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In addition to infectious viral particles, hepatitis B virus-replicating cells secrete high amounts of SVPs, which are ssembled by HBsAg in the shape of spheres and filaments but lack any capsid and genome. Filaments are characterized by a much higher amount of the surface protein LHBs as compared to spheres. Spheres are
released via the constitutive secretory pathway, while viral particles are ESCRT-dependently released via MVBs. The interaction of virions with the ESCRT machinery is mediated by α-taxilin that connects the PreS1 domain of LHBs with the ESCRT-component tsg101. Since viral particles and filaments contain a significant amount of LHBs, it is unclear whether filaments are secreted as spheres or released like viral particles. To study the release pathways of HBV filaments in the absence of viral particles, A core-deficient
HBV mutant (1.2×HBVΔCore) was generated by site-directed mutagenesis based on wt1.2x HBV. The start codon of core protein was mutated into stop codon, which was confirmed by DNA sequencing. Data from HBsAg ELISA, Western blot, immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy showed that the lack of core protein did neither affect the production nor the secretion of HBV SVPs. The intracellular distribution of
LHBs and SHBs showed no difference between wtHBV and the core-deficient mutant expressing cells. Therefore, this system is suitable to investigate the release pathway of HBV filaments in the absence of viral particles. Confocal microscopy analysis of cells cotransfected core-deficient mutants with peYFPRab7 as marker for the endosomal/MVB pathway or with pGalT-eGFP as marker for the trans Golgi apparatus showed that YFP-Rab7, but not GalT-GFP, partially colocalized with LHBs. Furthermore, LHBs could be found in dilated MVBs by immune electron microscopy of ultrathin sections. This was confirmed by isolation of MVBs by cell fractionation using discontinuous sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation and percoll-based linear gradient ultracentrifugation, indicating that filaments enter MVBs in the absence of virion formation. Moreover, inhibition of MVB biogenesis by the small molecular inhibitor U18666A significantly abolished the release of filaments in a dose-dependent manner, but no inhibition could be observed in the production. In contrast, no inhibition on the secretion and production of spheres could be
detected. Inhibition of ESCRT-functionality by coexpression of transdominant negative mutants (Vps4A, Vps4B, CHMP3) abolished the release of filaments while secretion of spheres was not affected. These data indicate that in contrast Abstract 73 to spheres while are secreted via the secretory pathway, filaments are released via ESCRT/MVB pathway like infectious viral particles.
MLL-r Leukemia
(2016)
Leukotrienes (LTs) are inflammatory mediators that play a pivotal role in many diseases like asthma bronchiale, atherosclerosis and in various types of cancer. The key enzyme for generation of LTs is the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO). Here, we present a novel putative protein isoform of human 5-LO that lacks exon 4, termed 5-LOΔ4, identified in cells of lymphoid origin, namely the Burkitt lymphoma cell lines Raji and BL41 as well as primary B and T cells. Deletion of exon 4 does not shift the reading frame and therefore the mRNA is not subjected to non-mediated mRNA decay (NMD). By eliminating exon 4, the amino acids Trp144 until Ala184 are omitted in the corresponding protein. Transfection of HEK293T cells with a 5-LOΔ4 expression plasmid led to expression of the corresponding protein which suggests that the 5-LOΔ4 isoform is a stable protein in eukaryotic cells. We were also able to obtain soluble protein after expression in E. coli and purification. The isoform itself lacks canonical enzymatic activity as it misses the non-heme iron but it still retains ATP-binding affinity. Differential scanning fluorimetric analysis shows two transitions, corresponding to the two domains of 5-LO. Whilst the catalytic domain of 5-LO WT is destabilized by calcium, addition of calcium has no influence on the catalytic domain of 5-LOΔ4. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of 5-LOΔ4 on the activity of 5-LO WT and proved that it stimulates 5-LO product formation at low protein concentrations. Therefore regulation of 5-LO by its isoform 5-LOΔ4 might represent a novel mechanism of controlling the biosynthesis of lipid mediators.
Dosing accuracy of two disposable insulin pens according to new ISO 11608-1: 2012 requirements.
(2015)
OBJECTIVE: The aim was to compare 2 disposable insulin pens, FlexTouch® (Novo Nordisk, insulin aspart) and SoloSTAR® (Sanofi, insulin glulisine), according to new ISO 11608-1:2012 requirements for dosing accuracy.
METHODS: Sixty pens of each type were tested at 1, 40, and 80 U doses. Following the new ISO requirements, each dose was delivered from the front, middle, and rear one-third of the pen. Statistical analysis was performed using Student's t test.
RESULTS: Both pens delivered all doses within ISO limits. The difference between the average measured dose and the target dose was significantly smaller for SoloSTAR than FlexTouch at 40 U (P = .009) and 80 U (P = .008), but not at 1 U (P = .417).
CONCLUSION: Both insulin pens fulfilled the dosing accuracy requirements defined by ISO 11608-1:2012 at all 3 dosage levels.
Caspase-2 represents the most conserved member of the caspase family, which exhibits features of both initiator and effector caspases. Using ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-immunoprecipitation assay, we identified the proapoptotic caspase-2L encoding mRNA as a novel target of the ubiquitous RNA-binding protein HuR in DLD-1 colon carcinoma cells. Unexpectedly, crosslinking-RNP and RNA probe pull-down experiments revealed that HuR binds exclusively to the caspase-2-5' untranslated region (UTR) despite that the 3' UTR of the mRNA bears several adenylate- and uridylate-rich elements representing the prototypical HuR binding sites. By using RNAi-mediated loss-of-function approach, we observed that HuR regulates the mRNA and in turn the protein levels of caspase-2 in a negative manner. Silencing of HuR did not affect the stability of caspase-2 mRNA but resulted in an increased redistribution of caspase-2 transcripts from RNP particles to translational active polysomes implicating that HuR exerts a direct repressive effect on caspase-2 translation. Consistently, in vitro translation of a luciferase reporter gene under the control of an upstream caspase-2-5'UTR was strongly impaired after the addition of recombinant HuR, whereas translation of caspase-2 coding region without the 5'UTR is not affected by HuR confirming the functional role of the caspase-2-5'UTR. Functionally, an elevation in caspase-2 level by HuR knockdown correlated with an increased sensitivity of cells to apoptosis induced by staurosporine- and pore-forming toxins as implicated by their significant accumulation in the sub G1 phase and an increase in caspase-2, -3 and poly ADP-ribose polymerase cleavage, respectively. Importantly, HuR knockdown cells remained insensitive toward STS-induced apoptosis if cells were additionally transfected with caspase-2-specific siRNAs. Collectively, our findings support the hypothesis that HuR by acting as an endogenous inhibitor of caspase-2-driven apoptosis may essentially contribute to the antiapoptotic program of adenocarcinoma cells by HuR.
The human 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), encoded by the ALOX5 gene, is the key enzyme in the formation of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes. ALOX5 gene transcription is strongly stimulated by calcitriol (1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and TGFβ (transforming growth factor-β). Here, we investigated the influence of MLL (activator of transcript initiation), AF4 (activator of transcriptional elongation) as well as of the leukemogenic fusion proteins MLL-AF4 (ectopic activator of transcript initiation) and AF4-MLL (ectopic activator of transcriptional elongation) on calcitriol/TGFβ-dependent 5-LO transcript elongation. We present evidence that the AF4 complex directly interacts with the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and promotes calcitriol-dependent ALOX5 transcript elongation. Activation of transcript elongation was strongly enhanced by the AF4-MLL fusion protein but was sensitive to Flavopiridol. By contrast, MLL-AF4 displayed no effect on transcriptional elongation. Furthermore, HDAC class I inhibitors inhibited the ectopic effects caused by AF4-MLL on transcriptional elongation, suggesting that HDAC class I inhibitors are potential therapeutics for the treatment of t(4;11)(q21;q23) leukemia.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde die humane Leukotrien A4-Hydrolase untersucht.
Die hLTA4H ist ein bifunktionelles Enzym, welches neben der Hydrolaseaktivität, welche für die Umwandlung des instabilen LTA4 zu LTB4 verantwortlich ist, auch eine Peptidaseaktivität aufweist. Beide Enzymaktivitäten spielen bei Entzündungsprozessen eine wichtige Rolle, weshalb die LTA4H ein interessantes pharmakologisches Target darstellt. Aufgrund der gegensätzlichen Eigenschaften der beiden Aktivitäten der LTA4H (Produktion des proinflammatorischen LTB4 durch die Hydrolase-Aktivität, sowie der Abbau des PGP-Tripeptids durch die Peptidase-Aktivität) wird deutlich, dass die Entwicklung selektiver Hydrolase-Inhibitoren von Vorteil ist.
Das Protein der humanen LTA4H konnte erfolgreich kloniert werden und in E. coli-Zellen exprimiert werden. Zur Gewinnung des reinen rekombinanten Proteins konnte ein Aufreinigungsprotokoll mittels Nickel-Affinitätschromatographie sowie anschließender Größenausschlusschromatographie etabliert werden. Durch die Testung unterschiedlicher Lysemethoden konnte die Ausbeute deutlich erhöht werden.
Um herauszufinden, ob es durch den potentiellen Inhibitor zu einer Hemmung der Enzymaktivität kommt, muss diese detektiert werden können. Hierfür wurde ein geeignetes fluoreszenzbasiertes Testsystem zur Detektion der Enzymaktivität der hLTA4H entwickelt. Dies lässt auch die Quantifizierung der Wirksamkeit der möglichen Inhibitoren zu. Mit Hilfe eines pharmakophorbasierten Ansatzes wurden 22 Testsubstanzen für die in vitro Testung ausgewählt. Nach der Evaluierung dieser Substanzen wurden weitere 14 Derivate der besten Verbindung ausgewählt und ihre inhibitorischen Eigenschaften an rekombinanter LTA4H getestet. Die Ergebnisse wurden mittels Differential Scanning Fluorimetrie validiert, wofür ein einfaches Protokoll etabliert werden konnte.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden weiterhin 5 bereits bekannte Inhibitoren der LTA4H ausgewählt, um sie hinsichtlich ihres thermodynamischen Profils zu untersuchen. Hierzu wurden die ausgewählten Inhibitoren mittels Isothermer Titrationskalorimetrie vermessen. Die Dissoziationskonstanten der untersuchten Inhibitoren wurden ebenfalls mittels Differential Scanning Fluorimetrie bestimmt, wobei sich zeigte, dass diese Methode nicht zur präzisen Messung von Protein/Ligand Interaktionen herangezogen werden kann. Mittels eines in silico Ansatzes zur Vorhersage von stabilisierten und destabilisierten Wassermolekülen in der Bindetasche konnten die thermodynamischen Daten im strukturellen Kontext interpretiert werden. Durch diese Kombination konnten neue Erkenntnisse zum Design neuer Inhibitoren der LTA4H gewonnen werden.
HDAC inhibitors (HDACI), a new class of anticancer agents, induce apoptosis in many cancer entities. JNJ-26481585 is a second generation class І HDACI that displays improved efficacy in preclinical studies compared to the established HDACI SAHA (Vorinostat). Therefore, this study aims at evaluating the effects of JNJ-26481585 on human rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and at identifying novel synergistic interactions of JNJ-26481585 or the more common HDACI SAHA with different anticancer drugs in RMS cells. Indeed, we show that JNJ-26481585 and SAHA significantly increase chemotherapeutic drug-induced apoptosis in embryonal and alveolar RMS cell lines, when used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents (i.e. doxorubicin, etoposide, vincristine, and cyclophosphamide) which are currently used in the clinic for the treatment of RMS.
We demonstrate that JNJ-26481585 as single agent and in combination with doxorubicin induces apoptosis, which is characterized by activation of the caspase cascade, PARP cleavage, and DNA fragmentation. Induction of caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death is confirmed by the use of the broad-range caspase inhibitor zVAD.fmk, which significantly decreases both JNJ-26481585-triggered and combination treatment-mediated DNA fragmentation, and in addition completely abrogates loss of cell viability. Importantly, JNJ-26481585 significantly inhibits tumor growth in vivo in two preclinical RMS models, i.e. the chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model and a xenograft mouse model, supporting the notion that JNJ-26481585 hampers tumor maintenance. Also, in combination with doxorubicin JNJ-26481585 significantly reduces tumor growth in in vivo experiments using the CAM model.
Mechanistically, we identify that JNJ-26481585-induced apoptosis is mediated via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, since we observe increased loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bax and Bak. Interestingly, we find that JNJ-26481585 triggers induction of Bim, Bmf, Puma, and Noxa on mRNA level as well as on protein level, pointing to an altered transcription of BH3-only proteins as important event for the Bax/Bak-mediated loss of mitochondrial membrane potential as well as mitochondrial apoptosis induction upon JNJ-26481585 treatment. JNJ-26481585-initiated activation of Bax and Bak is not prevented with the addition of zVAD.fmk, suggesting that JNJ-26481585 first disrupts the mitochondria and subsequently activates the caspase cascade. When JNJ-26481585 is used in combination with doxorubicin, we observe not only an increase of proapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, but also a decrease in the level of the antiapoptotic mitochondrial proteins Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and Bcl-xL. This indicates that Bax, Bak, Bim, and Noxa are crucial for JNJ-26481585-induced as well as JNJ/Dox treatment-induced apoptosis, since RNAi mediated silencing of Bax, Bak, Bim, and Noxa significantly impedes DNA fragmentation upon those treatments.
Furthermore, ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2 profoundly impairs both JNJ-26481585 and combination treatment-mediated apoptosis, abrogates caspase cleavage, and reduces activation of Bax and Bak, underlining the hypothesis that JNJ-26481585 initially targets the mitochondria and then activates caspases.
With the more commonly used HDACI SAHA we confirm the results obtained with the HDACI JNJ-26481585, since combination treatment with SAHA and doxorubicin also induces intrinsic apoptosis, which can be significantly diminished by zVAD.fmk or ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2. Treatment with SAHA and doxorubicin also affects expression levels of pro- and antiapoptotic mitochondrial proteins, thus shifting the balance towards the proapoptotic mitochondrial machinery, resulting in Bax/Bak activation, caspase activation, and subsequently apoptosis.
Taken together, we provide evidence that the HDACIs JNJ-26481585 and SAHA are promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of RMS and that combination regimens with HDACIs represent an efficient strategy to prime RMS cells for chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. These findings have important implications for mitochondrial apoptosis-targeted therapies of RMS.
The mitochondrial cascade hypothesis of dementia assumes mitochondrial dysfunction leading to reduced energy supply, impaired neuroplasticity, and finally cell death as one major pathomechanism underlying the continuum from brain aging over mild cognitive impairment to initial and advanced late onset Alzheimer's disease. Accordingly, improving mitochondrial function has become an important strategy to treat the early stages of this continuum. The metabolic enhancer piracetam has been proposed as possible prototype for those compounds by increasing impaired mitochondrial function and related aspects like mechanisms of neuroplasticity. We here report that piracetam at therapeutically relevant concentrations improves neuritogenesis in the human cell line SH-SY5Y over conditions mirroring the whole spectrum of age-associated cognitive decline. These effects go parallel with improvement of impaired mitochondrial dynamics shifting back fission and fusion balance to the energetically more favorable fusion site. Impaired fission and fusion balance can also be induced by a reduction of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) function as atractyloside which indicates the mPTP has similar effects on mitochondrial dynamics. These changes are also reduced by piracetam. These findings suggest the mPTP as an important target for the beneficial effects of piracetam on mitochondrial function.
Acute myeloid leukemia is a hematopoietic stem cell disorder and a type of acute leukemia which is characterized by clonal proliferation of myeloid precursors with a reduced capacity to differentiate into more mature cellular elements. Clinically AML is characterized by a high degree of heterogeneity with respect to chromosome abnormalities, gene mutations, and changes in expression of multiple genes and microRNAs. Cytogenetic abnormalities can be detected in approximately 50% to 60% of newly diagnosed AML patients. Majority of AML cases are associated with chromosomal aberrations, more specifically translocations that often result in gene arrangements and expression of aberrant fusion proteins. This study was carried out with two fusion proteins: PML/RARα and DEK/CAN which results from the translocations t(15;17) and t (6,9) respectively. PML/RARα is the most common translocation (97%) and the main driver in Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL), a wellcharacterized and well treatable subtype of AML. In contrast, DEK/CAN occurs in 1-5% of AML, associated with poor prognosis and defines a high risk group in AML. The expression of PML/RARα results in a fusion protein that acts as a transcriptional repressor by interfering with gene expression programs involved in differentiation, apoptosis, and selfrenewal. Current therapy focused on the targeting of PML/RARα fusion protien. Success has been achieved by using either ATRA, anthracyclines and Arsenic trioxide or their combinations. These agents induce differentiation in PML/RARα positive AML and hence called differentiation therapy. In comparison with ATRA, ATO and anthracyclines are poor cellular differentiation agents. Despite early promise, several studies have reported that differentiation therapy is unable to target/eradicate leukemic stem cells or eradicate the disease. Therefore current therapeutic focus is to eliminate leukemic stem cells and achieve complete molecular remission not only in APL but also in acute lymphoblastic leukemia and chronic myeloid leukemia as well. Key enzymes of the eicosanoid pathways in the arachidonic acid metabolism, such as COX1/2 as well as the 5-LO have been shown to be good targets for leukemic stem cell therapy approach in AML by interfering with the Wntsignaling which is known to be indispensable for the pathogenesis of AML. Recently it was reported that the third eicosanoid pathway based on the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes interferes with Wnt-signaling as well as with the proliferation and mobilization of hematopoietic stem cells...
Life-saving pig-to-human xenotransplantation is a promising technology with the potential to balance the shortage of human organs in allotransplantation. Before this approach is applied on solid vascularized organs, several barriers must be overcome. Patient safety is menaced by infectious porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERV) which are able to infect human cell lines in vitro. Successful infection with PERV is associated with diverse life-threatening consequences including gene disruption, tumorigenicity, immune suppression as well as PERV proliferation throughout the whole human body. This could cause a catastrophic xenozonoosis leading to the emergence of new forms of pathogens and pandemic diseases similar to AIDS. However, in vivo, there is hitherto no incidence of any infection with PERV in preclinical xenotransplantations performed in the past.
PERV infection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (huPBMC) is a critical issue discussed controversially in several studies. It is essential to address the sensitivity of huPBMC to infection by PERV since it is generally one of the first retroviral targets upon viral invasion and infection of the human body. To assess definitely if huPBMC are infected productively by PERV, target cells were challenged with the highest infectious PERV class, recombinant PERV-A/C, in different assays. Modern and standard methods to detect PERV at different stages of viral cycles were used to monitor PERV development upon contact with host cells. Indeed, PERV-A/C in supernatants of producer cell lines failed to infect mitogen-activated huPBMC. Neither retroviral reverse transcriptase (RT) nor viral RNA packaged in virus particles were observed in supernatants of cells exposed to viral supernatants. In addition, provirus was not detected in huPBMC until 56 days p. i. with PERV-A/C. Independently of the virus load applied, culture conditions of huPBMC or administration of polybrene as enhancer, PERV was unable to infect huPBMC. Results suggest that PERV in supernatants lack sufficient infectious potential to be productively generated in huPBMC.
In order to approximate xenotransplantation scenarios, different PERV producing cells including PHA-activated porcine PBMC (poPBMC) were adopted as virus source in co-cultivation studies with huPBMC. In this case, expression of viral RNA was successfully measured. However, RT activity did not increase until 28 days p. e. with PERV producer cells which indicates that viral particles devoid of infectious capacity were released from non-productively infected cells.
On the other hand, co-cultivation of both virus producer and virus recipients increases the contact pressure between PERV and target cells. Consequently, PERV was able to be detected at least as provirus in huPBMC. Although virions produced were not functional, presence of provirus in infected cells will sooner or later provoke expression of provirus. This could lead to chromosomal rearrangements as well as virus reinfection and insertional mutagenesis.
Ecotropic PERV-C displays a restricted host range to porcine cells. Given its ability to serve as template to form recombinant xenotropic PERV-A/C, PERV-C represents a potent hazard in the course of xenotransplantation. Thus, isolation and functional characterization of PERV-C in the genome of pigs in use and intended for xenotransplantation is necessary to analyze the genetics of these virions as well as to select animals lacking proviral PERV-C or to generate transgenic PERV-C negative donors.
PERV-C was isolated from the genome of a female SLAd/d haplotype pig via screening of a bacteriophage library which was constructed from the genomic DNA of poPBMC extracted from this PERV non-transmitting sow. Upon genetic complementation of provirus using a PCR fragment infectious ability of full-length PERV-C clones was investigated in cell culture. PERV-C clones were successfully reproduced in susceptible porcine cells as RT activity as well as viral RNA were detected in supernatants of infected cells 56 days p. i. Furthermore, presence of proviruses in challenged cells was confirmed by nested PCR.
PERV-C clones were also isolated from a bacteriophage library generated on genomic DNA of an Auckland island pig of the DPF colony, whose individuals display a PERV-null phenotype and are already in use for xenotransplantation, and of a Göttingen minipig, whose relatives serve as animal models to study human diseases. In contrast to PERV clones isolated from the female SLAd/d haplotype sow PERV-C clones of the Auckland island pig as well as of the Göttingen minipig were not functional and therefore unable to infect target cells. This confirms the PERV-null phenotype which renders these animals putative candidates as donors in xenotransplantation. On the other hand, presence of functional PERV-C in SLAd/d haplotype pigs exerts a negative impact on patient safety in xenotransplantation. The suitability of these animals as potent organ donors should be intensively investigated.
In conclusion, PERV of all classes pose a virological risk in xenotransplantation which should not be ignored. Since exclusion of all PERV from donor herds is impossible, generation of transgenic humanized animals lacking genomic infectious PERV represents the best strategy to guarantee patient safety in future life-saving pig-to-human xenotransplantation.
BACKGROUND: Human SAMHD1 is a triphosphohydrolase that restricts the replication of retroviruses, retroelements and DNA viruses in noncycling cells. While modes of action have been extensively described for human SAMHD1, only little is known about the regulation of SAMHD1 in the mouse. Here, we characterize the antiviral activity of murine SAMHD1 with the help of knockout mice to shed light on the regulation and the mechanism of the SAMHD1 restriction and to validate the SAMHD1 knockout mouse model for the use in future infectivity studies.
RESULTS: We found that endogenous mouse SAMHD1 restricts not only HIV-1 but also MLV reporter virus infection at the level of reverse transcription in primary myeloid cells. Similar to the human protein, the antiviral activity of murine SAMHD1 is regulated through phosphorylation at threonine 603 and is limited to nondividing cells. Comparing the susceptibility to infection with intracellular dNTP levels and SAMHD1 phosphorylation in different cell types shows that both functions are important determinants of the antiviral activity of murine SAMHD1. In contrast, we found the proposed RNase activity of SAMHD1 to be less important and could not detect any effect of mouse or human SAMHD1 on the level of incoming viral RNA.
CONCLUSION: Our findings show that SAMHD1 in the mouse blocks retroviral infection at the level of reverse transcription and is regulated through cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation. We show that the antiviral restriction mediated by murine SAMHD1 is mechanistically similar to what is known for the human protein, making the SAMHD1 knockout mouse model a valuable tool to characterize the influence of SAMHD1 on the replication of different viruses in vivo.
Die eukaryotische RNA-Polymerase II (RNAPII) ist der zentrale Faktor für die Umsetzung des genetischen Codes in funktionelle Proteine. Durch die Transkription wird die statische Information der DNA in ein transient nutzbares RNA-Molekül umgewandelt. Bei diesem fundamentalen Prozess der Genexpression wird ein spezifischer DNA-Abschnitt des Genoms abgelesen und in die komplementäre RNA transkribiert, die entweder direkt regulatorische bzw. funktionelle Aufgaben in der Zelle übernimmt oder als Matrize für die Proteinbiosynthese dient. Zur Erhaltung der Funktionalität eines Organismus und zur schnellen und gezielten Reaktion auf exogene Reize ist eine strikte Regulation der Transkription und der zahlreichen beteiligten Faktoren notwendig. Aufgrund der zentralen Rolle in der Genexpression ist diese Regulation äußerst vielschichtig und erfordert eine feinabgestimmte Maschinerie an Enzymen und Transkriptionsfaktoren, deren genaue Wirkungsweise und Abhängigkeit noch nicht vollständig verstanden sind. Fehler in der Transkriptionsregulation werden mit einer Reihe von schwerwiegenden metabolischen Störungen und der möglichen malignen Transformation der betroffenen Zelle in Verbindung gebracht.
Während einige Regulationsmechanismen der RNAPII bereits seit längerer Zeit beschrieben sind, ist eine besondere Form der RNAPII-abhängigen Regulation erst in den letzten Jahren Gegenstand genauerer Untersuchungen geworden. So erfährt die RNAPII bei einer Vielzahl von Genen unmittelbar nach der Transkriptionsinitiation einen Arrest, der das Enzym nicht weiter über die DNA prozessieren lässt und somit die produktive Elongation des Gens blockiert. Die Aufhebung dieses promotornahen Arrests wird durch den positiven Transkriptions-Elongationsfaktor b (P-TEFb) dominiert, der durch distinkte post-translationale Modifikationen der C-terminalen Domäne der RNAPII und assoziierter Faktoren den Übergang in die produktive Transkriptionselongation ermöglicht. P-TEFb selbst unterliegt dabei einer strengen Regulation durch die Inkorporation in inhibierende Speicherkomplexe (7SK snRNPs), bestehend aus der 7SK snRNA und mehrerer assoziierter Proteine. Abseits des 7SK snRNP wurde P-TEFb als Bestandteil großer Multiproteinkomplexe identifiziert, die einen positiven Einfluss auf die Transkriptionselongation besitzen. Die Transition von P-TEFb aus dem 7SK snRNP in diese sogenannten Superelongationskomplexe (SECs) stellt einen der zentralen Regulationsmechanismen der eukaryotischen Transkription dar, ist jedoch noch nicht ausreichend verstanden.
Ein zentrales Element aller SECs bilden die Mitglieder der AF4/FMR2-Proteinfamilie, darunter das AF4 Protein, dem neben der Erhaltung der strukturellen Integrität mittlerweile auch eine Funktion in der Rekrutierung von P-TEFb zugeschrieben wird. Dabei scheint AF4 jedoch auf die Hilfe bislang noch nicht charakterisierter Faktoren angewiesen zu sein. AF4 ist über diese Rolle hinaus als Bestandteil des Fusionsproteins AF4-MLL eng mit der onkogenen Zelltransformation im Falle einer durch die Translokation t(4;11)(q21;q23) bedingten, akuten lymphoblastischen Leukämie assoziiert.
Das zentrale Thema dieser Arbeit stellen Untersuchungen zum Transfer von P-TEFb aus dem 7SK snRNP zum AF4-Protein dar. Dabei konnte zunächst die DEAD-Box RNA-Helikase DDX6 als Integraler Bestandteil der AF4-SECs identifiziert werden, der bereits eine Funktion in der Kontrolle des microRNA- wie auch des mRNA-Metabolismus zugeschrieben werden konnte. Aus diesem Grund wurde von uns eine mögliche Beteiligung von DDX6 an der Rekrutierung von P-TEFb zum AF4-SEC durch Modulationen der 7SK snRNA postuliert. Des Weiteren konnte eine Bindefähigkeit von DDX6 gegenüber der 7SK snRNA sowie eine direkte Korrelation zwischen des zellulären DDX6-Proteinlevel und der Akkumulation von P-TEFb im AF4-SEC nachgewiesen werden. Sowohl die Überexpression von DDX6 als auch die von AF4 resultierten in einer gesteigerten mRNA-Produktion, wobei die Ergebnisse auf einen kooperativen Mechanismus zwischen den beiden Proteinen in der Aktivierung der Transkription hindeuteten. Außerdem konnte die These einer DDX6-vermittelten Aktivierung von P-TEFb anhand von Expressionsanalysen des bekannten P-TEFb Zielgens HEXIM1, dessen Expression im Zusammenhang eines negativen Rückkopplungsmechanismus gesteigert wird, bestätigt werden. Damit konnte der DEAD-Box RNA-Helikase DDX6 in dieser Arbeit das erste Mal eine entscheidende Funktion in der Rekrutierung von P-TEFb aus dem 7SK snRNP in den AF4-SEC, und somit an der Kontrolle der eukaryotischen Transkription, zugeschrieben werden.
CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) represent a specialized subpopulation of T cells, which are essential for maintaining peripheral tolerance and preventing autoimmunity. The immunomodulatory effects of Tregs depend on their activation status. Here we show that, in contrast to conventional anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), the humanized CD4-specific monoclonal antibody tregalizumab (BT-061) is able to selectively activate the suppressive properties of Tregs in vitro. BT-061 activates Tregs by binding to CD4 and activation of signaling downstream pathways. The specific functionality of BT-061 may be explained by the recognition of a unique, conformational epitope on domain 2 of the CD4 molecule that is not recognized by other anti-CD4 mAbs. We found that, due to this special epitope binding, BT-061 induces a unique phosphorylation of T-cell receptor complex-associated signaling molecules. This is sufficient to activate the function of Tregs without activating effector T cells. Furthermore, BT-061 does not induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These results demonstrate that BT-061 stimulation via the CD4 receptor is able to induce T-cell receptor-independent activation of Tregs. Selective activation of Tregs via CD4 is a promising approach for the treatment of autoimmune diseases where insufficient Treg activity has been described. Clinical investigation of this new approach is currently ongoing.
Eine Erkrankung wird als monogen bezeichnet, wenn sie auf einen Gendefekt eines einzelnen Gens zurückzuführen ist. Durch einen angeborenen Gendefekt kann bei den sog. primären Immundefekten (PIDs) das Immunsystem von asymptomatisch bis lebensbedrohlich mehr oder weniger stark beeinträchtigt werden. Für lebensbedrohliche Immundefekte gilt die allogene Stammzelltransplantation eines passenden Spenders als einzig kurative Therapie. Weil jedoch für etwa 30 % aller Patienten kein passender Spender verfügbar ist, bietet die Gentherapie in Kombination mit einer autologen Stammzelltransplantation eine häufig lebensrettende Alternative. Dabei werden patienteneigene CD34+-Blutstammzellen isoliert, ex vivo mit einer funktionalen Kopie des defekten Gens genetisch modifiziert und anschließend zurück in den Patienten infundiert. Die dabei eingesetzten Genfähren basieren in der Regel auf viralen Vektoren, mit denen das gesunde Gen in die Patientenzellen eingeschleust wird. Retrovirale Vektoren wurden für die Gentherapie am häufigsten eingesetzt.
In mehreren klinischen Gentherapie-Studien zur Behandlung diverser PIDs kam es aufgrund insertionsbedingter Transaktivierung benachbarter Proto-Onkogene zur Leukämieentwicklung. Deswegen wurde gezielt an der Sicherheit retroviraler Genfähren gearbeitet. Insbesondere wurden die in der ersten Generation benutzten retroviralen Promotor/Enhancer-Elemente aus der U3-Region des 5’ LTRs deletiert (self-inactivating, SIN-Vektoren) und durch interne, gewebespezifische Promotoren ersetzt. Auf Genfallen basierende Vektoren (gene trap, GT-Vektoren) könnten eine sicherere Alternative zu den Standardvektoren bieten, weil sie zum einen auf den γ-retroviralen SIN-Vektoren basieren und zum anderen keinen internen Promotor enthalten, der zur Transaktivierung benachbarter Gene führen kann. Bei GT-Vektoren wird das integrierte Transgen von endogenen Promotoren kontrolliert, was zu einer robusteren Transgenexpression und zu einem erhöhten Sicherheitsprofil führen sollte.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war, GT-Vektoren hinsichtlich ihres Potentials als Vektoren für die Gentherapie zu bewerten. Dafür wurde zunächst die Gentransduktionseffizienz unterschiedlicher GT-Vektoren in murinen, embryonalen Stammzellen (mES-Zellen) untersucht. In einem klassischen GT-Vektor ist das Therapiegen von einem 5‘ liegenden Spleißakzeptor (SA) und einer 3‘ liegenden Polyadenylierungssequenz (pA) flankiert. Dies bewirkt, dass das Therapiegen nach Integration in ein exprimiertes Gen als Fusionstranskript mit den 5‘ liegenden endogenen Genfragmenten exprimiert wird. Sind diese kodierend, entsteht ein Fusionsprotein, das die Funktionalität des Therapiegens beeinträchtigen kann. Zu Vermeidung einer derartigen Konstellation wurden drei Strategien zur Verhinderung N-terminaler Fusionen getestet: Die Fusion (i) einer internen ribosomalen Eintrittsstelle (IRES) und (ii) eines viralen Proteinspaltungspeptids (T2A) an das 5‘ Ende des Therapiegens sowie (iii) die Insertion von drei Stop-Codons hinter den SA. Die Versuche in mES-Zellen zeigten, dass die GT-Variante mit den Stop-Codons am effizientesten war, weshalb sie für alle weiteren Ansätze verwendet wurde.
Dieser Arbeit vorangegangen war die Entwicklung einer Genfallenstrategie zur Korrektur des septischen Granulomatose (X-CGD) verursachenden gp91phox (CYBB)-Gendefektes in einer gp91phox-defizienten Leukämiezelllinie (PLB-XCGD). Obwohl Genfallen transduzierte PLB-XCGD-Zellen das Therapiegen gp91phox exprimierten, war diese Expression im Vergleich zu den mit einem positiven, Promotor-enthaltenden Kontrollvektor (FES-gp91phox) transduzierten Zellen sehr gering. Deswegen war es notwendig eine effiziente Selektionsstrategie für Genfallenereignisse in hämatopoetischen Zellen zu entwickeln. Eine Strategie basierte auf einem FKBP12/Thrombopoetinrezeptor-Fusionsprotein, dessen Expression in hämatopoetischen BaF3 Zellen eine 25-fache Anreicherung von Genfallen exprimierenden Zellen nach Zugabe des chemischen Liganden AP20187 ermöglichte. Allerdings konnte dieses System in primären, hämatopoetischen Zellen leider nicht etabliert werden.
Die andere Selektionsstrategie basierte auf dem X-SCID Krankheitsmodell, in dem IL2RG-Mutationen, einer Untereinheit verschiedenster Zytokinrezeptoren (z. B. des IL-2-Rezeptors), zu einem kompletten Verlust von T-Zellen und somit zur Reduktion funktionaler B-Zellen führen. Nach ex vivo Korrektur und Transplantation der korrigierten, autologen hämatopoetischen Stammzellen (HSZ), kann eine Expansion der IL2RG exprimierenden T-Zellen erzielt werden. Initiale Versuche wurden an der IL2RG-/--Zelllinie ED-7R in vitro durchgeführt. Nachdem über die durchflusszytometrische Analyse der pSTAT5-Expression eine Aktivierung des IL2RG-abhängigen Signalweges in GT-IL2RG-Genfallen transduzierten ED-7R-Zellen nachgewiesen werden konnte, wurde in einem X-SCID-Mausmodell (IL2RG-/-) überprüft, ob es zu der erwarteten Anreicherung von IL2RG exprimierenden T-Zellen nach Transplantation autologer GT-IL2RG transduzierter HSZ kommt. Dabei wurde sowohl die immunologische Rekonstitution der Mäuse als auch die Funktionalität der rekonstituierten Lymphozyten untersucht. In der GT-Gruppe konnte nach Transplantation genetisch modifizierter Zellen weder ein Unterschied der absoluten Zahl an Lymphozyten (B-Zellen, T-Zellen) im Blut, noch ein erhöhter Prozentsatz der verschiedenen Lymphozyten-subpopulationen in KM, Milz oder Thymus beobachtet werden. Lediglich im Thymus einer Maus aus der GT-Gruppe konnten IL2RG exprimierende Zellen nachgewiesen werden. Andererseits konnten aus der Milz transplantierter GT-Mäuse T-Zellen isoliert werden, die nach Interleukin-2-Stimulation STAT5-Phosphorylierung aufwiesen, was eine erfolgreiche obgleich geringe GT-IL2RG Transduktion belegt. Durch die Beurteilung des Engraftments, also des Anwachsens der transplantierten Spenderzellen im Empfängerorganismus, konnte gezeigt werden, dass die niedrigere IL2RG-Rekonstitutionseffizienz durch Genfallen nicht auf einem suboptimalen Engraftment, sondern auf einer zu geringen Anzahl an produktiven Genfallenereignissen beruht.
Zusammenfassend legen die Ergebnisse nahe, dass Genfallen zu diesem Zeitpunkt keine realistische Alternative gegenüber konventionellen Gentherapievektoren zur Korrektur monogener Bluterkrankungen bieten. Neue Entwicklungen, die eine Genkorrektur mittels sog. „Designer Endonukleasen“ vor Ort ermöglichen, werden sicherlich in der nahen Zukunft sämtliche, beliebig ins Genom integrierende Gentherapievektoren ersetzen.