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Serine/arginine-protein kinase 1 (SRPK1) regulates alternative splicing of VEGF-A to pro-angiogenic isoforms and SRPK1 inhibition can restore the balance of pro/antiangiogenic isoforms to normal physiological levels. The lack of potency and selectivity of available compounds has limited development of SRPK1 inhibitors, with the control of alternative splicing by splicing factor-specific kinases yet to be translated. We present here compounds that occupy a binding pocket created by the unique helical insert of SRPK1, and trigger a backbone flip in the hinge region, that results in potent (<10 nM) and selective inhibition of SRPK1 kinase activity. Treatment with these inhibitors inhibited SRPK1 activity and phosphorylation of serine/arginine splicing factor 1 (SRSF1), resulting in alternative splicing of VEGF-A from pro-angiogenic to antiangiogenic isoforms. This property resulted in potent inhibition of blood vessel growth in models of choroidal angiogenesis in vivo. This work identifies tool compounds for splice isoform selective targeting of pro-angiogenic VEGF, which may lead to new therapeutic strategies for a diversity of diseases where dysfunctional splicing drives disease development.
Drug product performance testing is an important part of quality-by-design approaches, but this process often lacks the underlying mechanistic understanding of the complex interactions between the disintegration and dissolution processes involved. Whereas a recent draft guideline by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has allowed the replacement of dissolution testing with disintegration testing, the mentioned criteria are not globally accepted. This study provides scientific justification for using disintegration testing rather than dissolution testing as a quality control method for certain immediate release (IR) formulations. A mechanistic approach, which is beyond the current FDA criteria, is presented. Dissolution testing via United States Pharmacopeial Convention Apparatus II at various paddle speeds was performed for immediate and extended release formulations of metronidazole. Dissolution profile fitting via DDSolver and dissolution profile predictions via DDDPlus™ were performed. The results showed that Fickian diffusion and drug particle properties (DPP) were responsible for the dissolution of the IR tablets, and that formulation factors (eg, coning) impacted dissolution only at lower rotation speeds. Dissolution was completely formulation controlled if extended release tablets were tested and DPP were not important. To demonstrate that disintegration is the most important dosage form attribute when dissolution is DPP controlled, disintegration, intrinsic dissolution and dissolution testing were performed in conventional and disintegration impacting media (DIM). Tablet disintegration was affected by DIM and model fitting to the Korsmeyer–Peppas equation showed a growing effect of the formulation in DIM. DDDPlus was able to predict tablet dissolution and the intrinsic dissolution profiles in conventional media and DIM. The study showed that disintegration has to occur before DPP-dependent dissolution can happen. The study suggests that disintegration can be used as performance test of rapidly disintegrating tablets beyond the FDA criteria. The scientific criteria and justification is that dissolution has to be DPP dependent, originated from active pharmaceutical ingredient characteristics and formulations factors have to be negligible.
Human MSCs are currently deployed in a wide range of clinical applications and disease models, because of their regenerative and immune modulatory potential. Unfortunately, the fate of MSCs after systemic administration and the related interactions within the blood circulation are still not fully understood. The majority of i.v. or i.a administered MSCs accumulate in the lungs and loose traceability after 3-4 days in vivo144. Since engraftment rate and long term persistence of injected MSCs seems rather low, we tried to improve in vivo kinetics by using hyperosmolaric injection media (HyperHAES) in order to describe the impact on biodistribution, cell morphology and survival rate. In vitro culture related changes in morphology and surface expression patterns were analysed using flow cytometry and brightfield morphology scan in correlation with calibrated microbeads. In vivo tracking of male PKH67 labeled human MSCs in an immunecompetent mouse model were achieved using SRY-gene qRT-PCR analysis and flow cytometry/fluorescence microscopy at different time points. Kinetics, viability and cell-cell interaction of HyperHAES coinjected MSCs in comparison to NaCl 0.9% injection media were assessed with a combination of altering mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), caspase 3/7-activity, additional survival and surface markers. Incubation of human MSCs in hyperosmolaric injection media (HyperHAES) shortly before i.v. injection decreased average diameter of culture expanded MSCs about 30% (from 48.7±2.29μm to 34.6±2.04μm) and improved viability and retrieval rate of injected MSCs within 24h. HyperHAES decreased significantly the loss of MMP and the signal intensity of the dead cell marker PI in comparison to isotonic control. HyperHAES treated MSCs are detected at higher frequencies in most murine tissues but didn`t result in alterations of interaction with the host immune system or caspase activation. Additionally, HyperHAES seemed to enable MSCs to reach organs with smaller microcirculation like the spleen. Functional impairment of MSC in HyperHAES was analysed with Phalloidin A staining for cytoskeletal activation and showed no signs of disturbed actin polymerization, whereas nuisance of migration and immunemodulatory characteristics were not addressed. PKH67 labeled MSCs decrease in size after i.v. injection in mice, acquire apoptotic and phagocytic cell markers, and accumulate in lungs and liver. This process could be delayed but not reverted by preincubation of MSCs in HyperHAES. Our findings help to explain the rapid loss of traceable MSCs after systemic delivery.
To understand neurodegenerative diseases is one of the major challenges of the 21st century. This also includes Alzheimer´s disease (AD), which represents a chronic neurodegenerative disorder, with long preclinical and prodromal phases (approx. 20 years) and an average clinical duration of 8–10 years. In the early phase of this disease, patients show deterioration of memory, difficulties in finding the right words for everyday objects or mood swings. The risk of AD grows exponentially with age, doubling approximately every 5 to 6 years. AD may contribute to 60–70% of all dementia cases, being the most common cause of this disease. Dementia is one of the major causes of disability and dependency among older people worldwide. The causes of the sporadic form of AD with late onset (LOAD) are not yet known, but it seems to be a result of multiple factors. Neuropathological features are extracellular senile plaques, containing beta-amyloid peptides (Aβ) and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, containing paired helical tau proteins, which have been associated with neuronal loss and atrophy of the cerebral cortex. Thus, misfolded proteins seem to contribute to the pathogenesis, but are not the only players in the disease process. Developing feasible therapies is difficult due to the multifactorial pathology of AD. Currently approved drugs only attenuate symptoms, but do not cure the disease. Research into AD also has had several failures in terms of developing disease-modifying therapies. Thus, new therapeutic targets in order to develop a causal therapy are desperately needed. Since AD starts many years far before the first symptoms occur, new scientific approaches focus on the early stage, which are discussed to be important in aging and the onset of AD. Today, the hypothesis of the advanced mitochondrial cascade becomes more and more the leading model for LOAD, integrating physiological aging as the main risk factor. Thus, new interventions targeting mitochondrial dysfunction are of substantial interest. Accordingly, the efficacy of Dimebon and TRO19622 to ameliorate mitochondrial dysfunction in cellular and murine models of AD were investigated. Dimebon (Latrepirdine) was, originally developed in Russia as an H1-antiallergic drug. It might specifically interfere with mechanisms relevant for the cognitive decline, especially by improving impaired mitochondrial function and/or dynamics in AD. TRO19622 (Olesoxim) has been identified in a phenotypic screening approach to promote the survival of primary motor neurons. Olesoxim is easily absorbed by cells and accumulates in mitochondria. Olesoxim’s mode of action is not fully understood, however it has been shown to modulate mitochondrial membranes and interact with the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) and the translocator protein (TSPO; also known as PBR). Thereby it inhibits mitochondrial permeability transition. In this study, the effects of Aβ overproduction on mitochondrial function were investigated. The effects of Dimebon and Olesoxim were examined, using a HEK cell line stably transfected with the Swedish APP double mutation (HEKsw) and un-transfected control cells (HEKut). Mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP concentrations, and respirometry were measured. Western Blot analysis of marker proteins for fission & fusion, autophagy, mitogenesis and mPTP formation were performed. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was introduced as a novel method to visualize mitochondrial dynamics. Olesoxim was also tested in Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice representing a murine model of AD. For the in vivo model mitochondria from brain tissue were isolated and dissociated brain cells were prepared to determine respiration, lipid peroxidation, MMP, and ATP-levels. Both, the in vitro and in vivo models were compared and discussed in relation to human post-mortem data. The research was conducted in frame of the EU-project entitled „MITOTARGET“ (Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases: towards new therapeutics) funded under FP7-Health (http://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/54471_en.html). HEKsw cells showed an overall reduction in the mitochondrial respiration, a significant lower MMP, and significantly reduced ATP levels compared to HEKut cells. Mitochondrial mass was equal in both cell lines. In addition most mitochondria in HEKsw cells showed truncated morphology, followed by punctuated mitochondria. Levels of the fission related protein Drp were significantly elevated in HEKsw cells whereas protein levels of fusion related OPA were strongly reduced, leading to a shift in the distribution pattern towards shorter mitochondria. Moreover, HEKsw cells showed reduced mitochondrial density. Protein levels of the translocase of the inner mitochondrial membrane (TIMM50) were strongly diminished in HEKsw cells. The OXPHOS machinery is located in the inner membrane, where the MMP is build up and ATP is generated. Reduced TIMM50 levels in HEKsw indicated a reduction of the inner mitochondrial membrane, which could explain the described deficits in OXPHOS, MMP, ATP and mitochondrial morphology and density. Concentration of both mPTP markers, the voltage-depended anion channel (VDAC) and the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), were broadly increased in HEKsw cells. Thy1-APPSL transgenic mice were characterized as in vivo model of AD. Those mice are modified to express the human form of APP, containing both, the Swedish (KM670/671NL) and the London (V717L) double mutations under the murine Thy1 promotor. Beginning at the age of 3 months, Thy1-APPSL mice develop elevated Aβ levels and mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondria isolated from brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice showed significant impaired respiration, resulting in a reduced MMP. However, ATP levels in dissociated brain cells did not differ compared to controls. Protein levels of FIS were unchanged, whereas Drp levels were significantly increased. Levels of the mitochondrial fusion marker optic atrophie-1 (Opa) protein were significantly reduced. Peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1) is a transcription factor, which represents a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. PGC1 expression was significantly elevated in brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice. However, mitochondrial mass seemed to be equal in both mouse lines. Both LC3-Isoforms, the cytosolic and the autophagosomal form, were not changed in brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice, which indicates equal mitophagic activity. In brain homogenates, isolated from Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice, both mPTP marker, VDAC and PBR, were considerably increased, which is in accordance with the findings in HEKsw cells. In conclusion, both, the cellular (HEKsw) and the animal model of AD (Thy1-APPSL) broadly match pathophysiological features, which have been found in post-mortem samples from AD patients. Thus, HEKsw cells and Thy1-APPSL mice seem to be suitable models to study new treatments against AD. Incubation of HEKsw cells with Dimebon resulted in a remarkable increase in respiratory activity and restored the MMP after impairing the cells with rotenon. Dimebon had no effects on ATP levels in both cell lines, neither after challenging cells with rotenon, nor under basal conditions. By adding Dimebon, citrate synthase (CS) activity in HEKsw cells was increased and mitochondrial morphology was shifted to a tubular shape. Dimebon further enhanced protein levels of Drp and resulted in the compensation of reduced OPA levels. Moreover, Dimebon restored the increased expression levels of the mPTP markers VDAC and PBR. Aβ1-40 levels were significantly decreased in HEKsw cells. However, changes in Aβ1-40 levels seemed to be too small, to solely explain the much larger effects of Dimebon on impaired mitochondrial function. In conclusion, Dimebon treatment restored diverse defects in Aβ overexpressing cells: Aβ levels were reduced, autophagy marker were increased, mitophagy as repair and renewal mechanism was elevated, mitochondrial mass and density were increased, OXPHOS capacity was restored, mitochondrial dynamics were balanced, mitochondrial shape showed a normal distribution, expression levels of the mPTP constituents were reduced, TIMM50 levels augmented to control levels and stress induced MMP and ROS levels were reduced. All these effects were observed after incubation of cells with a rather low concentration of 100 nmol/L. Based on these findings and in addition to already existing literature, Dimebon presents a potential therapeutic option for diseases with accompanied mitochondrial dysfunction. Although, clinical findings published so far are inconsistent. Olesoxim induced a general increase in respiratory activity and enhanced the electron transport (ETS) capacity in HEKsw cells. In addition it normalized the OXPHOS activity almost to control levels. However, incubation using different Olesoxim concentrations led to a dose independent decline in the MMP and decreased ATP levels. Adding Olesoxim caused a dose-dependent change in the length of mitochondria strongly shifting the pattern towards longer mitochondria. In HEKsw cells a reduced mitochondrial density was observed which was reversed by Olesoxim dose-dependently. Olesoxim completely compensated the severely reduced expression levels of TIMM50, but had no effects on TOMM22 levels. An unexpected finding was that 10 µM Olesoxim significantly increased Aβ1-40 levels. Effects of Olesoxim were also tested in vivo. Treatment of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice with Olesoxim restored the impaired MMP in dissociated brain cells, but had no effects on ATP-levels. Olesoxim increased the respiratory activity in isolated brain mitochondria and restored impaired respiration complex activities almost to control levels, without having an effect on CS activity. However, treatment with Olesoxim caused an increase of PGC1 protein levels in brains of Thy-1-C57BJ/6-APPSL mice,beyond basal levels of littermate controls. The mPTP marker proteins voltage-depended anion channel (VDAC) and peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR) were significantly reduced. As well as in the cell models, treatment of Thy-1-C57 BJ/6-APPSL mice with Olesoxim significantly enhanced total human, soluble human and soluble mouse Aβ1-40 levels. Further investigation needs the observation that Olesoxim caused partly negative effects in controls. For instance, Olesoxim reduced the OXPHOS capacity and enhanced protein levels of VADAC and PBR in brains of C57BJ/6 littermate control mice, which could limit the applicability of Olesoxim in further preclinical studies.
The arachidonic acid cascade is a key player in inflammation, and numerous well-established drugs interfere with this pathway. Previous studies have suggested that simultaneous inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) results in synergistic anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, a novel prototype of a dual 5-LO/sEH inhibitor KM55 was rationally designed and synthesized. KM55 was evaluated in enzyme activity assays with recombinant enzymes. Furthermore, activity of KM55 in human whole blood and endothelial cells was investigated. KM55 potently inhibited both enzymes in vitro and attenuated the formation of leukotrienes in human whole blood. KM55 was also tested in a cell function-based assay. The compound significantly inhibited the LPS-induced adhesion of leukocytes to endothelial cells by blocking leukocyte activation.
Background: The oral administration of the gum resin extracts of Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr) results in very low plasma concentrations of boswellic acids (BAs), being far below the pharmacologically active concentrations required in vitro for anti-inflammatory activity. For that reason the use of Indian frankincense in clinical practice and pharmaceutical development has substantially lagged behind. Recently the application of new formulation technologies resulted in a formulation of frankincense extract with lecithin, which revealed improved absorption and tissue penetration of BAs in a rodent study, leading for the first time to plasma concentrations of BAs in the range of their anti-inflammatory activity.
Purpose: In order to verify these encouraging results in humans, the absorption of a standardized Boswellia serrata extract (BE) and its lecithin formulation (CSP) was comparatively investigated in healthy volunteers.
Study design: According to a randomized cross-over design with two treatments, two sequences and two periods, 12 volunteers alternatively received the lecithin-formulated Boswellia extract (CSP) or the non-formulated Boswellia extract (BE) at a dosage of 2 × 250 mg capsules.
Methods: The plasma concentrations of the six major BAs (KBA, AKBA, βBA, αBA, AβBA, AαBA) were determined using LC/MS.
Results: With the exception of KBA, a significantly higher (both in terms of weight-to-weight and molar comparison) and quicker absorption of BAs from the lecithin formulation was observed, leading to Cmax in the range required for the interaction with their molecular targets.
Conclusion: These findings pave the way to further studies evaluating the clinical potential of BAs, and verify the beneficial effect of lecithin formulation to improve the absorption of poorly soluble phytochemicals.
Curcumin, the active constituent of Curcuma longa L. (family Zingiberaceae), has gained increasing interest because of its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-rheumatic properties associated with good tolerability and safety up to very high doses of 12 g. Nanoscaled micellar formulations on the base of Tween 80 represent a promising strategy to overcome its low oral bioavailability. We therefore aimed to investigate the uptake and transepithelial transport of native curcumin (CUR) vs. a nanoscaled micellar formulation (Sol-CUR) in a Caco-2 cell model. Sol-CUR afforded a higher flux than CUR (39.23 vs. 4.98 μg min−1 cm−2, respectively). This resulted in a higher Papp value of 2.11 × 10−6 cm/s for Sol-CUR compared to a Papp value of 0.56 × 10−6 cm/s for CUR. Accordingly a nearly 9.5 fold higher amount of curcumin was detected on the basolateral side at the end of the transport experiments after 180 min with Sol-CUR compared to CUR. The determined 3.8-fold improvement in the permeability of curcumin is in agreement with an up to 185-fold increase in the AUC of curcumin observed in humans following the oral administration of the nanoscaled micellar formulation compared to native curcumin. The present study demonstrates that the enhanced oral bioavailability of micellar curcumin formulations is likely a result of enhanced absorption into and increased transport through small intestinal epithelial cells.
The humanized non-depleting anti-CD4 monoclonal antibody Tregalizumab (BT-061) is able to selectively activate the suppressive function of regulatory T cells and has been investigated up to phase 2b in clinical trials in patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model, which is based on clinical data from RA and healthy subjects, used the cell surface CD4-down-modulation as marker of the antibodies' activity. This model surprisingly revealed a stronger effect of Tregalizumab in healthy subjects compared to RA patients. This thesis presents a series of experiments performed to understand this phenomenon.
To counteract oxidative stress, which is strongly associated with RA pathophysiology, the organism employs the small oxidoreductase thioredoxin-1 (Trx1). Therefore, augmented expression and secretion of Trx1 was seen in many studies the synovial fluid and plasma of RA patients. Moreover, the binding site of Tregalizumab is in close proximity to a disulfide bond in domain 2 (D2) of CD4, which is a known target for a reduction by Trx1. So, this thesis also evaluated the influence of Trx1 on binding of Tregalizumab to its target CD4.
With the experiments reported herein, it was possible to demonstrate that specific reduction of the D2 disulfide bond of CD4 by Trx1 led to diminished binding of Tregalizumab to recombinant human soluble CD4 (rh sCD4) and membrane-bound CD4 on T cells from a human leukemia cell line and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Moreover, the experiments revealed that this caused changes in the Tregalizumab-induced CD4 signalling pathway via the lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase p56Lck.
In summary, this thesis provides evidence that high Trx1 levels in RA patients compared to healthy subjects are a potential valid reason for diminished binding of Tregalizumab to CD4-positive T cells and offers an explanation for the observed decreased CD4 down-modulation in RA patients in comparison with healthy subjects. It emphasizes that binding of Tregalizumab is impaired in a particular way in RA patients.
The most frequently used parameters to describe the barrier properties of endothelial cells (ECs) in vitro are (i) the macromolecular permeability, indicating the flux of a macromolecular tracer across the endothelium, and (ii) electrical impedance of ECs grown on gold-film electrodes reporting on the cell layer's tightness for ion flow. Due to the experimental differences between these approaches, inconsistent observations have been described. Here, we present the first direct comparison of these assays applied to one single cell type (human microvascular ECs) under the same experimental conditions. The impact of different pharmacological tools (histamine, forskolin, Y-27632, blebbistatin, TRAP) on endothelial barrier function was analyzed by Transwell(®) tracer assays and two commercial impedance devices (xCELLigence(®), ECIS(®)). The two impedance techniques provided very similar results for all compounds, whereas macromolecular permeability readings were found to be partly inconsistent with impedance. Possible reasons for these discrepancies are discussed. We conclude that the complementary combination of both approaches is highly recommended to overcome the restrictions of each assay. Since the nature of the growth support may contribute to the observed differences, structure-function relationships should be based on cells that are consistently grown on either permeable or impermeable growth supports in all experiments.
Single long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)) are known for their neuroprotective properties associated with ischemic stroke. This pilot study aimed to test the effectiveness of an acute treatment with a long-chain omega-3 lipid emulsion (Omegaven 10%®, OGV) that contains fish oil (DHA 18 mg/ml; EPA 21 mg/ml) and α-tocopherol (0.2 mg/ml) in a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of ischemic stroke in mice. For this purpose, female CD-1 mice were anesthetized and subjected to 90 minutes of MCAO. To reflect a clinically relevant situation for an acute treatment, either after induction of stroke or after reperfusion, a single dose of OGV was injected intravenously into the tail vein (5 ml/kg b.w.). A neurological severity score was used to assess motor function and neurological outcome. Stroke-related parameters were determined 24 hours after MCAO. Microdialysis was used to collect samples from extracellular space of the striatum. Mitochondrial function was determined in isolated mitochondria or dissociated brain cells. Inflammation markers were measured in brain homogenate. According to control experiments, neuroprotective effects could be attributed to the long-chain omega-3 content of the emulsion. Intravenous injection of OGV reduced size and severity of stroke, restored mitochondrial function, and prevented excitotoxic glutamate release. Increases of pro-inflammatory markers (COX-2 and IL-6) were attenuated. Neurological severity scoring and neurochemical data demonstrated that acute OGV treatment shortly after induction of stroke was most efficient and able to improve short-term neurological outcome, reflecting the importance of an acute treatment to improve the outcome. Summarising, acute treatment of stroke with a single intravenous dose of OGV provided strong neuroprotective effects and was most effective when given immediately after onset of ischemia. As OGV is an approved fishoil emulsion for parenteral nutrition in humans, our results may provide first translational data for a possible early management of ischemic stroke with administration of OGV to prevent further brain damage.
Chromosomal translocations of the human mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) gene have been analyzed for more than 20 yr at the molecular level. So far, we have collected about 80 direct MLL fusions (MLL-X alleles) and about 120 reciprocal MLL fusions (X-MLL alleles). The reason for the higher amount of reciprocal MLL fusions is that the excess is caused by 3-way translocations with known direct fusion partners. This review is aiming to propose a solution for an obvious problem, namely why so many and completely different MLL fusion alleles are always leading to the same leukemia phenotypes (ALL, AML, or MLL). This review is aiming to explain the molecular consequences of MLL translocations, and secondly, the contribution of the different fusion partners. A new hypothesis will be posed that can be used for future research, aiming to find new avenues for the treatment of this particular leukemia entity.
Peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) is a nuclear enzyme that converts arginine residues to citrulline. Although increasingly implicated in inflammatory disease and cancer, the mechanism of action of PAD4 and its functionally relevant pathways remains unclear. E2F transcription factors are a family of master regulators that coordinate gene expression during cellular proliferation and diverse cell fates. We show that E2F-1 is citrullinated by PAD4 in inflammatory cells. Citrullination of E2F-1 assists its chromatin association, specifically to cytokine genes in granulocyte cells. Mechanistically, citrullination augments binding of the BET (bromodomain and extra-terminal domain) family bromodomain reader BRD4 (bromodomain-containing protein 4) to an acetylated domain in E2F-1, and PAD4 and BRD4 coexist with E2F-1 on cytokine gene promoters. Accordingly, the combined inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4 disrupts the chromatin-bound complex and suppresses cytokine gene expression. In the murine collagen-induced arthritis model, chromatin-bound E2F-1 in inflammatory cells and consequent cytokine expression are diminished upon small-molecule inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4, and the combined treatment is clinically efficacious in preventing disease progression. Our results shed light on a new transcription-based mechanism that mediates the inflammatory effect of PAD4 and establish the interplay between citrullination and acetylation in the control of E2F-1 as a regulatory interface for driving inflammatory gene expression.
BACKGROUND: Micro-RNAs (miRNA) are attributed to the systems biological role of a regulatory mechanism of the expression of protein coding genes. Research has identified miRNAs dysregulations in several but distinct pathophysiological processes, which hints at distinct systems-biology functions of miRNAs. The present analysis approached the role of miRNAs from a genomics perspective and assessed the biological roles of 2954 genes and 788 human miRNAs, which can be considered to interact, based on empirical evidence and computational predictions of miRNA versus gene interactions.
RESULTS: From a genomics perspective, the biological processes in which the genes that are influenced by miRNAs are involved comprise of six major topics comprising biological regulation, cellular metabolism, information processing, development, gene expression and tissue homeostasis. The usage of this knowledge as a guidance for further research is sketched for two genetically defined functional areas: cell death and gene expression. Results suggest that the latter points to a fundamental role of miRNAs consisting of hyper-regulation of gene expression, i.e., the control of the expression of such genes which control specifically the expression of genes.
CONCLUSIONS: Laboratory research identified contributions of miRNA regulation to several distinct biological processes. The present analysis transferred this knowledge to a systems-biology level. A comprehensible and precise description of the biological processes in which the genes that are influenced by miRNAs are notably involved could be made. This knowledge can be employed to guide future research concerning the biological role of miRNA (dys-) regulations. The analysis also suggests that miRNAs especially control the expression of genes that control the expression of genes.
Peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) is a nuclear enzyme that converts arginine residues to citrulline. Although increasingly implicated in inflammatory disease and cancer, the mechanism of action of PAD4 and its functionally relevant pathways remains unclear. E2F transcription factors are a family of master regulators that coordinate gene expression during cellular proliferation and diverse cell fates. We show that E2F-1 is citrullinated by PAD4 in inflammatory cells. Citrullination of E2F-1 assists its chromatin association, specifically to cytokine genes in granulocyte cells. Mechanistically, citrullination augments binding of the BET (bromodomain and extra-terminal domain) family bromodomain reader BRD4 (bromodomain-containing protein 4) to an acetylated domain in E2F-1, and PAD4 and BRD4 coexist with E2F-1 on cytokine gene promoters. Accordingly, the combined inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4 disrupts the chromatin-bound complex and suppresses cytokine gene expression. In the murine collagen-induced arthritis model, chromatin-bound E2F-1 in inflammatory cells and consequent cytokine expression are diminished upon small-molecule inhibition of PAD4 and BRD4, and the combined treatment is clinically efficacious in preventing disease progression. Our results shed light on a new transcription-based mechanism that mediates the inflammatory effect of PAD4 and establish the interplay between citrullination and acetylation in the control of E2F-1 as a regulatory interface for driving inflammatory gene expression.
The prevalence of food allergies has increased in the westernized countries during the past decades. Clinical manifestations of food allergies involve the skin (e.g. atopic dermatitis), the respiratory tract (e.g. rhinitis, and asthma), the ocular area (e.g. conjunctivitis), the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. food-protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome, food-induced proctocolitis, and eosinophilic gastroenteropathies), and the cardiovascular system (e.g. anaphylaxis). A curative treatment of these diseases has not been established yet. Oral immunotherapy (OIT) has gained attention as a potential therapy for food allergies. Continuous feeding of allergenic diet applied in the model described here mirrors to a certain extent an OIT treatment. It might be therefore useful to investigate efficacy and safety of OIT pre-clinically.
Mouse models have been widely used to analyse novel treatment approaches. Unfortunately, most of them have focussed on IgE-mediated hyperreactivity. Only a limited number of mouse models presenting mixed IgE- and non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal symptoms and inflammation upon allergen-challenge are available. To study the mechanisms underlying the induction of food-induced gastrointestinal inflammation and subsequent oral tolerance induction, a mouse model of food-induced gastrointestinal allergy was established. BALB/c mice were sensitised with Ovalbumin (OVA) plus ALUM and subsequently challenged by feeding a diet containing egg white (EW diet). During the first seven days on EW diet, OVA-sensitised mice (OVA/ALUM EW mice) developed gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g. weight loss, ruffed fur, soft stool and less mobility) and inflammation in the small intestines accompanied by a strong induction of OVA-specific IgE antibodies and mouse mast cell protease-1 (mMCP-1). Proliferation of CD4+ T cells from spleen of OVA/ALUM EW mice was reduced compared controls. The result indicated that feeding EW diet induced T cell tolerance systemically. In contrast, CD4+ T cells isolated from MLN of OVA/ALUM EW mice showed stronger proliferation upon OVA stimulation in vitro than mice OVA-sensitised but fed a conventional diet, indicating that tolerance was not induced by short-term EW diet. Histological analysis of the small intestinal tissue of OVA/ALUM EW mice revealed strong inflammation present in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum at this time point.
Interestingly, the observed symptoms in OVA/ALUM EW mice resolved spontaneously after 7 days on EW diet, if the feeding was continued. In the next steps the CD4+ T cell-mediated immune response after 28 days continuous EW diet was assessed and revealed that tolerance was induced systemically as well as locally. This was shown by reduced proliferation and cytokine secretion of CD4+ T cells from MLN of OVA/ALUM EW mice after long-term EW diet. However, the inflammation in the jejunum was aggravated instead of resolved at this time point of allergenic diet. Our results suggest that application of OIT in food-allergic patients with gastrointestinal inflammation may need to be reconsidered, since continuous administration of allergenic food may aggravate inflammation in the local tissue. Interestingly, only the jejunum was affected by a worsened condition, whereas duodenum and ileum resolved inflammation. In accordance to the observed jejunal inflammation mMCP-1 levels in the sera were not changed. Allergen-specific IgE levels did not reach baseline level after long-term EW diet, although they were reduced compared to levels in mice after 7 days on EW diet. This result suggests that residual OVA-specific IgE antibodies would promote the jejunal inflammation by sustained activation of mast cells. Furthermore, our results suggest that IL-4 produced by activated Th2 cells could be an effector molecule to induce intestinal inflammation.
The second part of this thesis was aimed at verifying the hypothesis that IgE-mediated mast cell activation is a major effector mechanism in induction of chronic inflammation induced by long-term EW diet. For that mice deficient for FcεRI, a high affinity IgE receptor, were used. These mice were sensitised with OVA and fed EW diet as described for WT mice. Although FcεRI-deficient mice showed an intact Th2 immunity with IgE production, weight loss in the receptor-deficient mice was moderately induced by EW diet compared to WT mice, suggesting that this clinical symptom during the acute phase of allergic response is associated with IgE-mediated mechanisms. Surprisingly, the deficient mice presented comparable intestinal inflammation on day seven of EW diet as WT mice did. However, if EW diet was continued, recovery of intestinal inflammation was observed in FcεRI-deficient mice in contrast to WT mice. These results suggest that the induction of intestinal inflammation is not IgE-dependent. Nevertheless, this does not rule out a potential role of mast cells in the inflammation, because of their IgE-independent activation pathways. It also suggests the involvement of T cell-mediated mechanisms during induction of jejunal inflammation. Interestingly, the aggravated inflammation seen after long-term EW diet in WT mice seems to be IgE-dependent, considering that it was not observed in FcεRI-deficient mice. The elevated number of mast cells in the intestine of WT mice further led to a hypothesis that their continuous activation might be responsible for the chronification of allergic inflammation observed after long-term EW diet. In the context of OIT it further implies that IgE might be a poor prognostic factor for recovery of intestinal inflammation during and after an OIT treatment. In the third part of this thesis regulatory mechanisms employed by the immune system were analysed. Initial results from CD4+ T cells isolated from MLN from OVA/ALUM EW mice showed elevated IL-10 levels in their supernatants after short-term EW diet. IL-10-deficient mice were used to analyse the effect of this immunosuppressive cytokine in the mouse model presented here. However, IL-10-deficient mice tend to develop a strong Th1-dominated immune response. Nevertheless, an accelerated weight loss and slight inflammation of the jejunum was observed after short-term EW diet. Analysis of OVA-specific proliferation and cytokine production CD4+ T cells from Spleen and MLN of IL-10-deficient mice on EW diet suggested that systemic as well as local tolerance was induced after short-term and long-term EW diet feeding, respectively. The result suggests that IL-10 is dispensable for induction of T cell tolerance in our mouse model.
However, the presence of functionally active Tregs was observed during this study in WT mice fed short-term EW diet, suggesting that Tregs might have an important role in regulating the systemic or local immune response. T cell deletion as an alternative immune regulatory mechanism was also observed. Additionally, the efficacy of continuous EW diet (mirroring to a certain extent an OIT treatment) in induction of permanent tolerance was assessed. In OVA-sensitised WT mice continuous allergenic diet was stopped after resolution of clinical symptoms and reintroduced after a defined period on conventional diet. Evaluating the weight development showed that reintroduction of EW diet induced weight loss again, but not as pronounced as seen after short-term EW diet. Also the CD4+ T cell-mediated response was elevated again upon allergen stimulation in vitro. The results suggested that permanent tolerance was not induced in the chosen feeding regime.
The mouse model established and analysed here was used to investigate inflammatory and regulatory mechanisms underlying food-induced gastrointestinal allergy. It presents clinical symptoms and intestinal inflammation (Burggraf et al., 2011). This model is easy to be reproduced in different laboratories, and is useful for testing novel therapy approaches (Schülke et al., 2011; Bohnen et al., 2013). It further provides an opportunity to investigate basic mechanisms underlying OIT. This therapy approach is currently extensively investigated and our mouse model would help to understand the therapeutic mechanism of OIT.
Purpose: The Action Plan for Medication Safety by the German Federal Ministry of Health introduced a standardized medication plan (MP), a printable document for the patient. The practical handling needs to be tested before the nationwide implementation in Germany. Therefore, the aims of our study were 1) to develop an instrument to evaluate the usage of the standardized MP, 2) to assess if patients can locate, and 3) understand important information. Moreover, we explored patients’ opinion and suggestions regarding the standardized MP template.
Patients and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study to evaluate the practical handling of the standardized MP. We interviewed 40 adult patients in seven community pharmacies in Germany, who took at least five medicines regularly and gave their written informed consent. The interview consisted of questions regarding finding and understanding information provided on a mock-up MP, patients’ opinion and the execution of the information on the MP by filling pill boxes. We eventually developed a new evaluation method to quantify the practical handling of the MP by rating the pill boxes filled by the patients.
Results: Overall, the participants rated the MP positively. Thirty-nine (98%) participants found important information on a mock-up standardized MP. Patients were questioned to identify if they understood information on medical intake as it relates to meals. In particular, they were questioned about medicine intake "1 hour before a meal", which 98% (n=39) interpreted correctly, and "during a meal", which 100% (n=40) interpreted correctly. The less precise advice of "before a meal" was interpreted correctly by 73% (n=29), and only 15% (n=6) correctly interpreted the term "after the meal". The evaluation of the filled pill boxes resulted in the "Evaluation Tool to test the handling of the Medication Plan" (ET-MP) – a weighted scoring system.
Conclusion: The standardized MP is clearly arranged, and patients are able to find important information. The findings of this study resulted in minor but important revisions of the standardized MP template. The developed evaluation tool ET-MP may serve as an objective instrument to assess patients’ ability to transfer written information on the MP into practical handling of medicines.
Das natürlich vorkommende Polyphenol Resveratrol (3,4‘,5-(E)-Trihydroxystilben) ist eine potente chemopräventive Substanz, die in vielen verschiedenen Krebszelllinien wirksam ist. Außerdem verfügt sie über anti-inflammatorische, anti-oxidative und pro-apoptotische Wirkungen. Da Resveratrol auch in Tiermodellen des Typ-2-Diabetes und der nicht-alkoholischen Fettlebererkrankung gute Effekte gezeigt hat, wird in Erwägung gezogen es zur Prävention und Behandlung von metabolischen Erkrankungen einzusetzen. Allerdings liegen, aufgrund von schneller Metabolisierung und geringer Bioverfügbarkeit, die wirksamen Konzentrationen im mikromolaren Bereich. Eine geeignete Strategie, um die anti-tumorale Wirkung und die Bioverfügbarkeit von Resveratrol zu verbessern, scheint die Methylierung der freien Hydroxylgruppen zu sein. Allerdings liefern einige Studien Hinweise darauf, dass diese strukturelle Modifikation der Stilbengrundstruktur zu einer Veränderung des antiproliferativen Wirkmechanismus der methylierten Substanzen führt. Daher führten wir im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit genauere Untersuchungen durch, um die Veränderungen der biologischen Wirkung, die durch die Methylierung der freien Hydroxylgruppen von (E)- und (Z)-Resveratrol verursacht werden, zu charakterisieren. Einen Schwerpunkt bildete die Bestimmung der metabolischen Effekte der methylierten Substanzen. Dabei sollte aufgeklärt werden, ob die Analoga noch immer in der Lage sind bekannte Resveratrol-Targets, wie AMPK, SIRT1 und Phosphodiesterasen, zu modulieren. Zunächst bestätigten wir, dass die methylierten Resveratrolanaloga ST911 (3,4‘,5-Z)-Trimethoxystilben) und ST912 (3,4‘,5-(E)-Trimethoxystilben) einen starken antiproliferativen Effekt auf verschiedene Krebszelllinien ausüben. Wie bereits zuvor beschrieben, konnten wir beobachten, dass ST911 und ST912 das Wachstum von Tumorzellen stärker beeinflussen, als die hydroxylierten Substanzen (E)- und (Z)-Resveratrol. Dies, in Verbindung mit einer vernachlässigbaren zytotoxischen Wirkung und einer deutlich geringeren antiproliferativen Wirkung auf Primärzellen, legt nahe, dass ST911 als potentielles neues Chemotherapeutikum weiter untersucht werden sollte. Zudem zeigten ST911 und ST912 signifikante pro-apoptotische Wirkungen in CaCo-2-Zellen. Auch Resveratrol konnte in diesen Zellen Apoptose auslösen, allerdings erst nach Behandlung mit deutlich höheren Konzentrationen, verglichen mit ST911 und ST912. Eine genauere Charakterisierung der antitumoralen Wirkung von ST911 in HT-29-Zellen zeigte, dass ST911 die Polymerisation von Tubulin zu Mikrotubuli beeinflusst und einen Arrest des Zellzyklus in der Mitose-Phase auslöst. Im Gegensatz dazu führt Resveratrol zu einem Zellzyklus-Arrest in der S-Phase und beeinflusst die Tubulinpolymerisation nicht. Diese Beobachtungen verstärkten die Annahme, dass ST911 ein Mitosehemmer ist und betonten noch einmal die mechanistischen Unterschiede zwischen Resveratrol und den methylierten Analoga. Interessanterweise konnte ST911 die hepatische Fettakkumulation in einem in-vitro-Steatosemodell nicht beeinflussen, während eine Behandlung mit Resveratrol zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der intrahepatischen Triglyzeride führte. Dieses Experiment lässt vermuten, dass die stärkere antiproliferative Wirkung von ST911, keine erhöhte Aktivität in metabolischen Krankheitsmodellen nach sich zieht. Die beobachteten Unterschiede im Steatosemodell führten zu der Frage, ob die methylierten Analoga noch immer in der Lage sind die gleichen metabolischen Targetgene zu modulieren, die in der Literatur für Resveratrol beschrieben sind. Vor kurzem wurden Phosphodiesterasen (PDEs) als direkte Targets von Resveratrol identifiziert. Die Inhibition von PDEs durch Resveratrol führt zu einem Anstieg der intrazellulären cAMP-Konzentration. Diese wiederum aktiviert die bekannten Resveratrol-Targetgene AMPK und SIRT1. Unsere Experimente zeigten, dass ST911 und ST912 keinen Einfluss auf die intrazelluläre cAMP-Konzentration haben. Zusätzlich konnten wir keine AMPK- oder SIRT1-abhängigen Veränderungen der Genexpression beobachten. Dies ist ein Hinweis darauf, dass die Substanzen ihre zellulären Effekte vermutlich nicht über eine Modulation von PDEs, AMPK oder SIRT1 vermitteln. Zusammenfassend liefert der erste Teil der Arbeit Beweise dafür, dass ST911 keine positiven Effekte in metabolischen Krankheitsmodellen ausübt. Dies liegt vermutlich in einem Aktivitätsverlust gegenüber den metabolischen Targetgenen von Resveratrol begründet. Des Weiteren unterstützen unsere Ergebnisse frühere Arbeiten, die zeigen konnten, dass ST911 an Tubulin bindet und die Polymerisation zu Mikrotubuli verhindert. Weiterhin bestätigen unsere Daten, dass die Methylierung von Resveratrol zu einer grundlegenden Veränderung des Wirkmechanismus dieser Substanzen führt, die von einem kompletten Verlust der metabolischen Aktivität begleitet wird. Dies sollte bei zukünftigen Leitstrukturoptimierungen mit Resveratrol berücksichtigt werden. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit konnte außerdem gezeigt werden, dass Resveratrol die Gentranskription des nukleären Rezeptors SHP (aus dem Englischen: small heterodimer partner) stark induziert. Der Mechanismus dieser Induktion scheint von der Aktivität von AMPK und SIRT1 abhängig zu sein. Diese Ergebnisse konnten unser Verständnis der vielseitigen biologischen Wirkungen von Resveratrol erweitern. Dennoch sollte die Relevanz der SHP-Induktion für die Effekte von Resveratrol auf metabolische Krankheiten und Tumorwachstum noch weiter untersucht werden. Während der Experimente für den ersten Teil der Arbeit stellten wir fest, dass der AMPK-Inhibitor Compound C (CC) in der Lage war, die wachstumshemmende Wirkung von ST911 signifikant zu reduzieren. Die Untersuchung dieses sogenannten „Rescue-Effektes“ wird durch die Tatsache bestärkt, dass eine steigende Anzahl von Tumoren resistent gegenüber Chemotherapeutika ist. Außerdem fehlen spezifische Antidota für akute Intoxikationen mit Mitosehemmern. Daher zielten die folgenden Experimente darauf ab den Rescue-Effekt näher zu charakterisieren und die zugrundeliegenden Wirkmechanismen aufzuklären. Zunächst zeigten Knockdown-Experimente, dass der Rescue-Effekt unabhängig von der AMPK-inhibierenden Wirkung von CC vermittelt wird. Da CC ein ATP-kompetitiver Inhibitor der AMPK ist und zuvor bereits gezeigt wurde, dass es auch eine große Zahl anderer Kinasen inhibieren kann, vermuteten wir, dass der Rescue-Effekt mit diesen Off-Target-Effekten von CC zusammenhängt. Als nächstes testeten wir, ob die wachstumshemmenden Effekte von anderen Mitosehemmern auch durch CC aufgehoben werden können. Wir wählten verschiedene etablierte Substanzen, die dafür bekannt sind mit Mikrotubuli zu interagieren: Colchicin, das Vinca-Alkaloid Vinblastin, Disorazol A und das aus Taxus-Arten isolierte Paclitaxel. Die ersten drei dieser Substanzen haben eine depolymerisierende Wirkung auf die Mikrotubuli, während Paclitaxel zu einer stärkeren Polymerisierung führt. Zudem binden diese Substanzen an drei verschiedenen Bindestellen am Tubulin. Interessanterweise zeigten unsere Versuche, dass CC die antiproliferative Wirkung aller getesteten Mitosehemmer auf HT-29-Zellen, unabhängig von der Bindestelle, abschwächen kann. Des Weiteren konnte CC die Wirkung der pro-apoptotischen Substanz Staurosporin nicht reduzieren. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass eher die tubulinbindenden, als die pro-apoptotischen Eigenschaften, von ST911 für den Rescue-Effekt verantwortlich sind. Um zu untersuchen, ob der Rescue-Effekt mit einer kompetitiven Bindung von CC und Mitosehemmern an Mikrotubuli erklärt werden kann, führten wir eine Immunfluoreszenzfärbung von ?-Tubulin durch. Wir konnten beobachten, dass die Tubulinpolymerisation und die Funktion des Spindelapparates in Zellen, die mit Mitosehemmern behandelt wurden, deutlich eingeschränkt waren. Außerdem stellten wir fest, dass CC nicht in der Lage ist die Zerstörung des Tubulingerüstes durch die Mitosehemmer zu verhindern. Eine Einzelbehandlung mit CC hatte keine Wirkung auf die Polymerisation des Tubulin zu Mikrotubuli. Insgesamt legen diese Daten nahe, dass CC nicht direkt an Mikrotubuli binden kann, um mit den Mitosehemmern um eine Bindung zu kompetitieren. Um diese Hypothese zu stärken, führten wir, in Kooperation mit Dr. Jennifer Herrmann (Helmholtz Institut für Pharmazeutische Forschung, Saarbrücken) SPR-Experimente mit Chips durch, auf denen Tubulin immobilisiert wurde. Die Messungen zeigten, das CC nicht in der Lage war gebundenes Disorazol A von der Bindestelle am Tubulin zu verdrängen. Dies zeigte nun deutlich, dass der Rescue-Effekt nicht auf einer Kompetition von CC und Mitosehemmern um Tubulinbindestellen beruht. Zellzyklusanalysen zeigten, dass die kombinierte Behandlung mit ST911 und CC zu einer Abschwächung des durch ST911 verursachten G2/M-Arrestes führt. Da wir zuvor bereits eine Beeinflussung der direkten Targets von CC und Mitosehemmern, AMPK oder Tubulin, ausgeschlossen hatten, schlussfolgerten wir, dass CC vermutlich mit anderen zellulären Signalwegen interagiert, die zu den beschriebenen Veränderungen des Zellwachstums und der Zellzyklusprogression führen. Eine Literaturrecherche ergab, dass ein erhöhter intrazellulärer Polyaminspiegel, die Aktivierung des PI3K/Akt-Signalweges oder eine erhöhte Aktivität des Transkriptionsfaktors c-Myc zu einer Abschwächung eines G2/M-Arrestes führen können. Daher fokussierten wir die weiteren Experimente auf die Untersuchung einer möglichen Beteiligung dieser Targets an der Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes. Wir zeigten, dass CC die Expression der Spermidin/Spermin-N1-Acetyltransferase (SSAT) erhöhen kann. Die SSAT ist ein Enzym, das an der Biosynthese der Polyamine beteiligt ist. Zusätzlich beobachteten wir, dass die Behandlung mit CC nach 4 h zu einer Erhöhung von phosphoryliertem und damit aktiviertem Akt (pAkt) führt. Die zusätzliche Behandlung mit Wortmannin, einer Substanz, welche die Phosphorylierung von Akt hemmen kann, führte zu einer Abschwächung des Rescue-Effektes. Insgesamt weisen diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass eine Aktivierung von Akt-Signalwegen und ein Einfluss auf die Polyaminbiosynthese, zumindest teilweise, mit dem Rescue-Effekt zusammenhängen können. Die Überexpression von c-Myc, einem Transkriptionsfaktor, der eng mit dem Akt-Signalweg und der Biosynthese von Polyaminen zusammenhängt, ist oft mit einer erhöhten Zellproliferation verbunden. Wir untersuchten die zellulären Proteinmengen von c-Myc mittels Western Blot und entdeckten, dass nach der Behandlung mit Mitosehemmern zusätzliche Banden für c-Myc auf den Blots auftauchten. Diese Ergebnisse geben einen Hinweis auf eine posttranslationale Modifikation von c-Myc nach der Behandlung mit Mitosehemmern. Durch Kombination mit CC wurden die zusätzlichen Banden abgeschwächt und die Gesamtmenge an c-Myc-Protein nahm nach längeren Inkubationszeiten rapide ab. Dies legt nahe, dass die posttranslationale Modifikation von c-Myc zum Abbau des Proteins führt und, dass CC dies abschwächen kann. Verschiedene Arbeiten zeigten bereits, dass c-Myc phosphoryliert wird und nach Konjugation mit Ubiquitin vom Proteasom abgebaut wird. Daher überprüften wir, ob eine Inhibition des Proteasoms mit MG-132 zu einem ähnlichen Rescue-Effekt führt wie mit CC. Tatsächlich führte die Behandlung mit ST911 in Kombination mit MG-132 zu einer Zunahme der Zellproliferation, wie sie vorher bereits für CC beobachtet wurde. Dies bestärkte die Theorie, dass der proteasomale Abbau von c-Myc eine Rolle beim Rescue-Effekt spielen kann. Als nächstes untersuchten wir die Phosphorylierungen von c-Myc am Ser62 und Thr58. Diese Phosphorylierungen spielen eine wichtige Rolle beim Abbau von c-Myc, indem Sie das Protein für die Konjugation mit Ubiquitin markieren. Die densitometrische Auswertung der Western Blots ergab, dass die Behandlung mit ST911 initial zu einem Anstieg von phospho-c-Myc führt, dem eine schnelle Abnahme zu späteren Zeitpunkten folgt. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass dieser Anstieg von phospho-c-Myc durch Kombination mit CC reduziert wurde. Dies unterstützt die Hypothese, dass ST911 den proteasomalen Abbau von c-Myc begünstigt und CC dies verhindern kann. Dies ist eine mögliche Erklärung für die erhöhte Zellproliferation, die für die durch CC „geretteten“ Zellen beobachtet wurde. Allerdings konnte das direkte Target, das für die Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes durch CC verantwortlich ist, bisher nicht identifiziert werden. DYRKs (aus dem Englischen: Dual-specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinases) sind wichtige Regulatoren von Proteinstabilität und –abbau während der Zellzyklusprogression. Vor kurzem wurde gezeigt, dass DYRK1A und DYRK2 c-Myc am Ser62 phosphorylieren können und es dadurch für den proteasomalen Abbau markieren. Interessanterweise wurde CC bereits in einer früheren Publikation als potenter Inhibitor verschiedener DYRKs beschrieben. Allerdings wurde die Hemmung der DYRKs durch CC in diesem Artikel nur in einer einzelnen Konzentration getestet. Daher bestimmten wir in einem in-vitro-Kinaseassay in Kooperation mit Dr. Matthias Engel (Universität des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken) die IC50-Werte für CC gegenüber DYRK1A, DYRK1B und DYRK2. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich, dass CC ein bevorzugter Inhibitor von DYRK1A und DYRK1B (IC50-Wert von etwa 1 µM) ist, aber auch DYRK2 hemmen kann (IC50-Wert von etwa 5 µM). Da sich die vermutete Bindestelle von CC in der stark konservierten Kinasedomäne befindet, ist eine unspezifische Inhibition verschiedener DYRKs nicht überraschend. Genexpressionsanalysen zeigten, dass HT-29 und HepG2 vergleichbare Mengen an DYRK1A exprimieren, während DYRK1B und DYRK2 deutlich weniger in HepG2 vorhanden sind. Vorige Experimente hatten gezeigt, dass HepG2 weniger sensitiv für ST911 und den durch CC vermittelten Rescue-Effekt waren. Wir schlussfolgerten, dass die unterschiedliche Expression der DYRK-Formen eine mögliche Erklärung für diese Unterschiede sein könnte. Daher entschieden wir uns für eine nähere Untersuchung von DRK1B und DYRK2. Experimente mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren der DYRKs zeigten, dass diese Substanzen, ähnlich wie CC, in der Lage waren die antiproliferative Wirkung von ST911 abzuschwächen. Diese Ergebnisse wurden in nachfolgenden Knockdown-Experimenten bestätigt. Dies legt nahe, dass die DYRKs zumindest teilweise für die Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes verantwortlich sind. Zusammenfassend man kann sagen, dass der Rescue-Effekt vermutlich mit der Biosynthese von Polyaminen, dem Akt-Signalweg und dem proteasomalen Abbau von c-Myc zusammenhängt. Des Weiteren scheint die direkte Inhibition von DYRKs durch CC ein vielversprechender Ansatz für die Erklärung des Effektes zu sein. Allerdings konnte in keinem der Experimente eine kompletten Aufhebung des Rescue-Effektes durch CC gezeigt werden. Daher gehen wir davon aus, dass verschiedene Targets in die Vermittlung des Rescue-Effektes involviert sind. Dies ist höchstwahrscheinlich auf eine unspezifische, ATP-kompetitive Hemmung verschiedener Kinasen durch CC zurückzuführen. Nichtsdestotrotz, sind eine nähere Untersuchung von DYRKs im Rahmen der Therapieresistenz von Tumoren und eine genauere Aufklärung der am Rescue-Effekt beteiligten Signalwege eine interessantes Feld für weitere Untersuchungen.
In addition to infectious viral particles, hepatitis B virus-replicating cells secrete high amounts of SVPs, which are ssembled by HBsAg in the shape of spheres and filaments but lack any capsid and genome. Filaments are characterized by a much higher amount of the surface protein LHBs as compared to spheres. Spheres are
released via the constitutive secretory pathway, while viral particles are ESCRT-dependently released via MVBs. The interaction of virions with the ESCRT machinery is mediated by α-taxilin that connects the PreS1 domain of LHBs with the ESCRT-component tsg101. Since viral particles and filaments contain a significant amount of LHBs, it is unclear whether filaments are secreted as spheres or released like viral particles. To study the release pathways of HBV filaments in the absence of viral particles, A core-deficient
HBV mutant (1.2×HBVΔCore) was generated by site-directed mutagenesis based on wt1.2x HBV. The start codon of core protein was mutated into stop codon, which was confirmed by DNA sequencing. Data from HBsAg ELISA, Western blot, immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy showed that the lack of core protein did neither affect the production nor the secretion of HBV SVPs. The intracellular distribution of
LHBs and SHBs showed no difference between wtHBV and the core-deficient mutant expressing cells. Therefore, this system is suitable to investigate the release pathway of HBV filaments in the absence of viral particles. Confocal microscopy analysis of cells cotransfected core-deficient mutants with peYFPRab7 as marker for the endosomal/MVB pathway or with pGalT-eGFP as marker for the trans Golgi apparatus showed that YFP-Rab7, but not GalT-GFP, partially colocalized with LHBs. Furthermore, LHBs could be found in dilated MVBs by immune electron microscopy of ultrathin sections. This was confirmed by isolation of MVBs by cell fractionation using discontinuous sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation and percoll-based linear gradient ultracentrifugation, indicating that filaments enter MVBs in the absence of virion formation. Moreover, inhibition of MVB biogenesis by the small molecular inhibitor U18666A significantly abolished the release of filaments in a dose-dependent manner, but no inhibition could be observed in the production. In contrast, no inhibition on the secretion and production of spheres could be
detected. Inhibition of ESCRT-functionality by coexpression of transdominant negative mutants (Vps4A, Vps4B, CHMP3) abolished the release of filaments while secretion of spheres was not affected. These data indicate that in contrast Abstract 73 to spheres while are secreted via the secretory pathway, filaments are released via ESCRT/MVB pathway like infectious viral particles.
MLL-r Leukemia
(2016)
Leukotrienes (LTs) are inflammatory mediators that play a pivotal role in many diseases like asthma bronchiale, atherosclerosis and in various types of cancer. The key enzyme for generation of LTs is the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO). Here, we present a novel putative protein isoform of human 5-LO that lacks exon 4, termed 5-LOΔ4, identified in cells of lymphoid origin, namely the Burkitt lymphoma cell lines Raji and BL41 as well as primary B and T cells. Deletion of exon 4 does not shift the reading frame and therefore the mRNA is not subjected to non-mediated mRNA decay (NMD). By eliminating exon 4, the amino acids Trp144 until Ala184 are omitted in the corresponding protein. Transfection of HEK293T cells with a 5-LOΔ4 expression plasmid led to expression of the corresponding protein which suggests that the 5-LOΔ4 isoform is a stable protein in eukaryotic cells. We were also able to obtain soluble protein after expression in E. coli and purification. The isoform itself lacks canonical enzymatic activity as it misses the non-heme iron but it still retains ATP-binding affinity. Differential scanning fluorimetric analysis shows two transitions, corresponding to the two domains of 5-LO. Whilst the catalytic domain of 5-LO WT is destabilized by calcium, addition of calcium has no influence on the catalytic domain of 5-LOΔ4. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of 5-LOΔ4 on the activity of 5-LO WT and proved that it stimulates 5-LO product formation at low protein concentrations. Therefore regulation of 5-LO by its isoform 5-LOΔ4 might represent a novel mechanism of controlling the biosynthesis of lipid mediators.