor subunits with the help of photolabeling and fluorescence techniques coupled to electrophysiological measurements using Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologous expression system. Concurrent photolabeling by BzATP and current recordings from the same set of receptors in real time has revealed that the gating process in homomeric P2X receptors is contributed individually by each subunit in an additive manner. Our study for the first time describes the agonist potency of Alexa-ATP (a fluorescent ATP analog) on P2X1 receptors. The use of Alexa-ATP in our experiments elucidated that receptor subunits are not independent but interacting with each other in a cooperative manner. The type of cooperativity, however, depended on the type and concentrations of allosteric/competing ligands. Based on our results, in my thesis we propose an allosteric model for ligand-receptor interactions in P2X receptors. When simulated, the model could replicate our experimental findings thus, further validating our model. Further, correlation between occupancy of P2X1 receptors (determined using binding curve for Alexa-ATP) with the steady-state desensitization suggests that binding of three agonist molecules per receptor are required to desensitize P2X1 receptors. We further extended the approach of fluorescence with electrophysiological measurement to assign the role for different domains in P2X1 receptors with the help of environmental sensitive, cysteine reactive fluorophore (TMRM). Cysteine rich domain-1 of P2X1 receptors (C117-C165) was found to be involved in structural rearrangements after agonist and antagonist binding. In contrast to the present understanding, that the binding of an antagonist cannot induce desensitization in P2X1 receptors and the receptors need to open first before undergoing desensitization, we propose based on our results that a competitive antagonist can also induce desensitization in P2X1 receptors by bypassing the open state. We have attempted to answer few intriguing questions in the field of P2X receptor research and we think that our answers provide many avenues to the basic understanding of functioning of P2X receptors.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, mit den Methoden der NMR-Spektroskopie die elektrostatischen Eigenschaften der Xylanase aus Bacillus agaradhaerens in Abhängigkeit vom pH-Wert zu charakterisieren. Für die vorliegende Arbeit wurde das Strukturgen der Xylanase in verschiedene Expressionsvektoren des pET-Systems kloniert, wobei das Enzym auf 207 Aminosäuren verkürzt wurde. Diese Länge entspricht der publizierten Kristallstrukur von Sabini et al. (1999). Die Expression in pET3a und die Aufreinigung des Genproduktes mit Ionenaustauschchromatographie wurde optimiert, sodass homogenes Protein mit guten Ausbeuten erhalten werden konnte. Die Xylanase wurde mit den Isotopen 15N und 13C markiert und heteronukleare, mehrdimensionale NMR-Spektren wurden für die Zuordnung der Resonanzen des Proteins aufgenommen. Die chemischen Verschiebungswerte des Proteinrückgrats und die der aliphatischen Seitenketten wurden vollständig zugeordnet. Als eine weitere Voraussetzung für eine pH-Titration wurden sequenzspezifisch die Resonanzen der Histidin- bzw. Carboxylatgruppen bestimmt. Die Lösungsstruktur der Xylanase wurde anhand mehrerer automatisierter Prozeduren errechnet, um die Zuordnung der Resonanzen zu validieren. Alle Strukturelemente, die bereits aus der Kristallstruktur bekannt sind, wurden korrekt wiedergegeben. Da die Lösungsstruktur mit einem backbone RMSD-Wert von 2.44 ± 0.29 Å hoch 2 als vorläufig zu betrachten war, wurde im Folgenden ausschließlich die Kristallstruktur zur Bewertung der Distanzbeziehungen verwendet. In Abwesenheit des Substrats wurden die pH-abhängigen Resonanzen der Histidin- und Carboxylatgruppen sowie der Amide des Proteinrückgrats gemessen. Die Auswertung ergab 220 Titrationsprofile der 15N- and 13C-Resonanzen in einem pH-Bereich von 3.2 bis 8.7. Durch nichtlineare Regression der gemessenen Werte an eine modifizierte Henderson-Hasselbalch Gleichung wurden die pK S-Werte der Seitenketten von Aspartat und Glutamat, sowie für das C-terminale Carboxylat und für die Histidingruppen bestimmt. Die Titrationskurven der katalytischen Dyade zeigten eine ausgeprägte gegenseitige Wechselwirkung. Die korrespondierenden pK S-Werte stimmen gut mit dem vorhergesagten enzymatischen Mechanismus überein (Sabini et al., 1999) und belegen, dass das Nukleophil Glu94 bei einem neutralem pH-Wert deprotoniert ist, während die Bronsted Säure/Base GIu184 zu ca. 30% protoniert ist. Um die Untersuchungen zur katalytischen Aktivität zu vervollständigen, wurden alle pH-abhängigen [15N]-Resonanzen der Amide des Proteinrückgrats wie auch die der lndolstickstoffe in der Substratbindungsspalte analysiert. Die Wendepunkte konnten dem Titrationsverhalten der benachbarten sauren Aminosäure-Seitenketten zugeordnet werden. Aber es erscheint sehr wahrscheinlich, dass ein wesentlich komplexerer Ablauf stattfindet. Die asymmetrische Wechselwirkung von Trptophan-Seitenketten bezüglich der katalytischen Dyade wie auch das wechselnde Monotonieverhalten der Titrationskurven deuten auf eine simultane Reorganisation der Seitenkettenkonformere bei pH ungefähr gleich 6 und/oder auf eine Änderung des Wasserstoffbrückennetzwerkes innerhalb der Bindungsspalte.
Levels of the purine nucleoside triphosphates are de creasing towards the end of log phase growth of Streptomyces hydrogenans. Induction of 20β-hydroxysteroid dehy-drogenase by addition of 11β,21-dihydroxy-4,17 (20) -pregna-dien-3-one to the growth medium leads to a pronounced drop in purine nucleoside triphosphate levels with is irreversible in contrast to the initial loss and later accumulation of RNA.
This thesis deals with the NMR characterization of the structure and the folding dynamics of DNA G quadruplexes as potential therapeutic target in cancer therapy and building block for DNA based nanotechnology.
The first part of this thesis (Chapters 1-5) introduces the reader to the world of G quadruplexes.
The main features of the classic Watson Crick double helix and alternative non B DNA structures are illustrated in Chapter 1. Many different base pairing schemes are possible, besides the canonical Watson Crick motif, thereby expanding the structural complexity of DNA. Non canonical base pairing, such as Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding, enables the assembly of triplets and quartets, which are the building blocks of triplex and quadruplex structures, respectively.
The structural characteristics of DNA G quadruplexes are delineated in detail in Chapter 2.
G quadruplex structures are extremely polymorphic, in terms of strands orientation, loops geometry, grooves width and arrangement of the glycosidic torsion angles. The various structural elements as well as the different cation coordination geometries are here presented, with a special emphasis on the diversity of conformations reported for the telomeric DNA G quadruplexes.
Chapter 3 describes the biological roles of G quadruplex structures in the genome. After introducing the architecture of the telomeric DNA and its interacting proteins, the mechanism of the telomeres elongation catalysed by the telomerase enzyme and its implications for cancer are discussed. The occurrence of G quadruplex structures in functional regions of the genome, such as promoter regions of oncogenes, and their possible roles in regulating the gene transcription are then outlined in the second part of the chapter.
The potential of G quadruplex as a novel anti cancer target is examined in Chapter 4 and the proposed anti cancer mechanisms for a ligand stabilizing G quadruplex structures are discussed.
RNA G quadruplexes and their putative role in gene regulation at the level of translation are briefly illustrated at the end of the chapter.
A general overview on the NMR methods to investigate the G quadruplex structures is presented in Chapter 5. The experimental set up used for the real time NMR studies of the G quadruplex folding is also described.
The second part of the thesis (Chapters 6-8), which is the cumulative part, comprises the original publications grouped in three Chapters according to the topic.
The state of the art on small molecules targeting G quadruplex structures is given at the beginning of Chapter 6, including a summary of the experimental structures of G quadruplexes in complex with ligands available up to date. The publications presented in Chapters 6.1-6.3 are concerned with the elucidation of the interaction modes between DNA G quadruplexes and selected ligands with potential therapeutic applications.
The binding ability of two natural alkaloids (berberine and sanguinarine) to telomeric G quadruplexes is examined in Chapter 6.1. The ability of carbazole and diguanosine derivatives (synthetized in the group of Prof. Dash, IISER, Kolkata) to interact with c-MYC G quadruplex and down regulate c-MYC expression is explored in Chapter 6.2 and Chapter 6.3, respectively.
The energy landscape of human telomeric G quadruplex structures is discussed in Chapter 7, in light of the experimental kinetic studies as well as molecular dynamics simulations reported in literature until now. Up to date there is no general consensus regarding the folding pathway of unimolecular human telomeric G quadruplex, in particular due to the lack of atomic resolution data on the species involved in the folding. Chapter 7.1 presents the first real time NMR study of the human telomeric G quadruplex folding kinetics.
The final chapter of this thesis (Chapter 8) outlines the potential of G-quadruplex structures as building blocks in nanotechnology. After illustrating briefly the additional possibilities offered by alternative non B DNA structures to programme nanomaterials, a number of applications employing G quadruplex structures in different fields of nanotechnology are described. The article presented in Chapter 8.1 investigates the structural and photoswitching properties of a novel intermolecular azobenzene containing G quadruplex synthetized in the group of Prof. Heckel (Goethe University, Frankfurt).
A simple and sustainable one-step strategy for the preparation of electron-deficient aryl trifluoromethyl ethers (ArOCF3) from the corresponding phenols by electrochemical synthesis is presented. Anodic oxidation of trifluoromethane sulfinate (Langlois reagent) leads to direct O-trifluoromethylation of phenol-derivatives bearing fluorine, chlorine, bromine and nitrile substituents under mild conditions in yields up to 75% and in gram-scale. This electrochemical protocol provides an economic and green synthesis for an otherwise inaccessible class of molecules without the need for expensive or toxic reagents, oxidants or metal catalysts.
A sustainable strategy for O-trifluoromethylation of electron-deficient phenols by combining electrochemical synthesis with flow technology is presented. The reaction is optimized by screening experiments to establish a fast and efficient flow protocol. Simultaneous anodic oxidation of Langlois reagent and the phenols in a micro flow cell leads to direct preparation of trifluoromethyl ethers in yields up to 90%. This one-step protocol is tolerant of several functional groups, shows good regioselectivity and works without any chemical oxidants and catalysts by using electrical current as an inexpensive and sustainable reagent.
In optogenetics, rhodopsins were established as light-driven tools to manipulate neuronal activity. However, during long-term photostimulation using channelrhodopsin (ChR), desensitization can reduce effects. Furthermore, requirement for continuous presence of the chromophore all-trans retinal (ATR) in model systems lacking sufficient endogenous concentrations limits its applicability. We tested known, and engineered and characterized new variants of de- and hyperpolarizing rhodopsins in Caenorhabditis elegans. ChR2 variants combined previously described point mutations that may synergize to enable prolonged stimulation. Following brief light pulses ChR2(C128S;H134R) induced muscle activation for minutes or even for hours (‘Quint’: ChR2(C128S;L132C;H134R;D156A;T159C)), thus featuring longer open state lifetime than previously described variants. Furthermore, stability after ATR removal was increased compared to the step-function opsin ChR2(C128S). The double mutants C128S;H134R and H134R;D156C enabled increased effects during repetitive stimulation. We also tested new hyperpolarizers (ACR1, ACR2, ACR1(C102A), ZipACR). Particularly ACR1 and ACR2 showed strong effects in behavioral assays and very large currents with fast kinetics. In sum, we introduce highly light-sensitive optogenetic tools, bypassing previous shortcomings, and thus constituting new tools that feature high effectiveness and fast kinetics, allowing better repetitive stimulation or investigating prolonged neuronal activity states in C. elegans and, possibly, other systems.
All-optical closed-loop voltage clamp for precise control of muscles and neurons in live animals
(2023)
Excitable cells can be stimulated or inhibited by optogenetics. Since optogenetic actuation regimes are often static, neurons and circuits can quickly adapt, allowing perturbation, but not true control. Hence, we established an optogenetic voltage-clamp (OVC). The voltage-indicator QuasAr2 provides information for fast, closed-loop optical feedback to the bidirectional optogenetic actuator BiPOLES. Voltage-dependent fluorescence is held within tight margins, thus clamping the cell to distinct potentials. We established the OVC in muscles and neurons of Caenorhabditis elegans, and transferred it to rat hippocampal neurons in slice culture. Fluorescence signals were calibrated to electrically measured potentials, and wavelengths to currents, enabling to determine optical I/V-relationships. The OVC reports on homeostatically altered cellular physiology in mutants and on Ca2+-channel properties, and can dynamically clamp spiking in C. elegans. Combining non-invasive imaging with control capabilities of electrophysiology, the OVC facilitates high-throughput, contact-less electrophysiology in individual cells and paves the way for true optogenetic control in behaving animals.
This dissertation constitutes a series of successive research papers, starting with the characterization of various optogenetic tools up to the establishment of purely optical electrophysiology in living animals.
Optogenetics has revolutionized neurobiology as it allows stimulation of excitable cells with exceptionally high spatiotemporal resolution. To cope with the increasing complexity of research issues and accompanying demands on experimental design, the broadening of the optogenetic toolbox is indispensable. Therefore, one goal was to establish a wide variety of novel rhodopsin-based actuators and characterize them, among others, with respect to their spectral properties, kinetics, and efficacy using behavioral experiments in Caenorhabditis elegans. During these studies, the applicability of highly potent de- and hyperpolarizers with adapted spectral properties, altered ion specificity, strongly slowed off-kinetics, and inverted functionality was successfully demonstrated. Inhibitory anion channelrhodopsins (ACRs) stood out, filling the gap of long-sought equivalent hyperpolarizing tools, and could be convincingly applied in a tandem configuration combined with the red-shifted depolarizer Chrimson for bidirectional stimulation (Bidirectional Pair of Opsins for Light-induced Excitation and Silencing, BiPOLES). A parallel study aimed to compare various rhodopsin-based genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) in the worm: In addition to electrochromic FRET-based GEVIs that use lower excitation intensity, QuasAr2 was particularly convincing in terms of voltage sensitivity and photostability in C. elegans. However, classical optogenetic approaches are quite static and only allow perturbation of neural activity. Therefore, QuasAr2 and BiPOLES were combined in a closed-loop feedback control system to implement the first proof-of-concept all-optical voltage clamp to date, termed the optogenetic voltage clamp (OVC). Here, an I-controller generates feedback of light wavelengths to bidirectionally stimulate BiPOLES and keep QuasAr’s fluorescence at a desired level. The OVC was established in body wall muscles and various types of neurons in C. elegans and transferred to rat hippocampal slice culture. In the worm, it allowed to assess altered cellular physiology of mutants and Ca2+-channel characteristics as well as dynamical clamping of distinct action potentials and associated behavior.
Ultimately, the optogenetic actuators and sensors implemented in the course of this cumulative work enabled to synergistically combine the advantages of imaging- and electrode-based techniques, thus providing the basis for noninvasive, optical electrophysiology in behaving animals.
The crystal packing of the title compound, C13H19NO·0.33C7H8, shows a channel at [001], which contains grossly disordered toluene solvent molecules. The angle between the benzene ring and the mean plane of the formamide group is 71.1 (1)°. The amide groups of neighbouring molecules are connected by N—H(...)O hydrogen bonds, forming 21 helical chains propagating along [001]. Molecules are also connected by weak intermolecular C—H(...)O hydrogen bonds, forming 61 helices.
In the title compound, C27H37N2 +·Br−·2CH2Cl2, both the cation and the anion are located on a crystallographic mirror plane. Both of the dichloromethane solvent molecules show a disorder across a mirror plane over two equally occupied positions. In the crystal, the cations are connnected to the bromide ions via C—H[cdots, three dots, centered]Br hydrogen bonds.
In the title compound, C27H37N2 +·Cl−·2CH2Cl2, the cation and the anion are each located on a crystallographic mirror plane. Both of the dichloromethane solvent molecules show a disorder across a mirror plane over two equally occupied positions. Additionally, one isopropyl group is also disordered. In the crystal, the cations are connected to the chloride ions via C—H[cdots, three dots, centered]Cl hydrogen bonds.
The title solvated salt, C29H41N2+·Br-·2CH2Cl2 was obtained from the reaction of the Arduengo-type carbene 1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-1,3-dihydro-4,5-dimethyl-2H-imidazol-2-ylidene with Si2Br6 in dichloromethane. The complete cation is generated by a crystallographic mirror plane and the dihedral angle between the five-membered ring and the benzene ring is 89.8 (6)°; the dihedral angle between the benzene rings is 40.7 (2)°. The anion also lies on the mirror plane and both dichloromethane molecules are disordered across the mirror plane over two equally occupied orientations. In the crystal, the cations are linked to the anions via C-H...Br hydrogen bonds.
Die Übergangsmetalle Vanadium und Niob wurden in einer neuartigen Thermowaage bzw. mit dem Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP) unter Verwendung von Ammoniak und Stickstoff als Prozessgas nitridiert. In der Thermowaage, die die in situ Aufzeichnung von Massenänderungen während der Reaktion möglich macht, wurde die Nitridierung hauptsächlich an pulverförmigen Proben durchgeführt. Es stellte sich heraus, dass sowohl Temperatur- und Druckerhöhung, als auch eine Verlängerung der Temperzeit zu größeren Massenzunahmen führten. Die Bildung der unterschiedlichen Nitridphasen war aber allein von der Temperatur während des Versuches und dem verwendeten Prozessgas abhängig. Die detektierten Massenzunahmen bei der Erhöhung von Temperzeit und Druck wurden nur von der vermehrten Einlagerung von Stickstoff bzw. Sauerstoff in das Metall verursacht, die keine neue Phasenbildung zur Folge hatte. Sauerstoff wurde in allen getemperten Proben gefunden, was die Untersuchung von dünnen Schichten in der Thermowaage verhinderte, da aufgrund des erhöhten Sauerstoffgehaltes die Schichten vollständig oxidierten. Der Sauerstoff wurde hauptsächlich von dem Glasreaktor geliefert. Ein dort abgelagerter Belag, der sich durch Korrosion der Edelstahlgasleitung gebildet hatte, wirkte vermutlich katalytisch. Aus diesem Grund war die Thermowaage in dieser Konfiguration nicht für Nitridierungsversuche geeignet und konnte ihren eigentlichen Zweck, die genaue Untersuchung des Reaktionsmechanismus mit Hilfe der Massenänderung und der anschließenden massenspektrometrischen Untersuchung des Prozessgases nach der Reaktion, nicht erfüllen. 200 nm und 500 nm Vanadium- und Niob-Schichten wurden im RTP nitridiert. Auch hier konnte man eine Bildung von Oxiden bzw. Oxynitriden beobachten, diese bildeten sich aber durch die Ausdiffusion von Sauerstoff aus dem Substrat in die Metallschicht, was anhand von SNMS- und TEM/EFTEM/EELS-Untersuchungen eindeutig belegt werden konnte. Um dieses Phänomen zu untersuchen wurden Schichten auch auf Saphir-Substrat, welches gegenüber der Ausdiffusion von Sauerstoff inert sein sollte, aufgebracht. Für die beiden verwendeten Metalle wurden unterschiedliche Ergebnisse gefunden. Während bei den Vanadium-Schichten nur aus dem SiO2-Substrat Sauerstoff ausdiffundierte, wurde dies bei den Niob-Schichten bei beiden Substraten festgestellt. Die Temperatur während der Versuche (V: 600 und 700°C; Nb: 800°C) scheint also auch einen Einfluss auf die Ausdiffusion von Sauerstoff zu haben. Dabei zeigt Saphir eine etwas größere Temperatur-Stabilität als SiO2. Ein Einfluss des Prozessgases auf die Reaktion an der Grenzfläche Metall/Substrat konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden. Zwar kam es bei der Verwendung von Wasserstoff zur Bildung von mehr und sauerstoffreicheren Phasen, was dafür spricht, dass die Substrate stärker angegriffen werden, aber auch beim Einsatz von Inert-Gas (N2) wurde eine Ausdiffusion von Sauerstoff aus den Substraten beobachtet. Allerdings wirkte sich die Schichtdicke der Probe auf die Ausdiffusion von Sauerstoff und die Bildung der Oxid-Phase aus. Da von der Oberfläche der Schicht eindiffundierender Stickstoff die Diffusion von Sauerstoff behindert, kann Sauerstoff mit zunehmender Schichtdicke weiter in das Metall vordringen. Bei dünneren Schichten wird er eher aufgestaut und es bilden sich Oxide mit höherem Sauerstoffgehalt. Ein Einfluss der unterschiedlichen Herstellungsverfahren (Elektronenstrahlverdampfung / Magnetronsputtern) für die Ausgangsschichten auf die Ausdiffusion von Sauerstoff aus dem Substrat konnte, trotz der größeren Kristallinität der gesputterten Proben, nicht nachgewiesen werden.
Der Malaria verursachende Organismus Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) besitzt in seinem Kerngenom für die Mitochondrien bestimmte Proteine, die als Transportsignal ein mitochondriales Transitpeptid enthalten. Durch die kürzlich erfolgte Sequenzierung des Genoms von P. falciparum ist es wünschenswert, Vohersagealgorithmen für verschiedene Proteinlokalisationen zur Verfügung zu haben. Für andere Organismen etablierte Programme zur Vorhersage von mitochondrialen Transitpeptiden, MitoProtII und TargetP, lieferten bei Anwendung auf Sequenzen aus P. falciparum nur unbefriedigende Ergebnisse. MitoProtII erzielte in einer 20-fachen Kreuzvalidierung einen Mathews-Koeffizienten von cc = 0,49, TargetP erzielte in diesem Fall einen Mathews-Koeffizienten von cc = 0,60. TargetP erzielte für die Sequenzen aus P. falciparum nur eine Selektivität von 47%, MitoProtII nur eine Sensitivität von 35%. Dieser Ergebnisse haben die Entwicklung eines speziell auf P. falciparum trainierten Vorhersagemodells wünschenswert gemacht. Kerncodierte mitochondriale Precursorproteine aus P. falciparum wurden mit statistischen Methoden, Hauptkomponentenanalyse, selbstorganisierenden Karten und überwachten neuronalen Netzen analysiert und mit solchen aus anderen Organismen verglichen. Zwei Repräsentationen der Datensätze wurden gewählt, Aminosäurehäufigkeiten und 19 physikochemische Eigenschaften. Ein grundsätzlich unterschiedlicher Aminosäuregebrauch konnte festgestellt werden. Glycin, Alanin, Prolin und Arginin werden in P. falciparum mit weniger als 60% der Häufigkeit in der Swiss-Prot-Datenbank, Version 36, verwendet. Isoleucin, Tyrosin, Asparagin und Lysin werden hingegen mit mehr als 150% der Häufigkeit in der Referenzdatenbank verwendet. Diese Häufigkeitsmuster wurden, mit Variationen, auch in allen Targetingsequenzen beobachtet. In der Datenanalyse mittels Hauptkomponentenanalyse und selbstorganisierenden Karten ließen sich cytoplasmatische Proteine in beiden Repräsentationen klar von der Gruppe mitochondrialer, extrazellulärer und apicoplastischer Proteine trennen. Die Trennung innerhalb der zweiten Gruppe war weniger deutlich. Ein neuronales Netz (PlasMit) zur Vorhersage mitochondrialer Transitpeptide in P. falciparum wurde entwickelt. Basierend auf der relativen Aminosäurehäufigkeitsverteilung innerhalb der ersten 24 N-terminalen Aminosäuren lieferte es einen Mathews- Korrelationskoeffizienten von 0,74 (86% korrekt vorhergesagte Sequenzen) in einer 20fachen Kreuzvalidierung. Dieses Netz sagte 2449 (24%) der 10276 vorhergesagten Open Reading Frames aus dem Genom von P. falciparum als mögliche mitochondrial lokalisierte Proteine voraus. Ein Netz mit identischer Topologie wurde auf eine geringere Anzahl falsch-positiver Vorhersagen trainiert und erzielte einen Mathews-Koeffizienten von 0,51 (84% korrekte Vorhersagen) in einer 10fachen Kreuzvalidierung. Dieses Netz sagte 903 (8,8%) potentielle mitochondriale Precursorproteine unter den 10276 vorhergesagten Open Reading Frames voraus. Sämtliche Trainingsdatensätze, die Open Reading Frames des Genoms von P. falciparum, sowie das Netz, das den höchsten Mathews-Koeffizienten erzielt hat, sind per Web unter http://www.modlab.de, Menüpunkt PlasMit, erreichbar.