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Synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP) at spinal neurons directly communicating pain-specific inputs from the periphery to the brain has been proposed to serve as a trigger for pain hypersensitivity in pathological states. Previous studies have functionally implicated the NMDA receptor-NO pathway and the downstream second messenger, cGMP, in these processes. Because cGMP can broadly influence diverse ion-channels, kinases, and phosphodiesterases, pre- as well as post-synaptically, the precise identity of cGMP targets mediating spinal LTP, their mechanisms of action, and their locus in the spinal circuitry are still unclear. Here, we found that Protein Kinase G1 (PKG-I) localized presynaptically in nociceptor terminals plays an essential role in the expression of spinal LTP. Using the Cre-lox P system, we generated nociceptor-specific knockout mice lacking PKG-I specifically in presynaptic terminals of nociceptors in the spinal cord, but not in post-synaptic neurons or elsewhere (SNS-PKG-I−/− mice). Patch clamp recordings showed that activity-induced LTP at identified synapses between nociceptors and spinal neurons projecting to the periaqueductal grey (PAG) was completely abolished in SNS-PKG-I−/− mice, although basal synaptic transmission was not affected. Analyses of synaptic failure rates and paired-pulse ratios indicated a role for presynaptic PKG-I in regulating the probability of neurotransmitter release. Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor 1 and myosin light chain kinase were recruited as key phosphorylation targets of presynaptic PKG-I in nociceptive neurons. Finally, behavioural analyses in vivo showed marked defects in SNS-PKG-I−/− mice in several models of activity-induced nociceptive hypersensitivity, and pharmacological studies identified a clear contribution of PKG-I expressed in spinal terminals of nociceptors. Our results thus indicate that presynaptic mechanisms involving an increase in release probability from nociceptors are operational in the expression of synaptic LTP on spinal-PAG projection neurons and that PKG-I localized in presynaptic nociceptor terminals plays an essential role in this process to regulate pain sensitivity.
In an ongoing clinical phase I/II study, 16 pediatric patients suffering from high risk leukemia/tumors received highly purified donor natural killer (NK) cell immunotherapy (NK-DLI) at day (+3) +40 and +100 post haploidentical stem cell transplantation. However, literature about the influence of NK-DLI on recipient's immune system is scarce. Here we present concomitant results of a noninvasive in vivo monitoring approach of recipient's peripheral blood (PB) cells after transfer of either unstimulated (NK-DLI(unstim)) or IL-2 (1000 U/ml, 9–14 days) activated NK cells (NK-DLI(IL-2 stim)) along with their ex vivo secreted cytokine/chemokines. We performed phenotypical and functional characterizations of the NK-DLIs, detailed flow cytometric analyses of various PB cells and comprehensive cytokine/chemokine arrays before and after NK-DLI. Patients of both groups were comparable with regard to remission status, immune reconstitution, donor chimerism, KIR mismatching, stem cell and NK-DLI dose. Only after NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) was a rapid, almost complete loss of CD56(bright)CD16(dim/−) immune regulatory and CD56(dim)CD16(+) cytotoxic NK cells, monocytes, dendritic cells and eosinophils from PB circulation seen 10 min after infusion, while neutrophils significantly increased. The reduction of NK cells was due to both, a decrease in patients' own CD69(−) NCR(low)CD62L(+) NK cells as well as to a diminishing of the transferred cells from the NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) with the CD56(bright)CD16(+/−)CD69(+)NCR(high)CD62L(−) phenotype. All cell counts recovered within the next 24 h. Transfer of NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) translated into significantly increased levels of various cytokines/chemokines (i.e. IFN-γ, IL-6, MIP-1β) in patients' PB. Those remained stable for at least 1 h, presumably leading to endothelial activation, leukocyte adhesion and/or extravasation. In contrast, NK-DLI(unstim) did not cause any of the observed effects. In conclusion, we assume that the adoptive transfer of NK-DLI(IL-2 stim) under the influence of ex vivo and in vivo secreted cytokines/chemokines may promote NK cell trafficking and therefore might enhance efficacy of immunotherapy.
Background: Oral anticoagulant therapy (OAT) with warfarin is the standard of stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation. Approximately 30% of patients with cardioembolic strokes are on OAT at the time of symptom onset. We investigated whether warfarin exacerbates the risk of thrombolysis-associated hemorrhagic transformation (HT) in a mouse model of ischemic stroke.
Methods: 62 C57BL/6 mice were used for this study. To achieve effective anticoagulation, warfarin was administered orally. We performed right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 3 h and assessed functional deficit and HT blood volume after 24 h.
Results: In non-anticoagulated mice, treatment with rt-PA (10 mg/kg i.v.) after 3 h MCAO led to a 5-fold higher degree of HT compared to vehicle-treated controls (4.0±0.5 µl vs. 0.8±0.1, p<0.001). Mice on warfarin revealed larger amounts of HT after rt-PA treatment in comparison to non-anticoagulated mice (9.2±3.2 µl vs. 2.8±1.0, p<0.05). The rapid reversal of anticoagulation by means of prothrombin complex concentrates (PCC, 100 IU/kg) at the end of the 3 h MCAO period, but prior to rt-PA administration, neutralized the exacerbated risk of HT as compared to sham-treated controls (3.8±0.7 µl vs. 15.0±3.8, p<0.001).
Conclusion: In view of the vastly increased risk of HT, it seems to be justified to withhold tPA therapy in effectively anticoagulated patients with acute ischemic stroke. The rapid reversal of anticoagulation with PCC prior to tPA application reduces the risk attributed to warfarin pretreatment and may constitute an interesting therapeutic option.
The present work comprises different projects within the scope of public health. In detail, they all aim at combating the high-burden diseases HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis more effectively. Since there was, and still is, no harmonization between the existing biowaiver guidelines, the biowaiver dissolution test conditions by WHO and FDA were compared against each other using drug products, which had already demonstrated BE to the comparator in vivo. Thereby it could be shown that the dissolution conditions proposed by the WHO are more appropriate for granting biowaivers than those of the FDA. Further, the applicability of the WHO dissolution test conditions was investigated using the APIs ethambutol, isoniazid and pyrazinamide (all BCS Class III) as model compounds. These investigations demonstrated that the concept of the biowaiver proved to work properly, i.e. leading to no false positive BE decision and an acceptable incidence of false negative BE decisions. In addition, four new biowaiver monographs were published addressing important APIs in the treatment of HIV/AIDS and malaria. Before these efforts, there were only a very few biowaiver monographs available for antiviral or antimalarial APIs, i.e. the database of biowaiver monographs has been clearly improved. The last part of the present work dealt with the extension of the biowaiver concept to related areas such as the WHO Prequalification of Medicines Programme. Investigations revealed that the biowaiver tools are generally eligible for prequalification of drug products containing ethambutol, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, or lamivudine to prove BE between an appropriate comparator and the test candidate. By contrast, some APIs are excluded from the biowaiver procedure. In conclusion, the implementation of the biowaiver tools for prequalification of biowaivable APIs is, along with BCS-based biowaiver approval of new generics, an important step towards making essential, high-quality drug products more cost-effective and, as a consequence, more accessible for a larger percentage of the population. In that way, the treatment conditions for those in need living in the developing countries can be improved enormously, so that those who are poor do not have to receive poor treatment. The quality standard of essential medicines will increase worldwide, thereby helping to combat the high-burden diseases better and, in turn, lead to an improvement of the global health status.
Background: Threonine Aspartase 1 (Taspase1) mediates cleavage of the mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) protein and leukemia provoking MLL-fusions. In contrast to other proteases, the understanding of Taspase1's (patho)biological relevance and function is limited, since neither small molecule inhibitors nor cell based functional assays for Taspase1 are currently available. Methodology/Findings: Efficient cell-based assays to probe Taspase1 function in vivo are presented here. These are composed of glutathione S-transferase, autofluorescent protein variants, Taspase1 cleavage sites and rational combinations of nuclear import and export signals. The biosensors localize predominantly to the cytoplasm, whereas expression of biologically active Taspase1 but not of inactive Taspase1 mutants or of the protease Caspase3 triggers their proteolytic cleavage and nuclear accumulation. Compared to in vitro assays using recombinant components the in vivo assay was highly efficient. Employing an optimized nuclear translocation algorithm, the triple-color assay could be adapted to a high-throughput microscopy platform (Z'factor = 0.63). Automated high-content data analysis was used to screen a focused compound library, selected by an in silico pharmacophor screening approach, as well as a collection of fungal extracts. Screening identified two compounds, N-[2-[(4-amino-6-oxo-3H-pyrimidin-2-yl)sulfanyl]ethyl]benzenesulfonamideand 2-benzyltriazole-4,5-dicarboxylic acid, which partially inhibited Taspase1 cleavage in living cells. Additionally, the assay was exploited to probe endogenous Taspase1 in solid tumor cell models and to identify an improved consensus sequence for efficient Taspase1 cleavage. This allowed the in silico identification of novel putative Taspase1 targets. Those include the FERM Domain-Containing Protein 4B, the Tyrosine-Protein Phosphatase Zeta, and DNA Polymerase Zeta. Cleavage site recognition and proteolytic processing of these substrates were verified in the context of the biosensor. Conclusions: The assay not only allows to genetically probe Taspase1 structure function in vivo, but is also applicable for high-content screening to identify Taspase1 inhibitors. Such tools will provide novel insights into Taspase1's function and its potential therapeutic relevance.
Spherical harmonics coeffcients for ligand-based virtual screening of cyclooxygenase inhibitors
(2011)
Background: Molecular descriptors are essential for many applications in computational chemistry, such as ligand-based similarity searching. Spherical harmonics have previously been suggested as comprehensive descriptors of molecular structure and properties. We investigate a spherical harmonics descriptor for shape-based virtual screening. Methodology/Principal Findings: We introduce and validate a partially rotation-invariant three-dimensional molecular shape descriptor based on the norm of spherical harmonics expansion coefficients. Using this molecular representation, we parameterize molecular surfaces, i.e., isosurfaces of spatial molecular property distributions. We validate the shape descriptor in a comprehensive retrospective virtual screening experiment. In a prospective study, we virtually screen a large compound library for cyclooxygenase inhibitors, using a self-organizing map as a pre-filter and the shape descriptor for candidate prioritization. Conclusions/Significance: 12 compounds were tested in vitro for direct enzyme inhibition and in a whole blood assay. Active compounds containing a triazole scaffold were identified as direct cyclooxygenase-1 inhibitors. This outcome corroborates the usefulness of spherical harmonics for representation of molecular shape in virtual screening of large compound collections. The combination of pharmacophore and shape-based filtering of screening candidates proved to be a straightforward approach to finding novel bioactive chemotypes with minimal experimental effort.
Background: One virulence property of Borrelia burgdorferi is its resistance to innate immunity, in particular to complement-mediated killing. Serum-resistant B. burgdorferi express up to five distinct complement regulator-acquiring surface proteins (CRASP) which interact with complement regulator factor H (CFH) and factor H-like protein 1 (FHL1) or factor H-related protein 1 (CFHR1). In the present study we elucidate the role of the infection-associated CRASP-3 and CRASP-5 protein to serve as ligands for additional complement regulatory proteins as well as for complement resistance of B. burgdorferi. Methodology/Principal Findings: To elucidate whether CRASP-5 and CRASP-3 interact with various human proteins, both borrelial proteins were immobilized on magnetic beads. Following incubation with human serum, bound proteins were eluted and separated by Glycine-SDS-PAGE. In addition to CFH and CFHR1, complement regulators CFHR2 and CFHR5 were identified as novel ligands for both borrelial proteins by employing MALDI-TOF. To further assess the contributions of CRASP-3 and CRASP-5 to complement resistance, a serum-sensitive B. garinii strain G1 which lacks all CFH-binding proteins was used as a valuable model for functional analyses. Both CRASPs expressed on the B. garinii outer surface bound CFH as well as CFHR1 and CFHR2 in ELISA. In contrast, live B. garinii bound CFHR1, CFHR2, and CFHR5 and only miniscute amounts of CFH as demonstrated by serum adsorption assays and FACS analyses. Further functional analysis revealed that upon NHS incubation, CRASP-3 or CRASP-5 expressing borreliae were killed by complement. Conclusions/Significance: In the absence of CFH and the presence of CFHR1, CFHR2 and CFHR5, assembly and integration of the membrane attack complex was not efficiently inhibited indicating that CFH in co-operation with CFHR1, CFHR2 and CFHR5 supports complement evasion of B. burgdorferi.
Psoriasis is a characteristic inflammatory and scaly skin condition with typical histopathological features including increased proliferation and hampered differentiation of keratinocytes. The activation of innate and adaptive inflammatory cellular immune responses is considered to be the main trigger factor of the epidermal changes in psoriatic skin. However, the molecular players that are involved in enhanced proliferation and impaired differentiation of psoriatic keratinocytes are only partly understood. One important factor that regulates differentiation on the cellular level is Ca2+. In normal epidermis, a Ca2+ gradient exists that is disturbed in psoriatic plaques, favoring impaired keratinocyte proliferation. Several TRPC channels such as TRPC1, TRPC4, or TRPC6 are key proteins in the regulation of high [Ca2+]ex induced differentiation. Here, we investigated if TRPC channel function is impaired in psoriasis using calcium imaging, RT-PCR, western blot analysis and immunohistochemical staining of skin biopsies. We demonstrated substantial defects in Ca2+ influx in psoriatic keratinocytes in response to high extracellular Ca2+ levels, associated with a downregulation of all TRPC channels investigated, including TRPC6 channels. As TRPC6 channel activation can partially overcome this Ca2+ entry defect, specific TRPC channel activators may be potential new drug candidates for the topical treatment of psoriasis.
Chromosomal translocations can lead to the formation of chimeric genes encoding fusion proteins such as PML/RARalpha, PLZF/RARalpha, and AML-1/ETO, which are able to induce and maintain acute myeloid leukemia (AML). One key mechanism in leukemogenesis is increased self renewal of leukemic stem cells via aberrant activation of the Wnt signaling pathway. Either X-RAR, PML/RARalpha and PLZF/RARalpha or AML-1/ETO activate Wnt signaling by upregulating gamma-catenin and beta-catenin. In a prospective study, a lower risk of leukemia was observed with aspirin use, which is consistent with numerous studies reporting an inverse association of aspirin with other cancers. Furthermore, a reduction in leukemia risk was associated with use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), where the effects on AML risk was FAB subtype-specific. To better investigate whether NSAID treatment is effective, we used Sulindac Sulfide in X-RARalpha-positive progenitor cell models. Sulindac Sulfide (SSi) is a derivative of Sulindac, a NSAID known to inactivate Wnt signaling. We found that SSi downregulated both beta-catenin and gamma-catenin in X-RARalpha-expressing cells and reversed the leukemic phenotype by reducing stem cell capacity and increasing differentiation potential in X-RARalpha-positive HSCs. The data presented herein show that SSi inhibits the leukemic cell growth as well as hematopoietic progenitors cells (HPCs) expressing PML/RARalpha, and it indicates that Sulindac is a valid molecular therapeutic approach that should be further validated using in vivo leukemia models and in clinical settings.
Background: A delta and C fibers are the major pain-conducting nerve fibers, activate only partly the same brain areas, and are differently involved in pain syndromes. Whether a stimulus excites predominantly A delta or C fibers is a commonly asked question in basic pain research but a quick test was lacking so far. Methodology/Principal Findings: Of 77 verbal descriptors of pain sensations, "pricking", "dull" and "pressing" distinguished best (95% cases correctly) between A delta fiber mediated (punctate pressure produced by means of von Frey hairs) and C fiber mediated (blunt pressure) pain, applied to healthy volunteers in experiment 1. The sensation was assigned to A delta fibers when "pricking" but neither "dull" nor "pressing" were chosen, and to C fibers when the sum of the selections of "dull" or "pressing" was greater than that of the selection of "pricking". In experiment 2, with an independent cohort, the three-descriptor questionnaire achieved sensitivity and specificity above 0.95 for distinguishing fiber preferential non-mechanical induced pain (laser heat, exciting A delta fibers, and 5-Hz electric stimulation, exciting C fibers). Conclusion: A three-item verbal rating test using the words "pricking", "dull", and "pressing" may provide sufficient information to characterize a pain sensation evoked by a physical stimulus as transmitted via A delta or via C fibers. It meets the criteria of a screening test by being easy to administer, taking little time, being comfortable in handling, and inexpensive while providing high specificity for relevant information.
Background: The alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha 7-nAChR) is well known as a potent calcium ionophore that, in the brain, has been implicated in excitotoxicity and hence in the underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Previous research implied that the activity of this receptor may be modified by exposure to a peptide fragment derived from the C-terminal region of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This investigation was undertaken to determine if the functional changes observed could be attributed to peptide binding interaction with the alpha 7-nAChR, or peptide modulation of receptor expression. Methodology/Principal Findings: This study provides evidence that two peptides derived from the C-terminus of acetylcholinesterase, not only selectively displace specific bungarotoxin binding at the alpha 7-nAChR, but also alter receptor binding properties for its familiar ligands, including the alternative endogenous agonist choline. Of more long-term significance, these peptides also induce upregulation of alpha 7-nAChR mRNA and protein expression, as well as enhancing receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane. Conclusions/Significance: The results reported here demonstrate a hitherto unknown relationship between the alpha 7-nAChR and the non-enzymatic functions of acetylcholinesterase, mediated independently by its C-terminal domain. Such an interaction may prove valuable as a pharmacological tool, prompting new approaches for understanding, and combating, the process of neurodegeneration.
Nerve injury leads to sensitization mechanisms in the peripheral and central nervous system which involve transcriptional and post-transcriptional modifications in sensory nerves. To assess protein regulations in the spinal cord after injury of the sciatic nerve in the Spared Nerve Injury model (SNI) we performed a proteomic analysis using 2D-difference gel electrophoresis (DIGE) technology. Among approximately 2300 protein spots separated on each gel we detected 55 significantly regulated proteins after SNI whereof 41 were successfully identified by MALDI-TOF MS. Out of the proteins which were regulated in the DIGE analyses after SNI we focused on the carboxypeptidase A inhibitor latexin because protease dysfunctions contribute to the development of neuropathic pain. Latexin protein expression was reduced after SNI which could be confirmed by Western Blot analysis, quantitative RT-PCR and in-situ hybridisation. The decrease of latexin was associated with an increase of the activity of carboxypeptidase A indicating that the balance between latexin and carboxypeptidase A was impaired in the spinal cord after peripheral nerve injury due to a loss of latexin expression in spinal cord neurons. This may contribute to the development of cold allodynia because normalization of neuronal latexin expression in the spinal cord by AAV-mediated latexin transduction or administration of a small molecule carboxypeptidase A inhibitor significantly reduced acetone-evoked nociceptive behavior after SNI. Our results show the usefulness of proteomics as a screening tool to identify novel mechanisms of nerve injury evoked hypernociception and suggest that carboxypeptidase A inhibition might be useful to reduce cold allodynia.
Background: Due to the use of organophosphates (OP) as pesticides and the availability of OP-type nerve agents, an effective medical treatment for OP poisonings is still a challenging problem. The acute toxicity of an OP poisoning is mainly due to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the peripheral and central nervous systems (CNS). This results in an increase in the synaptic concentration of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, overstimulation of cholinergic receptors and disorder of numerous body functions up to death. The standard treatment of OP poisoning includes a combination of a muscarinic antagonist and an AChE reactivator (oxime). However, these oximes can not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) sufficiently. Therefore, new strategies are needed to transport oximes over the BBB. Methodology/Principal Findings: In this study, we combined different oximes (obidoxime dichloride and two different HI 6 salts, HI 6 dichloride monohydrate and HI 6 dimethanesulfonate) with human serum albumin nanoparticles and could show an oxime transport over an in vitro BBB model. In general, the nanoparticulate transported oximes achieved a better reactivation of OP-inhibited AChE than free oximes. Conclusions/Significance: With these nanoparticles, for the first time, a tool exists that could enable a transport of oximes over the BBB. This is very important for survival after severe OP intoxication. Therefore, these nanoparticulate formulations are promising formulations for the treatment of the peripheral and the CNS after OP poisoning.
Background: Chemotherapy of glioblastoma is largely ineffective as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents entry of most anticancer agents into the brain. For an efficient treatment of glioblastomas it is necessary to deliver anti-cancer drugs across the intact BBB. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles coated with poloxamer 188 hold great promise as drug carriers for brain delivery after their intravenous injection. In the present study the anti-tumour efficacy of the surfactant-coated doxorubicin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles against rat glioblastoma 101/8 was investigated using histological and immunohistochemical methods. Methodology: The particles were prepared by a high-pressure solvent evaporation technique using 1% polyvinylalcohol (PLGA/PVA) or human serum albumin (PLGA/HSA) as stabilizers. Additionally, lecithin-containing PLGA/HSA particles (Dox-Lecithin-PLGA/HSA) were prepared. For evaluation of the antitumour efficacy the glioblastoma-bearing rats were treated intravenously with the doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles coated with poloxamer 188 using the following treatment regimen: 3×2.5 mg/kg on day 2, 5 and 8 after tumour implantation; doxorubicin and poloxamer 188 solutions were used as controls. On day 18, the rats were sacrificed and the antitumour effect was determined by measurement of tumour size, necrotic areas, proliferation index, and expression of GFAP and VEGF as well as Isolectin B4, a marker for the vessel density. Conclusion: The results reveal a considerable anti-tumour effect of the doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles. The overall best results were observed for Dox-Lecithin-PLGA/HSA. These data demonstrate that the poloxamer 188-coated PLGA nanoparticles enable delivery of doxorubicin across the blood-brain barrier in the therapeutically effective concentrations.
Suicide genes have been broadly used in gene therapy. They can serve as safety tools for conditional elimination of infused cells or for directed tumor therapy. To date, the Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ ganciclovir (HSVtk/GCV) system is the most prominent and the most widely used suicidegene/prodrug combination. Despite its promising performance, the system displays limitations, which include relatively slow killing kinetics and toxicity of the prodrug GCV. Consequently, several groups have either developed new suicide-gene/prodrug combinations or attempted to improve the established HSVtk/GCV suicide system. The present study also aimed towards optimization of the HSVtk/GCV system. To do so, a novel, codon-optimized point mutant (A168H) of HSVtk was developed. The novel mutant was named TK.007. It was extensively tested for its efficiency in two relevant settings: (1) control of severe graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) after adoptive immunotherapy with Tlymphocytes, and (2) direct elimination of targeted tumor cells. TK.007 was compared to the broadly used wild-type, splice-corrected scHSVtk and to a codon-optimized HSVtk (coHSVtk) not bearing the above point mutation. (1) For experiments related to the adoptive immunotherapy approach, HSVtkvariants were expressed from a γ-retroviral MP71 vector as a fusion construct with the selection and marker gene tCD34. Expression levels for TK.007 in transduced lymphoid and myeloid cell lines were significantly higher at initial transduction and over a 12 week period compared to the commonly used scHSVtk and coHSVtk indicating reduced toxicity of TK.007. Killing kinetics of transduced cell lines (PM1 and K562) and primary human T cells were significantly faster for TK.007 in comparison to scHSVtk and coHSVtk in vitro. In vivo-functionality of TK.007 was assessed in an allogeneic transplantation model. T cells derived from C57BL/6J.Ly5.1 donor mice were transduced with MP71 vectors expressing scHSVtk or TK.007. Transduced cells were selected and transplanted into Balb/c Rag2-/- γ-/- immune-deficient recipient mice. Acute, severe GvHD occurred and was effectively abrogated in all mice transplanted with TK.007- transduced T cells, and in five out of six mice transplanted with scHSVtk-transduced cells. In a slightly modified quantitative allogeneic transplantation mouse model, significantly faster and more efficient in vivo killing was demonstrated for TK.007 as compared to scHSVtk, especially at low doses of GCV. (2) In order to assess TK.007 functionality in cells derived from solid tumors, HSVtk-variants were expressed from lentiviral gene ontology (LeGO) vectors in combination with an eGFP/neo-opt selection cassette. Transduced and selected tumor cell lines that derived from several tissues were eliminated at significantly lower GCV doses and to higher extents when transduced with TK.007 compared to scHSVtk. Moreover, a significantly stronger bystander effect of TK.007 was demonstrated. The superior in vitro efficiency of TK.007 was confirmed in an in vivo subcutaneous xenograft mouse model for glioblastoma in NOD/SCID mice. Mice transplanted with TK.007 transduced cells stayed tumor-free after treatment with different GCV-doses. On the contrary, mice of the scHSVtk group either demonstrated only transiently reduced tumor growth in the low-dose GCV group (10 mg/kg) compared to the control groups or suffered from relatively fast relapses after initial tumor shrinking in the standarddose (50 mg/kg) GCV group. As a result, all mice in the scHSVtk group died from vigorous tumor growth. In summary, in two different applications for suicide gene therapy the present study has demonstrated superior functional performance of the novel suicide gene TK.007 as compared to the broadly used wild-type scHSVtk. Differences became particularly pronounced at low doses of GCV. It can be concluded that the new TK.007-gene represents a promising alternative to the commonly used scHSVtk for gene therapeutic applications.
Over the last years there has been an increasing interest in the involvement of the MVA-pathway and of members of the small GTPases, in the development and progression of AD. Earlier investigations mainly focused on the role of cholesterol in disease pathology. This research was supported by retrospective cohort studies, initially showing beneficial effects of the long-term intake of cholesterol lowering statins, on the incidence of the development of sporadic AD. However, in more recent literature increasing attention has been paid to the isoprenoids, FPP and GGPP, due to their crucial role in the post-translational modifications of members of the superfamily of small GTPases. In AD, these proteins were amongst others shown to be involved in mechanisms affecting APP processing, ROS generation and synaptic plasticity. A major factor impeding the clarification of the role of the MVA-pathway intermediates in these mechanisms was the lack of a sensitive and accurate method to determine FPP and GGPP levels in brain tissue. Hence, a state of the art HPLC-FLD method for the quantification of the isoprenoids FPP and GGPP in brain tissue was successfully developed. After the introduction of a double clean-up step from complex brain matrix samples and the synthesis of an appropriate IS (DNP), the method was fully validated according to the latest FDA guideline for bioanalytical method validation. Furthermore, this method was transferred to a faster and more sensitive, state of the art UHPLC-MS/MS application. Additionally, the method was shown to be applicable for mouse brain tissue and data was generated from an in vivo mouse simvastatin study and for different mouse models. According to the aims of the thesis, the current work describes for the first time absolute isoprenoid concentrations in human frontal cortex white and grey matter. Furthermore, this is the first report of isoprenoid levels in the frontal cortex of human AD brains. Further results were shown from mouse brains originating from different mouse models, including the Thy-1 APP mouse model mimicking AD pathology in terms of Aβ formation or C57Bl/6 mice at different ages. AD prevalence can be clearly correlated with increasing age. Therefore, three different generations of mice were investigated. The study demonstrated constant isoprenoid and cholesterol levels in the first half of their life followed by a significant increase of FPP and GGPP in the second half (between 12 and 24 month of age). Cholesterol levels were also elevated in the aged group, but again the effect was less pronounced than shown for the isoprenoids. These results lead to the tentative conclusion that cerebral isoprenoid levels are elevated during aging and that this accumulation is amplified during AD leading to accelerated neuronal dysfunction. In a different mouse study, using the C57Bl/6 mice, in vivo drug intervention with the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor simvastatin revealed strong inhibition of the rate limiting step of the mevalonate/isoprenoid/cholesterol pathway and resulted in the first report of significantly reduced FPP and GGPP levels in brain tissue of statin treated mice. These results open for the first time the possibility to monitor drug effects on cerebral isoprenoid levels and correlate these data with a modulation of APP processing, which was shown by our group in previous studies. Interestingly, apart from the isoprenoid reduction following statin treatment the reduction of brain cholesterol was also significant but to a lesser extent. These findings support the notion that isoprenoid levels are more susceptible to statin treatment than cholesterol levels. Furthermore, this suggests a strong cellular dependence on FPP and GGPP, as the pool seems to be easily depleted, which finally could lead to cell death. The first investigations of farnesylated Ras and geranylgeranylated Rac protein levels by means of immuno-blotting, substantiated the notion of a decreased abundance of prenylated small GTPases under statin influence as a consequence of reduced isoprenoid levels. These findings demonstrate for the first time a correlation of FPP and GGPP levels with the abundance of small GTPases. These findings together with the results from the AD study prove that isoprenoid levels are not strictly subject to the same regulation as cholesterol levels. To further understand the physiological regulation in the cell, in vitro experiments with different inhibitors of the mevalonate/isoprenoid/cholesterol pathway were conducted. These results confirmed the isoprenoid and cholesterol reducing effects of statin treatment as observed in the aforementioned in vivo mouse study. Interestingly, cholesterol synthesis inhibition targeted after FPP as the branch point, led to significantly elevated FPP levels. FTase inhibition led to significantly reduced FPP levels, whereas inhibition of the GGTase I did not show a significant change of either isoprenoid levels.
Over the past two decades the “one drug – one target – one disease” concept became the prevalent paradigm in drug discovery. The main idea of this approach is the identification of a single protein target whose inhibition leads to a successful treatment of the examined disease. The predominant assumption is that highly selective ligands would avoid unwanted side effects caused by binding to secondary non-therapeutic targets. In recent years the results of post-genomic and network biology showed that proteins rarely act in isolated systems but rather as a part of a highly connected network [1]. In addition this connectivity leads to more robust systems that cannot be interfered by the inhibition of a single target of that network and consequently might not lead to the desired therapeutic effect [2]. Furthermore studies prove that robust systems are rather affected by weak inhibitions of several parts than by a complete inhibition of a single selected element of that system [3]. Therefore there is an increasing interest in developing drugs that take effect on multiple targets simultaneously but is concurrently a great challenge for medicinal chemists. There has to be a sufficient activity on each target as well as an adequate pharmacokinetic profile [4]. Early design strategies tried to link the pharmacophors of known inhibitors, however these methods often lead to high molecular weight and low ligand efficacy. We present a new rational approach based on a retrosynthetic combinatorial analysis procedure [5] on approved ligands of multiple targets. These RECAP fragments are used to design a large combinatorial library containing molecules featuring chemical properties of each ligand class. The molecules are further validated by machine learning models, like random forests and self-organizing maps, regarding their activity on the targets of interest.
Proliferation and apoptosis are fundamental cellular processes that are important for the development and homeostasis of multi-cellular organisms. Deregulation of these processes plays an important role in tumor formation. Often, genes that control homeostasis by regulating proliferation and apoptosis are mutated or improperly expressed in tumors. In this project, the physiological and pathological functions of FUSE Binding Protein 1 (FBP1) were studied to elucidate the involvement of this gene in the context of embryonic development and tumorigenesis. Two reasons led to the hypothesis that FBP1 might be relevant in this context. FBP1 was isolated in the group of PD Dr. Martin Zörnig using a functional yeast survival screen for the identification of anti-apoptotic genes involved in tumorigenesis, and the anti-apoptotic function of FBP1 was confirmed in the human colon carcinoma cell line RKO. In addition, FBP1 had been published to function as a transcriptional regulator that activates expression of the proto-oncogene c-myc. This gene stimulates cell proliferation and is overexpressed in many tumors. Analysis of FBP1 expression by immunhistochemistry in normal and tumor tissue samples revealed frequent and significant overexpression of FBP1 in Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC). To study the functional relevance of FBP1 activity for this tumor type, apoptosis and proliferation of the HCC cell line Hep3B were studied in dependence of FBP1 expression. Downregulation of FBP1 by lentiviral expression of FBP1-specific short hairpin RNA (shRNA) reduced proliferation and increased sensitivity to apoptosis. Subcutaneous injection of FBP1-deficient Hep3B cells into immunodeficient NOD/SCID mice demonstrated that tumor growth was strongly decreased in comparison to control cells. mRNA expression studies by quantitative real time PCR showed reduced mRNA levels of the pro-apoptotic genes Bik, Noxa, TRAIL and TNF-􀀁 in the absence of FBP1. In addition, the cell cycle inhibitors p21 and p15 were repressed by FBP1 while Cyclin D2 expression was decreased in the absence of FBP1. Surprisingly, expression of c-myc was not altered by FBP1 downregulation, indicating a different mechanism of c-myc regulation in HCC cells. These results demonstrate that overexpression of FBP1 inhibits apoptosis and stimulates proliferation in HCC cells by regulating the transcription of relevant target genes. Therefore, FBP1 might represent a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of HCC. For analysis of the physiological function of FBP1, a gene trap mouse model was established. In these mice, the gene trap vector pT1􀀂geo is inserted in intron 19 of the FBP1 locus, leading to the expression of a fusion protein consisting of a truncated FBP1 (lacking the last 62 amino acids), 􀀁-Galactosidase and Neomycin Phosphotransferase. Luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that the fusion protein was not capable of activating the c-myc promoter and even showed a dominant negative effect. Thus, this gene trap mouse serves as a functional FBP1 knockout model. Phenotyping of the FBP1 gene trap mice showed that homozygous mutation of FBP1 resulted in embryonic lethality at late stages of embryonic development (E15.5-E16.5). Heterozygous mice were viable, but born at lower frequencies, indicating a gene dosage- or a dominant negative effect of the FBP1 fusion protein. The cellular effects of FBP1 inactivation were tested in mouse embryonic fibroblasts isolated from FBP1 gene trap mice. While proliferation was reduced in the absence of wildtype FBP1, apoptosis was not affected. Expression analysis showed that in homozygous MEFs p15 and p21 transcripts were upregulated, while decreased cmyc mRNA levels were measured. Closer inspection of homozygous gene trap embryos revealed an anemic phenotype that appeared most pronounced around embryonic day 15.5. Analysis of fetal livers, the main site of hematopoiesis at this stage of development, showed a strongly reduced total cell number in homozygous embryos. Evaluation of the different hematopoietic cell lineages did not reveal significant changes in particular differentiated cell types. Instead, all cell lineages seemed to be affected equally by FBP1 inactivation. In contrast, analysis of hematopoietic progenitor cell populations showed an increased percentage of multipotent progenitor cells (MPPs) and a strongly reduced number of long-term hematopoietic stem cells (LT-HSCs). Functional analysis of MPPs by in vitro colony formation assays demonstrated that the FBP1-mutant cells possess a normal colony formation potential while their expansion capacity was reduced. Competitive transplantation of lineage negative fetal liver cells into irradiated recipient mice resulted in reduced engraftment of liverderived progenitor cells from homozygous FBP1 gene trap mice. However, stable engraftment was observed over a period of 12 weeks, demonstrating that the FBP1-deficient LT-HSCs are in principle capable of long-term repopulation. These results demonstrate that FBP1 exerts an essential function during definitive hematopoiesis. It can be speculated that FBP1 influences proliferation, apoptosis and possibly also stem cell self-renewal through the regulation of specific target genes within the hematopoietic progenitor cells. Alternatively, extrinsic effects caused by the absence of FBP1 activity could impair the function of the progenitor cells.
LmrA is a member of the ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) transporter family of membrane proteins and a structural and functional homologue of P-glycoprotein1, 2. ABC-transporters share a common architecture of two transmembrane domains and two nucleotide binding domains. The NBDs are highly conserved in this transporter family whereas the TMDs are highly diverse3. The TMDs recognize the substrate and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP and thus contribute the energy for substrate translocation. ABC transporters as a protein family transport a high number of substrates including peptides, nutrients, ions, bile acids, lipids and other lipophilic compounds. LmrA is a multidrug transporter that recognizes a number of hydrophobic substrates including fluorescent dyes and antibiotics1, 4-6. LmrA is a native protein of the gram-positive bacterium Lactococcus lactis. In this thesis, L. lactis was used as a homologous expression host for the preparation of LmrA for a variety of experiments. Wildtype LmrA as well as a number of cysteine mutants were successfully expressed in L. lactis, purified and subsequently characterized by a variety of biochemical assays (Chapter 4). LmrA can be expressed to very high amounts in L. lactis. The purification and reconstitution were optimized for the requirements of solid-state NMR experiments in this thesis. For the first time, an ABC transporter has been reconstituted in synthetic lipids to a ratio of up to 1:150 (mol/mol). LmrA was shown to be active under magic angle spinning conditions with these reconstitution ratios. By taking advantage of the slower ATP hydrolysis by LmrA ΔK388 (lysine deletion in the Walker A motif), a real-time 31P solid-state NMR ATPase assay was established (Chapter 5). This assay allowed, for the first time, the investigation of all phosphor nuclei during the ATP hydrolysis cycle of a membrane protein simultaneously and in real time7. This assay has been successfully adapted to investigate both ATP hydrolysis and substrate phosphorylation of diacylglycerol kinase (together with S. Wollschlag) and ATP hydrolysis at high temperatures of the thermophilic ABC transporter ABC1 from Thermos thermophilus (together with A. Zutz). In the course of this thesis, the gene for LmrA has been cloned into expression vectors suitable for Escherichia coli and the heterologous expression of LmrA was established (Chapter 4). The functionality of the heterologously expressed protein has been investigated and compared to L. lactis LmrA. In these experiments, LmrA was shown to yield a distinct multidrug resistance phenotype in its E. coli host and to show secondary active multidrug transport in the absence of ATP and presence of a proton gradient [Hellmich et al, in prep] (Chapter 4). Previously, it had been shown that LmrA acts as a seconadary active transporter when the NBDs are truncated8. The overexpression in minimal and defined medium and the purification of LmrA from E. coli have been optimized. Isotope labeling for ssNMR has been established and the first multinuclear ssNMR experiments have been carried out on a functional ABC transporter (Chapter 8). ABC transporters couple two cycles: upon ATP binding, the NBDs dimerize, hydrolyze the ATP, subsequently release Pi and ADP and finally dissociate. During this cycle, conformational changes are relayed to the TMDs which utilize the energy from ATP binding and/or hydrolysis to translocate the respective substrate. The prehydrolysis state can be trapped by beryllium fluoride, whereas the post-hydrolysis state of this cycle can be trapped by vanadate9-12. Trapping protocols for these reagents were successfully established for LmrA in this thesis (Chapter 4). This allowed for the investigation of different catalytic states by both ssNMR and EPR. A general 19F labeling protocol for membrane proteins has been established in the course of this thesis and successfully applied to proteorhodopsin (together with N. Pfleger)13 and LmrA (chapter 6). Single cysteine mutants of LmrA that line out the dimer interface have been labeled with a fluorine label for ssNMR. In the apo state, the 19F labeling indicates highly flexible transmembrane domains, a finding that is supported by 13C ssNMR and EPR measurements. The addition of drugs has a different effect on different positions within the LmrA dimer, therefore indicating that different drugs are recognized at a different position within the protein. For P-glycoprotein and LmrA it has been previously shown by biochemical methods that different drug binding sites co-exist. For a 19F label attached at position 314 (LmrA E314C), the spectra showed two distinct peaks with similar populations. This could hint towards a structural asymmetry within the LmrA dimer that might also be reflected in the alternating ATP hydrolysis at the NBDs. E314 has been specifically implicated with drug transport. Thus, structural asymmetry at this position might be functionally relevant for guiding a substrate through the transporter. Structural asymmetry within a homodimeric ABC transporter has also been shown for BtuCD, the E. coli vitamin B12 importer14. In addition, the conserved glutamates in EmrE, a small multidrug resistance protein, were shown to be asymmetric in the drug bound state15. Both, uniformly 13C/15N labeled as well as selectively amino acid type labeled LmrA has been investigated in different conformational states. Interestingly, significant dynamic changes in the b-sheet regions of LmrA (confined to the NBDs) were observed in the pre-hydrolysis (beryllium fluoride) and transition state (vanadate trapped) state. These were interpreted as the transition from a domain in fast conformational exchange in the apo state to one of intermediate exchange in the nucleotide bound state. A significant change in NBD mobility upon nucleotide binding was previously also shown with 2H ssNMR on LmrA16. By EPR it was shown that LmrA in both the vanadate and BeFx trapped states displays a significantly higher rigidity and therefore defined distances, whereas the apo state resembled a “floppy” protein with no preferred distance distribution. This concurs with data obtained from 19F ssNMR with fluorine labeled single-cysteine mutants. Here, in agreement with the EPR data, a higher label (and possibly) protein mobility was observed in the apo state displaying rather broad line widths. Upon trapping with vanadate, the line widths of the majority of fluorine-labeled mutants decreased due to an enhanced protein rigidity and a more homogenous environment of the fluorine labels. A similar observation was made when increasing the temperature that can be explained due to higher protein flexibility at increased temperatures. Solution NMR was employed to investigate the isolated soluble NBD of LmrA (Chapter 9). First 2D and 3D spectra were successfully obtained and could be utilized for a preliminary assignment of a significant fraction of residues. Additionally, binding of ATP and ADP in absence and presence of magnesium was investigated. Finally, the effects of peptides emulating the coupling helices of the full-length transporter on the soluble NBD were investigated. Strikingly, binding of one of these peptides only occurred in the presence of nucleotides (whereas the other showed no binding at all) hinting towards a tightly coupled regulation of the NBD and TMD during the substrate translocation/ATP hydrolysis cycle based on nucleotide binding.
Top-down and bottom-up approaches are the general methods used to analyse proteomic samples today, however, the bottom-up approach has been dominant in the last decade. Establishing a bottom-up method involves not only the choice of adequate instruments and the optimisation of the experimental parameters, but also choosing the right experimental conditions and sample preparation steps. LC-ESI MS/MS has widely been used in this field due to its advanced automation. The primary objective of the present study was to establish a sensitive high-throughput nLC-MALDI MS/MS method for the identification and characterisation of proteins in biological samples. The method establishment included optimisation and validation of parameters such as the capillaries in the HPLC systems, gradient slopes, column temperature, spotting frequencies or the MS and MS/MS acquisition methods. The optimisation was performed using two HPLC-systems (Agilent 1100 series and Proxeon Easy nLC system), three spotters and the 4800 MALDI-TOF/TOF analyzer. Furthermore, samples preparation protocols were modified to fit to the established nLCMALDI- TOF/TOF-platform. The potentials of this method was demonstrated by the successful analysis of complex protein samples isolated from lipid particles, pre-adipocytes/adipocytes tissues, membrane proteins and proteins pulled-down from protein-proteins interaction studies. Despite the small amount of proteins in the lipid particles or oil bodies, and the challenges encountered in studying such proteins, 41(6 novel + 14 mammal specific + 21 visceral specific) proteins were added to the already existing proteins of the secretome of human subcutaneous (pre)adipocytes and 6 novel proteins localised in the yeast lipid particles. Protein-protein interaction studies present another area of application. Here the analytical challenges are mostly due to the loss of binding partner upon sample clean-up and to differentiate from non-specific background. Novel interaction partners for AF4•MLL and AF4 protein complex were identified. Furthermore, a novel sample protocol for the analysis of membrane proteins, based on the less specific protease, elastase, was established. Compared to trypsin, a higher sequence coverage and higher coverage of the transmembrane domains were achieved. The use of this enzyme in proteomics has been limited because of its non specific cleavage. However, from the results obtained in these studies, elastase was found to cleave preferentially at the C-terminal site of the amino acids AVLIST. The advantage of the established protocol over conventional protocols is that the same enzyme can be used for shaving of the soluble dormains of intact proteins in membranes and the digestion of the hydrophobic domain after solubilisation. Furthermore, the solvents used are compatible with the nLC-MALDI method setup. In addition, it was also shown that for less specific enzymes, a higher mass accuracy is required to reduce the rate of false positive identifications, since current search engines are not perfectly adapted for these types of enzymes. A brief statistical analysis of the MS/MS data obtained from the LC-MALDI TOF/TOF system showed that for less specific enzymes, under high-energy collision conditions, approximately 43 % of the fragment ions could not be matched to the known y- b type ions and their resultant internal fragments. This limitation greatly influenced the search results. However, this limitation can be overcome by modifying the N-terminal amino acids with basic moieties such as TMT. The use of elastase as a digestion enzyme in proteomic workflow further increased the complexity of the sample. Therefore, orthogonal multidimensional separation was necessary. Offgel-IEF was used as the separation technique for the first dimension. Here peptides are separated according to the pI. However, the acquired samples could not be loaded to the nLC due to the high viscosity of the concentrated samples when using the standard protocol. In order to achieve compatibility of the Offgel-IEF to the nLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF-platform, the separation protocol of the Offgel-IEF was modified by omitting the glycerol, which was the cause of the viscous solution. The novel glycerol free protocol is advantageous over the conventional method because the samples could directly be picked-up and loaded onto the pre-column without resulting in an increase in back pressure or a subsequent pre-column clogging. The glycerol free protocol was then assessed using purple membrane and membrane fraction of C. glutamicum. The results obtained were comparable to those applied in published reports. Therefore, the absence of glycerol did not affect the separation efficiency of the Offgel-IEF. In addition the applicability of elastase and the glycerol free Offgel-IEF for quantitation of membrane proteins was assessed. Most of the unique peptides identified were in the acidic region and 85 % were focused only into one fraction and approximately 95 % in only two fractions. These results are in accordance with previously published results (Lengqvist et al., 2007). When compared with theoretical digests of the proteins identified in this study, it can be concluded that basic moiety (TMT) on the peptide backbone, did not affect the separation efficiency of the Offgel-IEF. In an applied study, changes in the protein content of yeast strain grown in two different media were relatively quantified. For example, prominent proteins, such as the hexose tranporter proteins responsible for transporting glucose accross the membrane, were successfully quantified. Last but not least, the nLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF platform also served as a basis for the development of a high-throughput method for the identification of protein phosphorylation. The establishment of such a method using MALDI has been challenging due to the lack of sensitive matrices, such as CHCA for non-modified peptides, which exhibit a homogenous crystallisation and thus yield stable signal intensity over a long period of time in an automated setup. The first step of this method was the establishment of a matrix/matrix mixture with better crystal morphology and higher analyte signal intensity than the matrix of choice, i.e. DHB. From MS and MS/MS measurements of standard phosphopeptides, a combination of FCCA and CHAC in a 3:1 ratio and 3 mM NH4H2PO4 facilitated high analyte signal intensities and good fragmentation behaviour. Combining a custom-packed biphasic column for the enrichment of phosphopeptides, the applicability of the matrix mixture was assessed in anautomated phosphopeptide analysis using standard phosphopeptides spiked to a 20-fold excess BSA digest. These analyses showed that this method is reproducibile and both flow throughs can be analysed. Applying the method to the analysis of 2 standard phosphoproteins, alpha/beta-casein, and a leukemia related protein, ENL, 13 phosphopeptides from both alpha/beta-Casein and 13 phosphopeptides with 6 phosphorylation sites from the ENL were identified. As a general conclusion, it can be stated that the nLC-MALDI-TOF/TOF method established here in various modifications for different analytical purposes is a robust platform for proteomic analyses.