Biochemie und Chemie
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Proteorhodopsin (PR) originally isolated from uncultivated γ-Proteobacterium as a result of biodiversity screens, is highly abundant ocean wide. PR, a Type I retinal binding protein with 26% sequence identity, is a bacterial homologue of Bacteriorhodopsin (BR). The members within this family share about 78% of sequence identity and display a 40 nm difference in the absorption spectra. This property of the PR family members provides an excellent model system for understanding the mechanism of spectral tuning. Functionally PR is a photoactive proton pump and is suggested to exhibit a pH dependent vectorality of proton transfer. This raises questions about its potential role as pH dependent regulator. The abundance of PR in huge numbers within the cell, its widespread distribution ocean wide at different depths hints towards the involvement of PR in utilization of solar energy, energy metabolism and carbon recycling in the Sea. Contrary to BR, which is known to be a natural 2D crystal, no such information is available for PR til date. Neither its functional mechanism nor its 3D structure has been resolved so far. This PhD project is an attempt to gain a deeper insight so as to understand structural and functional characterization of PR. The approach combines the potentials of 2D crystallography, Atomic Force Microscopy and Solid State NMR techniques for characterization of this protein. Wide range of crystalline conditions was obtained as a result of 2D crystallization screens. This hints towards dominant protein protein interactions. Considering the high number of PR molecules reported per cell, it is likely that driven by such interactions, the protein has a native dense packing in the environment. The projection map represented low resolution of these crystals but suggested a donut shape oligomeric arrangement of protein in a hexagonal lattice with unit cell size of 87Å*87Å. Preliminary FTIR measurements indicated that the crystalline environment does not obstruct the photocycle of PR and K as well as M intermediate states could be identified. Single molecule force spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy on these 2D crystals was used to probe further information about the oligomeric state and nature of unfolding. The data revealed that protein predominantly exists as hexamers in crystalline as well as densely reconstituted regions but a small percentage of pentamers is also observed. The unfolding mechanism was similar to the other relatively well-characterized members of rhodopsin family. A good correlation of the atomic force microscopy and the electron microscopy data was achieved. Solid State NMR of the isotopically labeled 2D crystalline preparations using uniformly and selectively labeling schemes, allowed to obtain high quality SSNMR spectra with typical 15N line width in the range of 0.6-1.2 ppm. The measured 15N chemical shift value of the Schiff base in the 2D crystalline form was observed to be similar to the Schiff base chemical shift values for the functionally active reconstituted samples. This provides an indirect evidence for the active functionality of the protein and hence the folding. The first 15N assignment has been achieved for the Tryptophan with the help of Rotational Echo Double Resonance experiments. The 2D Cross Polarization Lee Goldberg measurements reflect the dynamic state of the protein inspite of restricted mobility in the crystalline state. The behavior of lipids as measured by 31P from the lipid head group showed that the lipids are not tightly bound to the protein but behave more like the lipid bilayer. The 13C-13C homonulear correlation experiments with optimized mixing time based on build up curve analysis, suggest that it is possible to observe individual resonances as seen in case of glutamic acid. The signal to noise was good enough to record a decent spectrum in a feasible period. The selective unlabeling is an efficient method for reduction in the spectral overlap. However, more efficient labeling schemes are required for further characterization. The present spectral resolution is good for individual amino acid investigation but for uniformly labeled samples, further improvement is required.
Tumor development usually follows predictable paths where tumor cells acquire common characteristics and features known as the hallmarks of cancer. Recently, additional characteristics have been added to these hallmarks since solid tumors are composed of a very heterogeneous population of transformed, formerly normal tissue cells and stromal cells, e.g. immune cells and fibroblasts. Compelling evidence suggests that stromal cells and tumor cells maintain a symbiotic relationship to build up the tumor microenvironment and to fuel tumor growth. In cancer therapies, common features of tumors such as unrestricted cell growth, suppression of immunological responses, and the ability to form new blood vessels (angiogenesis) have emerged as the main targets of interest. The lipid mediator prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is known to promote all these features and thus, is connected to cancer progression in general. Its synthesis is triggered in response to stress factors or during inflammation. Inducible PGE2 production relies on the enzymes cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostanglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES-1), which are simultaneously expressed in response to a variety of different stimuli and are functionally coupled. Inhibition of COX-2 with non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for cancer treatment is, however, limited by cardiovascular risks, since selective COX-2 inhibition disrupts the prostacyclin/thromboxane balance. Therefore targeting mPGES-1 downstream of COX-2 for PGE2 inhibition was evaluated in this work in different steps of carcinogenesis. Knockdown of mPGES-1 in DU145 prostate cancer cells revealed that the mPGES-1 status did not affect growth of monolayer tumor cells, but significantly impaired 3D growth of multi-cellular tumor spheroids (MCTS). Spheroid formation induced COX-2 in DU145 and other prostate cancer spheroids. High levels of PGE2 were detected in supernatants of DU145 MCTS as opposed to monolayer DU145 cells. Pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 and mPGES-1 confirmed the pivotal role of PGE2 for DU145 MCTS growth. Besides promoting spheroid growth, MCTS-derived PGE2 also inhibited cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation. When investigating the mechanisms of COX-2 induction during spheroid formation, the typical tumor microenvironmental factors such as glucose deprivation, hypoxia or tumor cell apoptosis failed to enhance COX-2. Interestingly, when interfering with apoptosis in DU145 spheroids, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK triggered a Summary 12 shift towards necrosis, thus enhancing COX-2 expression. Coculturing viable DU145 monolayer cells with isolated heat-shocked-treated necrotic DU145 cells, but not with necrotic cell supernatants, induced COX-2 and PGE2, confirming the impact of necrosis for MCTS growth and CTL inhibition. As mentioned, in vivo tumors are very heterogenous mixtures of tumor cells and stromal cells e.g. immune cells. Hence, the interaction of the immune system with tumors was investigated in further experiments. When coculturing MCF-7 breast cancer spheroids with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), only low levels of PGE2 were detected, since MCF-7 cells did not upregulate COX-2 during spheroid formation and did not induce PGE2 production by PBMCs. Under inflammatory conditions, by adding the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to cocultures, PGE2 production was triggered, spheroid sizes were reduced, and numbers of high levels of granzyme B expressing (GrBhi) CTLs were increased, while CD80 expression by tumor-associated phagocytes was also elevated. Inhibition of CD80 but not CD86 diminished numbers of GrBhi CTLs and attenuated spheroid lysis. To determine the role of ctivation-induced PGE2 production, use of the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib and the experimental mPGES-1 inhibitor C3 further increased CD80 expression. Addition of PGE2, the prostaglandin E2 (EP2) receptor agonist butaprost, and the phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor rolipram reduced LPS/C3-triggered CD80 expression, confirming the impact of COX- 2/mPGES-1-derived PGE2 on shaping phagocyte phenotypes in an EP2/cAMP-dependent manner. In a spontaneous breast cancer model (MMTV-PyMT), mPGES-1-deficiency significantly delayed tumor growth in mice, confirming an overall protumorigenic role of mPGES-1 in breast cancer development in vivo. However in tumors of mPGES-1-/- mice, tumor-infiltrating phagocytes expressed low levels of CD80 similar to their wildtype counterparts. These data suggest that the immunosuppressive microenvironment does not allow for immunostimulatory effects by mPGES-1 inhibition without an activating stimulus. Evidences in this study recommend the application of mPGES-1 inhibitors for treating cancer diseases, since mPGES-1 promotes tumor growth in multiple steps of carcinogenesis, ranging from well-characterized effects of tumor cell growth to immune suppression of CTL activity and phagocyte polarization. Regarding the latter, blunting PGE2 during immune activation may limit the tumor-favoring features of inflammation and improve the efficiency of TLR4 based immune therapies.
Di-μ-bromido-bis-[(diethyl ether-κO)(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)magnesium] : the mesityl Grignard reagent
(2013)
The crystal structure of the title compound, [Mg2Br2(C9H11)2(C4H10O)2], features a centrosymmetric two-centre magnesium complex with half a mol-ecule in the asymmetric unit. The Mg atom is in a considerably distorted Br2CO coordination. Bond lengths and angles are comparable with already published values. The crystal packing is stabilized by C-H⋯π inter-actions linking the complexes into sheets parallel to (0-11).
RcsB is a central transcriptional regulator in enteric bacteria involved in exopolysaccharide (EPS) biosynthesis, in cell division, in the expression of osmoregulated genes, and regulates at least 20 other genes and operons. It is a member of a phosphorelay system and signal transfer is mediated by phosphorylation through the RcsC/YojN phosphorelay. RcsB proteins modified with the phosphorylation mimic BeF3- as shown by its conformational changes and DNA binding properties and resulted phosphorylated RcsB derivatives with sufficient stability. Both, the wild type RcsB protein and the mutant RcsBD11A could be modified with BeF3-. Non-phosphorylated RcsB has been shown to bind as a heterodimer with the coinducer RcsA at the conserved RcsAB box in Rcs regulated promoters. In this study, it has been shown that the modification of RcsB by BeF3 - (I) has a negative effect on its homodimerization, (II) abolishes the complex formation of RcsAB with the RcsAB box as shown by the EMSA and SPR technique. All the effects were found to be reversible by increasing the NaF concentration in the assays presumably leading to the formation of the inactive BeF4 2- salt. This hypothesis of RcsB being modified by BeF3- was also supported by other phosphodonors like ATP and acetyl phosphate, both of them showed the same negative effect on DNA binding by RcsAB heterodimer giving evidence that BeF3- could be used as a phosphorylation mimic. In addition, the phosphorylation mimic BeF3- was found to be a better phosphorylating agent than ATP and acetyl phosphate. This is the first evidence that phosphorylation of RcsB might have a negative effect on the activation of RcsAB regulated operons. Autophosphorylation of RcsB proves that it has the ability to take up phosphoryl groups and the mutant protein also become autophosphorylated with less efficiency or stability than the wild type protein. RcsB probably takes up phosphoryl groups through RcsC -> YojN -> RcsB phosphorelay pathway. To study the interaction among the proteins in this pathway, fluorescence spectroscopy, NMR spectroscopy, and an in vivo ß galactosidase assay were performed by using two domains of RcsC (T-RcsC and R-RcsC), HPt domain of the protein YojN, and RcsB. The interactions between R-RcsC/YojN-HPt and YojN-HPt/RcsB supports the proposed pathway of phosphorylating RcsB. RcsB might also be phosphorylated by YojN-HPt that is phosphorylated by other sensor kinase other than RcsC in a cross-talk mechanism. The phosphorylation of RcsB by YojN-HPt probably has the same negative effect on cps induction as obtained with BeF3 - effect on DNA binding by RcsAB heterodimer.
Potential energy, dipole moment, and electronic transition moment functions for the A 3Πand X3Σ- states of PH have been calculated from highly correlated electronic wavefunctions. The electric dipole moments in the vibrational ground state of PH are calculated to be 0.637 Debye (A 3Π) and 0.403 Debye (X3Σ-). The predicted rates of spontaneous emission between low lying vibrational states of the X state lie in the range of 46 to 109 sec-1 (PH) and 12 to 30 sec-1 (PD). The calculated radiative lifetime of the v' = 0 level in the A 3Π state of 400 ns is lower by about 10 percent than the most recent experimental value. The classical intersection of the 5Σ- and the A 3Πstate has been calculated to lie between v' = 2 and 3 with an expected uncertainty of about 500 cm−1, whereas the onset of the rotationally dependent predissociation lies at v' = 0, J' = 11.
Ein wichtiges Element zur Steuerung der Transkriptionseffizienz im Replikationszyklus des HI-Virus ist das Tat/TAR-System. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden einige kleine heterozyklische Verbindungen synthetisiert, die als potenzielle Inhibitoren des Tat-TAR-Komplexes von HIV-1 wirken sollten. Nach der Synthese des 1H-Pyrazol-3,4,5-triamin-sulfates sollte diese Verbindung dann in größere Strukturmotive eingebettet werden, von denen man sich erhoffte, dass sie in ihrer reduzierten Form in der Lage sein sollten, weitere H-Brücken zu benachbarten Basen der RNA auszubilden und dadurch die Affinität zu erhöhen. Es zeigte sich, dass die im Rahmen dieser Dissertation synthetisierten Phenazinderivate zwar alle mit Natriumdithionit reduziert werden konnten, diese Strukturen aber nicht luftstabil waren.
Phase equilibrium studies of the Lewis acid-base systems AlCl3/PyHBr and AlBr3/PyHI indicate the existence of congruently melting compounds of the molar ratios 1:1 and 2:3.
These results are quite different from those of our studies of the AlCl3/PyHCl and the AlBr3/PyHBr systems, in which four compounds in the molar ratios 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, and 2:3 could be detected.
The melting point of pyridinium iodide observed at 284,8 °C (decomp.) differs from the previously reported one.
A phase equilibrium study of the system aluminiumbromide and pyridiniumbromide has been carried out. The phase diagram of the system indicates the existence of three congruently melting com pounds of the molar ratio AlBr3/PyHBr 1:1, 1:3, 2 :3 and one incongruently melting compound of the molar ratio 1:2 and is therefore similar to the AlCl3-PyHCl system [1].
A phase equilibrium study of the system aluminiumchloride and pyridiniumchloride has been carried out. The phase diagram of the system indicates the existence of four congruently melting compounds of the molar ratio AlCl3/PyHCl 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die pharmakologischen und elektrophysiologischen Eigenschaften des Kaliumkanals KCNQ1 und des KCNQ1/MinK (IKs) untersucht. Hierzu wurden die Kanäle in Xenopus-laevis-Oozyten und der KCNQ1/MinK (IKs) in CHO-Zellen exprimiert und in Voltage-Clamp-Experimenten untersucht. Die Blockwirkung des Chromanol-293B-Razemates und die der beiden Enantiomere wurden am KCNQ1- und KCNQ1/MinK-Kanal untersucht. Eine Enantiomerenselektivität der Chromanol 293B-Enantiomere wurde nachgewiesen. Beide Enantiomere wirken abhängig vom Zustand der KCNQ1- und IKs-Kanäle. Das 3S,4R-293B blockierte nur geschlossene Kanäle, während das andere Enantiomer 3R,4S-293B auf geschlossene und auf geöffnete Kanäle wirkte. Als Grundlage dieser Aussagen wurden kinetische Analysen der Kanalkinetiken ohne Blocker und bei partieller Blockade der Kanäle durchgeführt. Die Inhibiton des IKs
Background: Advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) represents a significant unmet medical need. Despite advances with targeted therapies in a small subset of patients, fewer than 20% of patients survive for more than two years after diagnosis. Cancer vaccines are a promising therapeutic approach that offers the potential for durable responses through the engagement of the patient's own immune system. CV9202 is a self-adjuvanting mRNA vaccine that targets six antigens commonly expressed in NSCLC (NY ESO-1, MAGEC1, MAGEC2, 5 T4, survivin, and MUC1).
Methods/Design: The trial will assess the safety and tolerability of CV9202 vaccination combined with local radiation designed to enhance immune responses and will include patients with stage IV NSCLC and a response or stable disease after first-line chemotherapy or therapy with an EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Three histological and molecular subtypes of NSCLC will be investigated (squamous and non-squamous cell with/without EGFR mutations). All patients will receive two initial vaccinations with CV9202 prior to local radiotherapy (5 GY per day for four successive days) followed by further vaccinations until disease progression. The primary endpoint of the study is the number of patients experiencing Grade >3 treatment-related adverse events. Pharmacodynamic analyses include the assessment of immune responses to the antigens encoded by CV9202 and others not included in the panel (antigen spreading) and standard efficacy assessments.
Discussion: RNActive self-adjuvanted mRNA vaccines offer the potential for simultaneously inducing immune responses to a wide panel of antigens commonly expressed in tumors. This trial will assess the feasibility of this approach in combination with local radiotherapy in NSCLC patients.
Sodium proton antiporters are ubiquitous membrane proteins found in the cytoplasmic and organelle membranes of cells of many different origins, including plants, animals and microorganisms. They are involved in cell energetics, and play primary roles in the homeostasis of intracellular pH, cellular Na+ content and cell volume. Adaptation to high salinity and/or extreme pH in plants and bacteria or in human heart muscles requires the action of such Na+/H+ antiporters. NhaA is the essential Na+/H+ antiporter for pH and Na+ homeostasis (at alkaline pH) in Escherichia coli and many other enterobacteria. NhaA is an electrogenic Na+/H+ antiporter that exchanges 2H+ for 1Na+ (or Li+). NhaA shares with many other prokaryotic and eukaryotic antiporters a very strong dependence on pH. In order to achieve three-dimensional structure of NhaA, the previously described NhaA protein preparation was modified: (i) the wild type bacterial strain (TA16) used for homologous over-expression of NhaA was replaced with a delta nhaA strain (RK20). As a result, the purity and homogeneity of the sample was significantly improved; (ii) the previously two-step purification procedure was shortened to a single step affinity chromatography purification; (iii) a wide-range screening of crystallisation conditions, more than 20,000, was performed; (iv) a Seleno-L-methionine (SeMet) NhaA derivative was produced in order to solve the phases during structure determination. In parallel, attempts of production and crystallisation of co-complexes composed of NhaA and antibody fragments have been made. Four different monoclonal antibodies were available against NhaA. Selected antibody fragments were produced and the stability of the complex analysed. Here, the crystal structure of the pH down-regulated secondary transporter NhaA of Escherichia coli is presented at 3.45 Å resolution. A negatively charged ion funnel opens to the cytoplasm and ends in the middle of the membrane at the putative ion-binding site. There, a unique assembly of two pairs of short helices connected by crossed, extended chains creates a balanced electrostatic environment. A possible mechanism is proposed: the binding of charged substrates causes electric imbalance inducing movements, which allow for a rapid alternating access mechanism. This ion exchange machinery is regulated by a conformational change elicited by a pH signal perceived at the cytoplasmic funnel entry. The structure represents a novel fold that provides two major insights: it reveals the structural basis for the mechanism of Na+/H+ exchange and its unique regulation by pH in NhaA and in many other similar antiporters. Furthermore, it is also important for the understanding of the architecture of membrane proteins in general. However, although many aspects of the ion-translocation mechanism and pH regulation are clarified by the NhaA structure, higher resolution structures with Li+ or Na+ bound are required for understanding the ligand binding and the translocation mechanism at the atomic level. The alkaline pH-induced conformation is essential to further understand the pH-control and proton access to the binding site.
Im Zuge dieser Dissertation wurden verschiedene Methoden zur besseren Identifikation von Proteinen aus unspezifischen Proteinverdauen entwickelt und auf ihre Einsatzmöglichkeiten hin untersucht. In diesem Rahmen wurde vorrangig die Protease Thermitase in ihrer Spezifität und ihrem Temperaturverhalten genauer definiert und ihre proteolytische Verwendbarkeit bewertet.
Aufgrund der durchgeführten Untersuchungen konnte mit Thermitase eine weitere, für die massenspektrometrische Analytik verwendbare Protease, erfolgreich etabliert werden. Als wichtigstes Merkmal dieser Protease muss ihr erfolgreicher proteomischer Einsatz, auch in Kombination mit starken organischen Lösungsmittel und Detergenzien, hervorgehoben werden. Außerdem konnten in Anwesenheit von SDS Verdaue massenspektrometrisch erfolgreich untersucht werden. Die Möglichkeiten dieser Methode sind vor allem für die Membran-Proteomik interessant. Mittels Thermitase können Membranproteine direkt in einem hydrophoben Puffer denaturiert, verdaut und ohne vorheriges Ausfällen analysiert werden.
Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden mehrere Ansätze für die Verbesserung der Auswertbarkeit von unspezifischen Proteinverdauen verfolgt und teilweise erfolgreich umgesetzt. Mittels der bioinformatischen Auswertung von theoretischen Verdauen ganzer Datenbanken wurden die Unterschiede bei der Identifikation von spezifischen und unspezifischen Verdauen verdeutlicht. Anhand der beobachteten Vergrößerung des Suchraums um den Faktor 10 bis 100 von unspezifischen gegenüber spezifischen Proteolysen konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass bei Verwendung der heute gebräuchlichen Suchalgorithmen erst eine Steigerung der Massengenauigkeit um mindestens den Faktor 20 zu Ergebnissen führt, die mit denen spezifischer Verdaue vergleichbar sind. Einen Schritt in diese Richtung kann durch die Verwendung der MALDI-Orbitrap (Papasotiriou 2010), die eine durchschnittliche Massengenauigkeit von 5 ppm bietet, vollzogen werden. Jedoch wäre nach einer Abschätzung auf der Basis der gewonnenen Ergebnisse eine routinemäßige Massengenauigkeit von unter 1 ppm nötig, um bei der Identifikation mittels PMF für unspezifische und tryptische Verdaue die gleichen Erfolgsquoten zu erhalten. Wird dies erreicht, bieten unspezifische Proteasen, wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden konnte, zahlreiche Vorteile gegenüber spezifischen Proteasen.
Ausgehend von der Verwendung aktueller Suchalgorithmen konnte der Einfluss unterschiedlicher Protein- und Peptidkriterien auf die Proteinidentifikation eindeutig gezeigt werden. Zur Verbesserung der Identifikation bei unspezifischen Verdauen wurden mehrere spezifische Kriterien erarbeitet. Eine PMF-Suche unter deren Einbezug führte zu einer 4fach höheren Identifikationsrate gegenüber einer normalen Suche mittels MOWSE. Mit der iterativen sowie der kombinatorischen Suche wurden zwei einfache bioinformatische Methoden entwickelt, die die Suche von unspezifischen Verdauen erleichtern und in Zukunft verbessern werden.
Die Identifikation von Modifikationen mittels der spezifischen Delta-Massen und die Identifikation von unspezifischen Verdauen durch Bewertung der charakteristisch auftretenden Cluster stellen zwei gänzlich neue Ansätze in der Proteinidentifikation dar. Ihr Einsatz ermöglicht neue Verwendungsmöglichkeiten von unspezifischen Verdauen, die über die klassische Proteinidentifikation hinausgehen, und versucht, spezielle Fragen in der Proteinanalytik zu beantworten. Der Einbezug zusätzlicher Informationen, die der Verdau neben der reinen Gewinnung von Peptidmassen bietet, sollte bei unspezifischen Verdauen fokussiert angegangen werden. Durch die mehrfache Überlappung der Peptide liegen diese Informationen, anders als bei tryptischen Verdauen, redundant vor. Sie können sich also bei entsprechender Auswertung in ihrer Bewertung selbst stützen.
Die in dieser Promotionsarbeit vorgestellten Ansätze zur besseren Identifikation von unspezifischen Proteinverdauen zeigen vielversprechende Möglichkeiten auf.
Realistisch betrachtet, stellt jeder dieser Ansätze eine positive Abweichung von der bislang vorherrschenden routinemäßigen Behandlung der Proteinidentifikation dieser Verdaue dar und bieten die Möglichkeiten qualitativ bessere Untersuchungsergebnisse im Bereich der Massenspektrometrie zu erzielen.
Übergeordnetes Ziel der Arbeit war die Synthese von Molekülen, die zur gezielten Funktionalisierung von Oberflächen dienen sollten. Dazu mussten jeweils Synthesewege inklusive geeigneter Schutzgruppenchemie sowie Reinigungsstrategien entwickelt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Zielsetzung wurde zunächst eine Anlage zur Gradientensublimation aufgebaut, mit der sich die Substanzen in sehr hoher Reinheit erhalten ließen.
Das Ziel des adaptiven Entwurfs von Substanzbibliotheken ist es, die vollständige biologische Testung einer molekularen Screeningbibliothek zu vermeiden. Stattdessen erfolgt, geleitet durch Optimierungsalgorithmen, eine "intelligente" Navigation durch den chemischen Raum, um so bevorzugt Substanzen mit gewünschten Eigenschaften auszuwählen. In einer retrospektiven Studie wurden die Optimierungsalgorithmen "Zufallssuche", "Simulated Annealing", "Evolutionsstrategie" und "Partikelschwarmoptimierung" im Hinblick auf den Entwurf von Bibliotheken von Serinproteaseinhibitoren systematischen verglichen. Die Gesamtzahl verfügbarer Substanztestungen wurde auf 300 beschränkt, um Laborbedingungen zu simulieren. Als Ergebnis zeigten sich besonders die Evolutionsstrategien für einen Einsatz in einer Niedrigdurchsatzscreening-Kampagne geeignet, da diese effizient mit großen Populationen und wenigen Iterationen arbeiteten. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit beschreibt den erfolgreichen Entwurf einer fokussierten Bibliothek von RNA-Liganden. In einer hybriden, prospektiven Optimierungsstudie wurden nach dem Vorbild einer iterativen Niedrigdurchsatzscreening-Kampagne vom Computer vorgeschlagene Moleküle im Labor getestet. Die Substanzen wurden auf Inhibition einer spezifischen molekularen Wechselwirkung im Replikationszyklus von HIV getestet (Tat-TAR-Interaktion). In vier Generationen wurden 9 von 170 untersuchten Verbindungen positiv auf Inhibition der Tat-TAR-Interaktion getestet (Trefferquote: 5,3%), wobei lediglich 0,089% der Verbindungen der Screeningbibliothek untersucht wurden. Die zwei potentesten Kandidaten wiesen einen IC50 von 51 uM bzw. 116 uM auf.
Cardiac arrhythmias are often associated with mutations in ion channels or other proteins. To enable drug development for distinct arrhythmias, model systems are required that allow implementing patient-specific mutations. We assessed a muscular pump in Caenorhabditis elegans. The pharynx utilizes homologues of most of the ion channels, pumps and transporters defining human cardiac physiology. To yield precise rhythmicity, we optically paced the pharynx using channelrhodopsin-2. We assessed pharynx pumping by extracellular recordings (electropharyngeograms--EPGs), and by a novel video-microscopy based method we developed, which allows analyzing multiple animals simultaneously. Mutations in the L-type VGCC (voltage-gated Ca(2+)-channel) EGL-19 caused prolonged pump duration, as found for analogous mutations in the Cav1.2 channel, associated with long QT syndrome. egl-19 mutations affected ability to pump at high frequency and induced arrhythmicity. The pharyngeal neurons did not influence these effects. We tested whether drugs could ameliorate arrhythmia in the optogenetically paced pharynx. The dihydropyridine analog Nemadipine A prolonged pump duration in wild type, and reduced or prolonged pump duration of distinct egl-19 alleles, thus indicating allele-specific effects. In sum, our model may allow screening of drug candidates affecting specific VGCCs mutations, and permit to better understand the effects of distinct mutations on a macroscopic level.
AML1/ETO liegt bei 12% aller Patienten mit einer AML vor. Bei der Translokation t(8;21) kommt es zur Fusion der DNA-Bindungsdomäne des Transkriptionsfaktors AML1 mit dem starken transkriptionellen Repressor ETO. Über den ETO-Anteil wird einen aktiver Korepressorkomplex rekrutiert, der zur transkriptionellen Repression AML1 relevanter Zielgene führt. Die dysregulierte Genexpression führt in AML1/ETO-transformierten Zellen möglicherweise zusätzlich zur Aktivierung anderer Signaltransduktionswege. Untersuchungen in der hämatopoetischen Zellinie TF-1 hatten diesbezüglich gezeigt, daß die Expression von AML1/ETO zu einer verlängerten STAT5-Aktivität führte. Durch ein synthetisches Phosphopeptid konnte die Proliferation AML1/ETO-transformierter Zellen, nicht aber normaler CD34+-Zellen gehemmt werden. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde PLCgamma als ein Zielmolekül des Phosphopeptids identifiziert. Weiterführende Untersuchungen hatten gezeigt, daß PLCgamma nicht zur Transformation AML1/ETOexprimierender Zellen beiträgt. Die Synthese des Phosphopeptids bereitete aufgrund der Phosphorylierung Schwierigkeiten, so daß die Untersuchungen dadurch eingeschränkt waren. Ziel war es dennoch, Peptide identifizieren zu können, die in der Lage sind die transformierenden Eigenschaften in AML1/ETO-exprimierenden Zellen spezifisch zu blockieren. Hierfür wurden zwei Selektionssysteme in einer humanen Zellinie aufgebaut, die es ermöglichen sollen ETO-inhibierende Peptide aus einer Peptid-Bibliothek identifizieren zu können. Das erste Selektionssystem basierte auf der Produktion viraler Partikel, die von einer Gal4-ETO-regulierten VSV-G-Expression abhängig ist. Unter anderem bestätigte die Kompetition von Gal4-ETO durch die Koexpression der Gal4-DNA-bindenden- Domäne, daß die drastisch verminderte Virusproduktion allein auf eine ETO-vermittelte transkriptionelle Repression des VSV-G-Hüllproteins zurückzuführen war. Für die Durchmusterung einer Peptid-Bibliothek war der Hintergrund an viralen Partikeln (1.5x10 hoch 4 TU/ml), die trotz der Gal4-ETO-Expression produziert wurden, allerdings zu hoch. Im Gegensatz dazu verfügt das zweite Selektionssystem über ein tkneo- Reporterkonstrukt, dessen Expression ebenfalls durch Gal4-ETO reguliert wird. Es wurden zwei Zellklone etabliert (#61, #157), bei welchen die ETO-vermittelte Repression des tkneo-Fusionsproteins durch Butyrat und durch die Koexpression der Gal4-DNA-bindenden- Domäne spezifisch aufgehoben werden konnte. Neben dem gewünschten Wachstumverhalten der Klone unter den verschiedenen Selektionsbedingungen (ETO "on": G418-sensitiv; GCV-resistent; ETO "off": G418-resistent; GCV-sensitiv) wurde die stabile Integration des tkneo-Reporterkonstrukts und des Gal4-ETO-Plasmids in einer semiquantitaiven PCR nachgewiesen. Es wurde zum ersten Mal ein Selektionssystem etabliert, welches den Mechanismus der AML1/ETO-vermittelten Repression eines Gens genau wider spiegelt und die Selektion ETO-inhibierender Peptide aus einer Peptid- Bibliothek unter physiologischen Bedingungen ermöglicht.
To overcome poor treatment response of pediatric high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), novel treatment strategies are required to reactivate programmed cell death in this malignancy. Therefore, we take advantage of using small-molecule antagonists of Inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins, so called Smac mimetics such as BV6, which are described to overcome apoptosis resistance and thereby sensitize tumor cells for several apoptotic stimuli. To address the question whether redox alterations can sensitize leukemic cells for Smac mimetic-mediated cell death, we interfered with the cellular redox status in different ALL cell lines. Here, we show for the first time that redox alterations, mediated by the glutathione depleting agent Buthioninesulfoximine (BSO), prime ALL cells for BV6-induced apoptosis. Besides ALL cell lines, BV6/BSO cotreatment similarly synergizes in cell death induction in patient-derived primary leukemic samples. In contrast, the combination treatment does not exert any cytotoxicity against peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) or mesenchymal stroma cells (MSCs) from healthy donors, suggesting some tumor selectivity of this treatment. We also identify the underlying molecular mechanism of the novel synergistic drug interaction of BSO and BV6. We demonstrate that both agents act in concert to increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation and finally apoptotic cell death. Enhanced ROS levels in the combination treatment account for cell death induction, since several ROS scavengers, like NAC, MnTBAP and Trolox attenuate BSO/BV6-induced apoptosis. BSO/BV6-induced ROS can be mainly classified as lipid peroxides, since the vitamin E derivate α-Tocopherol as well as Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), which both specifically reduce lipid-membrane peroxides, prevent lipid peroxidation, caspase activation and cell death induction. Vice versa, GPX4 knockdown and pharmacological inhibition of GPX4 by RSL3 or Erastin enhance BV6-induced cell death. Importantly, cell death induction critically depends on the formation of a complex consisting of RIP1/FADD/Caspase-8, since all complex components are required for ROS production, lipid peroxidation and cell death induction. Taken together, we demonstrate that BSO and BV6 cooperate to induce ROS production and lipid peroxidation which are eventually required for caspase activation and cell death execution. Collectively, findings of this study indicate that BV6-induced apoptosis is mediated via redox alterations offering promising new treatment strategy to overcome apoptosis resistance in ALL.