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Background: One virulence property of Borrelia burgdorferi is its resistance to innate immunity, in particular to complement-mediated killing. Serum-resistant B. burgdorferi express up to five distinct complement regulator-acquiring surface proteins (CRASP) which interact with complement regulator factor H (CFH) and factor H-like protein 1 (FHL1) or factor H-related protein 1 (CFHR1). In the present study we elucidate the role of the infection-associated CRASP-3 and CRASP-5 protein to serve as ligands for additional complement regulatory proteins as well as for complement resistance of B. burgdorferi. Methodology/Principal Findings: To elucidate whether CRASP-5 and CRASP-3 interact with various human proteins, both borrelial proteins were immobilized on magnetic beads. Following incubation with human serum, bound proteins were eluted and separated by Glycine-SDS-PAGE. In addition to CFH and CFHR1, complement regulators CFHR2 and CFHR5 were identified as novel ligands for both borrelial proteins by employing MALDI-TOF. To further assess the contributions of CRASP-3 and CRASP-5 to complement resistance, a serum-sensitive B. garinii strain G1 which lacks all CFH-binding proteins was used as a valuable model for functional analyses. Both CRASPs expressed on the B. garinii outer surface bound CFH as well as CFHR1 and CFHR2 in ELISA. In contrast, live B. garinii bound CFHR1, CFHR2, and CFHR5 and only miniscute amounts of CFH as demonstrated by serum adsorption assays and FACS analyses. Further functional analysis revealed that upon NHS incubation, CRASP-3 or CRASP-5 expressing borreliae were killed by complement. Conclusions/Significance: In the absence of CFH and the presence of CFHR1, CFHR2 and CFHR5, assembly and integration of the membrane attack complex was not efficiently inhibited indicating that CFH in co-operation with CFHR1, CFHR2 and CFHR5 supports complement evasion of B. burgdorferi.
Psoriasis is a characteristic inflammatory and scaly skin condition with typical histopathological features including increased proliferation and hampered differentiation of keratinocytes. The activation of innate and adaptive inflammatory cellular immune responses is considered to be the main trigger factor of the epidermal changes in psoriatic skin. However, the molecular players that are involved in enhanced proliferation and impaired differentiation of psoriatic keratinocytes are only partly understood. One important factor that regulates differentiation on the cellular level is Ca2+. In normal epidermis, a Ca2+ gradient exists that is disturbed in psoriatic plaques, favoring impaired keratinocyte proliferation. Several TRPC channels such as TRPC1, TRPC4, or TRPC6 are key proteins in the regulation of high [Ca2+]ex induced differentiation. Here, we investigated if TRPC channel function is impaired in psoriasis using calcium imaging, RT-PCR, western blot analysis and immunohistochemical staining of skin biopsies. We demonstrated substantial defects in Ca2+ influx in psoriatic keratinocytes in response to high extracellular Ca2+ levels, associated with a downregulation of all TRPC channels investigated, including TRPC6 channels. As TRPC6 channel activation can partially overcome this Ca2+ entry defect, specific TRPC channel activators may be potential new drug candidates for the topical treatment of psoriasis.
Chromosomal translocations can lead to the formation of chimeric genes encoding fusion proteins such as PML/RARalpha, PLZF/RARalpha, and AML-1/ETO, which are able to induce and maintain acute myeloid leukemia (AML). One key mechanism in leukemogenesis is increased self renewal of leukemic stem cells via aberrant activation of the Wnt signaling pathway. Either X-RAR, PML/RARalpha and PLZF/RARalpha or AML-1/ETO activate Wnt signaling by upregulating gamma-catenin and beta-catenin. In a prospective study, a lower risk of leukemia was observed with aspirin use, which is consistent with numerous studies reporting an inverse association of aspirin with other cancers. Furthermore, a reduction in leukemia risk was associated with use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), where the effects on AML risk was FAB subtype-specific. To better investigate whether NSAID treatment is effective, we used Sulindac Sulfide in X-RARalpha-positive progenitor cell models. Sulindac Sulfide (SSi) is a derivative of Sulindac, a NSAID known to inactivate Wnt signaling. We found that SSi downregulated both beta-catenin and gamma-catenin in X-RARalpha-expressing cells and reversed the leukemic phenotype by reducing stem cell capacity and increasing differentiation potential in X-RARalpha-positive HSCs. The data presented herein show that SSi inhibits the leukemic cell growth as well as hematopoietic progenitors cells (HPCs) expressing PML/RARalpha, and it indicates that Sulindac is a valid molecular therapeutic approach that should be further validated using in vivo leukemia models and in clinical settings.
Background: A delta and C fibers are the major pain-conducting nerve fibers, activate only partly the same brain areas, and are differently involved in pain syndromes. Whether a stimulus excites predominantly A delta or C fibers is a commonly asked question in basic pain research but a quick test was lacking so far. Methodology/Principal Findings: Of 77 verbal descriptors of pain sensations, "pricking", "dull" and "pressing" distinguished best (95% cases correctly) between A delta fiber mediated (punctate pressure produced by means of von Frey hairs) and C fiber mediated (blunt pressure) pain, applied to healthy volunteers in experiment 1. The sensation was assigned to A delta fibers when "pricking" but neither "dull" nor "pressing" were chosen, and to C fibers when the sum of the selections of "dull" or "pressing" was greater than that of the selection of "pricking". In experiment 2, with an independent cohort, the three-descriptor questionnaire achieved sensitivity and specificity above 0.95 for distinguishing fiber preferential non-mechanical induced pain (laser heat, exciting A delta fibers, and 5-Hz electric stimulation, exciting C fibers). Conclusion: A three-item verbal rating test using the words "pricking", "dull", and "pressing" may provide sufficient information to characterize a pain sensation evoked by a physical stimulus as transmitted via A delta or via C fibers. It meets the criteria of a screening test by being easy to administer, taking little time, being comfortable in handling, and inexpensive while providing high specificity for relevant information.
Background: The alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha 7-nAChR) is well known as a potent calcium ionophore that, in the brain, has been implicated in excitotoxicity and hence in the underlying mechanisms of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Previous research implied that the activity of this receptor may be modified by exposure to a peptide fragment derived from the C-terminal region of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. This investigation was undertaken to determine if the functional changes observed could be attributed to peptide binding interaction with the alpha 7-nAChR, or peptide modulation of receptor expression. Methodology/Principal Findings: This study provides evidence that two peptides derived from the C-terminus of acetylcholinesterase, not only selectively displace specific bungarotoxin binding at the alpha 7-nAChR, but also alter receptor binding properties for its familiar ligands, including the alternative endogenous agonist choline. Of more long-term significance, these peptides also induce upregulation of alpha 7-nAChR mRNA and protein expression, as well as enhancing receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane. Conclusions/Significance: The results reported here demonstrate a hitherto unknown relationship between the alpha 7-nAChR and the non-enzymatic functions of acetylcholinesterase, mediated independently by its C-terminal domain. Such an interaction may prove valuable as a pharmacological tool, prompting new approaches for understanding, and combating, the process of neurodegeneration.
Nerve injury leads to sensitization mechanisms in the peripheral and central nervous system which involve transcriptional and post-transcriptional modifications in sensory nerves. To assess protein regulations in the spinal cord after injury of the sciatic nerve in the Spared Nerve Injury model (SNI) we performed a proteomic analysis using 2D-difference gel electrophoresis (DIGE) technology. Among approximately 2300 protein spots separated on each gel we detected 55 significantly regulated proteins after SNI whereof 41 were successfully identified by MALDI-TOF MS. Out of the proteins which were regulated in the DIGE analyses after SNI we focused on the carboxypeptidase A inhibitor latexin because protease dysfunctions contribute to the development of neuropathic pain. Latexin protein expression was reduced after SNI which could be confirmed by Western Blot analysis, quantitative RT-PCR and in-situ hybridisation. The decrease of latexin was associated with an increase of the activity of carboxypeptidase A indicating that the balance between latexin and carboxypeptidase A was impaired in the spinal cord after peripheral nerve injury due to a loss of latexin expression in spinal cord neurons. This may contribute to the development of cold allodynia because normalization of neuronal latexin expression in the spinal cord by AAV-mediated latexin transduction or administration of a small molecule carboxypeptidase A inhibitor significantly reduced acetone-evoked nociceptive behavior after SNI. Our results show the usefulness of proteomics as a screening tool to identify novel mechanisms of nerve injury evoked hypernociception and suggest that carboxypeptidase A inhibition might be useful to reduce cold allodynia.
Background: Due to the use of organophosphates (OP) as pesticides and the availability of OP-type nerve agents, an effective medical treatment for OP poisonings is still a challenging problem. The acute toxicity of an OP poisoning is mainly due to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the peripheral and central nervous systems (CNS). This results in an increase in the synaptic concentration of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, overstimulation of cholinergic receptors and disorder of numerous body functions up to death. The standard treatment of OP poisoning includes a combination of a muscarinic antagonist and an AChE reactivator (oxime). However, these oximes can not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) sufficiently. Therefore, new strategies are needed to transport oximes over the BBB. Methodology/Principal Findings: In this study, we combined different oximes (obidoxime dichloride and two different HI 6 salts, HI 6 dichloride monohydrate and HI 6 dimethanesulfonate) with human serum albumin nanoparticles and could show an oxime transport over an in vitro BBB model. In general, the nanoparticulate transported oximes achieved a better reactivation of OP-inhibited AChE than free oximes. Conclusions/Significance: With these nanoparticles, for the first time, a tool exists that could enable a transport of oximes over the BBB. This is very important for survival after severe OP intoxication. Therefore, these nanoparticulate formulations are promising formulations for the treatment of the peripheral and the CNS after OP poisoning.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit dem bekannten Phänomen der postmortalen Insulin-Instabilität. Die sichere Analyse von Insulin in Serum sowie vor allem auch in postmortalen Blutproben, ist für die forensische Begutachtung von enormer Bedeutung, da sie z. B. im Falle einer kriminellen Handlung einen hohen Beweiswert hat. Bei den durchgeführten Untersuchungen zeigte sich, dass bei einer Inkubation von Insulin in Serum sowie auch bei einer Inkubation mit intakten Blutzellen keine Abnahme der Insulinkonzentration eintritt. Daher kann für die Insulinbestimmung Serum als Untersuchungsmaterial empfohlen werden. Da postmortale Blutproben häufig eine Hämolyse aufweisen, wurde frisch entnommenes Blut hämolysiert und mit Insulin inkubiert. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Insulinkonzentration innerhalb von 5 Stunden bei 37°C signifikant auf 20% der Ausgangskonzentration sank. Ein proteolytischer Insulinabbau konnte ausgeschlossen werden, da der Zusatz von Enzyminhibitoren keine Hemmung des Insulinabbaus bewirkte. Bei der Hämolyse tritt u. a. der rote Blutfarbstoff Hämoglobin aus den Erythrocyten aus. In einer vergleichenden Inkubation aus hämolysiertem Blut und in Reinform erhältlichem Hämoglobin konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Insulinkonzentration in beiden Ansätzen in gleichem Maß absank. Hieraus wurde geschlossen, dass der Abbau auf das Hämoglobinmolekül zurückzuführen ist. Im Folgenden wurden systematische Untersuchungen angestellt, welcher Anteil des Hämoglobins für diesen Abbau verantwortlich ist. Zunächst wurde der Einfluss diverser Oxidationsstufen in Eisensalzen oder im Hämoglobin (Hb/MetHb), von Sauerstoff (Oxy-/CO-Hb), der isolierten Hämgruppe und der isolierten Globinketten untersucht. Nur die Inkubation von Insulin mit den isolierten Globinketten führte ebenfalls zu einem Insulinabbau, weswegen geschlussfolgert wurde, dass der proteinogene Teil des Hämoglobins im Wesentlichen den Insulinabbau verursacht. Eine Hemmung des Abbaus konnte nur bei Erniedrigung des pH-Werts auf 2,7 oder bei Alkylierung des Hämoglobins mit Jodacetamid erreicht werden. Jodacetamid ist ein Alkylierungsreagenz, das selektiv Thiolgruppen alkyliert. Zwar konnte die selektive Alkylierung der Thiolgruppen im Hämoglobin-Molekül mittels Flugzeitmassenspektrometrie nicht differenziert werden, aber die Ergebnisse lassen den Schluss zu, dass mindestens eine Thiolgruppe der Hämoglobin-Beta-Kette für den Insulinabbau verantwortlich ist. Der zweite Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Suche nach den Insulinabbauprodukten. Bekannte Lagerungsartefakte von Insulin, wie sie in der Literatur beschrieben werden, konnten nicht nachgewiesen werden. Auch kovalente Insulinaddukte am Hämoglobin wurden nicht beobachtet. Dagegen wurde eine Spaltung von Insulin in dessen A- und B-Kette beobachtet, allerdings mit einer Massenabnahme entsprechend dem Verlust von 4 bzw. 2 Protonen. Es wird postuliert, dass die veränderten Ketten nach einer Disulfidbrückenspaltung des Insulins wieder intramolekulare Disulfidbrücken bilden, sodass eine dehydrierte A- und B-Kette entsteht. Bei der A-Kette gibt es drei Möglichkeiten der Konfiguration der Disulfidbrücken, drei Isomere wurden auch chromatographisch unterschieden. Die Intensität der Kettenbildung entsprach allerdings nur ca. 10% des Insulinausgangssignals und sank nach dem Erreichen eines Maximums nach 20 Stunden auch wieder ab, weswegen angenommen wird, dass auch noch weitere Abbauprodukte gebildet werden. Anhand weiterer Untersuchungsverfahren (Fluoreszenz, Gelelektrophorese, isoelektrische Fokussierung) wurde zwar nach weiteren Abbauprodukten gesucht, es konnten allerdings keine Weiteren nachgewiesen werden. Es wurde eine Extraktionsmethode für Insulin und dessen Abbauprodukte entwickelt, die robust und auch für postmortale Blutextrakte geeignet scheint. Aufgrund der mangelnden Sensitivität des zur Verfügung stehenden Analysensystems konnte die Methode nur in einem sehr hohen Konzentrationsbereich überprüft werden, was weiterführende Untersuchungen in niedrigen Konzentrationsbereichen nötig macht. Die Extraktionsmethode könnte auch für Gewebeextrakte eingesetzt werden, wobei Leber- und Nierengewebe nicht geeignet erscheinen, da bei Inkubationen auch hier eine erhebliche Insulinabnahme festgestellt wurde. Für die Praxis wird, wenn möglich, eine Insulinbestimmung aus Serum empfohlen. Weiterer Forschungsbedarf besteht für die Untersuchung der Insulinstabilität in realen postmortalen Blutproben und im physiologischen Konzentrationsbereich.
Background: Chemotherapy of glioblastoma is largely ineffective as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) prevents entry of most anticancer agents into the brain. For an efficient treatment of glioblastomas it is necessary to deliver anti-cancer drugs across the intact BBB. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles coated with poloxamer 188 hold great promise as drug carriers for brain delivery after their intravenous injection. In the present study the anti-tumour efficacy of the surfactant-coated doxorubicin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles against rat glioblastoma 101/8 was investigated using histological and immunohistochemical methods. Methodology: The particles were prepared by a high-pressure solvent evaporation technique using 1% polyvinylalcohol (PLGA/PVA) or human serum albumin (PLGA/HSA) as stabilizers. Additionally, lecithin-containing PLGA/HSA particles (Dox-Lecithin-PLGA/HSA) were prepared. For evaluation of the antitumour efficacy the glioblastoma-bearing rats were treated intravenously with the doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles coated with poloxamer 188 using the following treatment regimen: 3×2.5 mg/kg on day 2, 5 and 8 after tumour implantation; doxorubicin and poloxamer 188 solutions were used as controls. On day 18, the rats were sacrificed and the antitumour effect was determined by measurement of tumour size, necrotic areas, proliferation index, and expression of GFAP and VEGF as well as Isolectin B4, a marker for the vessel density. Conclusion: The results reveal a considerable anti-tumour effect of the doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticles. The overall best results were observed for Dox-Lecithin-PLGA/HSA. These data demonstrate that the poloxamer 188-coated PLGA nanoparticles enable delivery of doxorubicin across the blood-brain barrier in the therapeutically effective concentrations.