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In this work we study the properties of quarkonium states in a quark-gluon plasma which, due to expansion and non-zero viscosity, exhibits a local anisotropy in momentum space. We determine the hard-loop resummed gluon propagator in an anisotropic QCD plasma in general linear gauges and define a potential between heavy quarks from the Fourier transform of its static limit. This potential which arises due to one-gluon exchange describes the force between a quark and anti-quark at short distances. It is closer to the vacuum potential as compared to the isotropic Debye screened potential which indicates the reduced screening in an anisotropic QCD plasma. In addition, angular dependence appears in the potential; we find that there is stronger attraction on distance scales on the order of the inverse Debye mass for quark pairs aligned along the direction of anisotropy than for transverse alignment. The potential at long distances, however, is non-perturbative and modeled as a QCD string which is screened at the same scale as the Coulomb field. At asymptotic separation the potential energy is non-zero and inversely proportional to the temperature. With a phenomenological potential model which incorporates the different behaviors at short and long distances, we solve the three-dimensional Schrödinger equation. Our numerical results show that quarkonium binding is stronger at non-vanishing viscosity and expansion rate, and that the anisotropy leads to polarization of the P-wave states. Furthermore, we determine viscosity corrections to the imaginary part of the heavyquark potential in the weak-coupling hard-loop approximation. The imaginary part is found to be smaller (in magnitude) than at vanishing viscosity. This implies a smaller decay width of quarkonium bound states in an anisotropic plasma.
Central America is one of the world’s most herpetological diverse areas in relation to its size. Nicaragua is the largest country in this region and separates Nuclear from Lower Central America. It is one of the least herpetological explored countries in Central America and few studies dealing with the herpetofauna of a potion or the entire country have been published. I here update the checklist of the Nicaraguan herpetofauna, present taxonomic revisions of some difficult species complexes, compare the similarities of the composition of the herpetofaunal communities in the major forest formations present in the country within a zoogeographical context, and identify those species with a greater vulnerability risk in Nicaragua. Taxonomy The herpetofauna of Nicaragua currently consists of 244 species representing 134 genera and 42 families with 78 amphibian species representing 35 genera and 15 families, and 166 reptile species representing 99 genera and 27 families, which includes six marine species. Sixteen species (12 amphibians and four reptiles) are endemic to the country. Of the 12 endemic amphibian species, three are here described. In addition, five genera (Anotheca, Cerrophidion, Duellmanohyla, Isthmohyla, and Rhinobothryum) and two species (Rhadinea godmani and Urotheca decipiens) are known to occur both north and south of Nicaragua although there are no voucher specimens of these taxa to confirm their presence in country. I complete a bibliographic research updating the nomenclature changes and provide a brief herpetological history of Nicaragua, a recompilation of all species described upon Nicaraguan material and their current synonymy, the first time each species was recorded from the country, and a list of all recognized subspecies occurring in Nicaragua. I discuss the taxonomic uncertainties among the Nicaraguan populations of amphibians and reptiles and take further detailed taxonomic revisions on selected Nicaraguan species groups from the genera Anolis, Bolitoglossa, and Craugastor along their known distributional range. I describe five new species of herpetofauna (three of which are based on Nicaraguan material), redescribe five species of Anolis (three of which occur in Nicaragua), and provide voucher specimens of five other species for the first time in Nicaragua. In detail: • I studied the pholidosis, morphometrics as well as hemipenis and dewlap morphology in Anolis wermuthi, an anole endemic to the highlands of northern Nicaragua. I examine patterns of geographic variation using discriminant function analysis and discuss the characters that vary both individually and among populations. The results indicate that A. wermuthi is a single species with several disjunct, slightly divergent populations. I provide a standardized description, illustrations of the everted hemipenis of an adult topotype, the male and female dewlap, and a distribution map. I also provide brief descriptions of the localities where this species occurs and some ecological notes. • I studied the pholidosis, morphometrics as well as hemipenis morphology in the Central American anole species Anolis humilis, A. quaggulus, and A. uniformis. The three taxa are distinct in hemipenis morphology. However, very little differentiation in pholidotic and morphometric characters is documented. I document interspecific variation in several characters but with overlap of the documented ranges. A discriminant function analysis based on five pholidotic characters yielded a scatter diagram that showed large overlap between the clusters of the three taxa. I provide head scalation illustrations, an identification key, a distribution map, and standardized descriptions of the commonly distributed in Nicaragua A. quaggulus as well as of the other two species. • I describe two new species of anoles (genus Anolis) from Panama formerly referred to as Anolis limifrons. The two new species, Anolis apletophallus and Anolis cryptolimifrons, differ from A. limifrons by having a large bilobed hemipenis (small and unilobed in A. limifrons). The new species differ from each other in male dewlap size and coloration. I provide illustrations of the head scalation, everted hemipenis, and dewlap, an identification key, a distribution map, and standardized descriptions of the commonly distributed in Nicaragua A. limifrons and the two new species described herein. • I describe two new species of salamanders of Bolitoglossa from southern Nicaragua. Bolitoglossa indio is known from Río Indio in the lowlands of the Río San Juan area and Bolitoglossa insularis from the premontane slopes of Volcán Maderas on Ometepe Island. The two new species are of unknown affinities but both differ from their congeners in coloration. Bolitoglossa indio is most similar to B. mexicana and B. odonnelli from which differ by having both broad dorsolateral pale brown stripes not clearly delimited in outline. Bolitoglossa insularis is most similar to B. mombachoensis and B. striatula from which differ by the absence of dark or light defined stripes on dorsum and venter. • I describe a new species of frog of the genus Craugastor from Río San Juan, Nicaragua. The new species, Craugastor chingopetaca, is assigned to the fitzingeri group and differs from most Central American species of that group by the absence of a midgular pale stripe. Within the fitzingeri group it is most similar to C. crassidigitus and C. talamancae from which it differs in several morphological characteristics such as more extensive webbing, retuse disk covers on some digits, and relative toe length. • I provide voucher specimens of Cochranella spinosa, Kinosternon angustipons, Mesaspis moreletii, Cnemidophorus lemniscatus and Adelphicos quadrivirgatum for the first time in Nicaragua. I include descriptions, illustrations, and brief ecological notes for the five new country records. Zoogeography Based on the concept of ecological formations proposed by HOLDRIDGE (1967), nine forest formations are found in Nicaragua. Of the total number of terrestrial species of herpetofauna found in Nicaragua, 131 species (55.0%) occur in Lowland Wet Forest, 21 of which (8.8%) are restricted to this forest formation, 168 species (70.6%) occur in Lowland Moist Forest, 15 of which (6.3%) are restricted to this forest formation, 84 species (35.3%) occur in Lowland Dry Forest, four of which (1.7%) are restricted to this forest formation, 47 species (19.7%) occur in Lowland Arid Forest, with no species restricted to this forest formation, 59 species (24.8%) occur in Premontane Wet Forest, three of which (1.3%) are restricted to this forest formation, 116 species (48.7%) occur in Premontane Moist Forest, 10 of which (4.2%) are restricted to this forest formation, 51 (21.4%) species occur in Premontane Dry Forest, with no species restricted to this forest formation, 13 species (5.5%) occur in Lower Montane Wet Forest, two of which (0.8%) are restricted to this forest formation, and 50 species (21.0%) occur Lower Montane Moist Forest, seven of which (2.9%) are restricted to this forest formation. The Coefficient of Biogeographic Resemblance algorithm show a distinct composition of the herpetofauna from the isolated highlands of northeastern Nicaragua, which is characterized by a high proportion of endemic species. Two other clusters are evident when analyzing the herpetofaunal similarities among Nicaragua, the Pacific versant and the central mountains and the Atlantic lowlands. In addition, the Pacific lowlands are characterized by a relatively homogeneous composition of the herpetofauna. In contrast, many species have their northern limit of distribution in the Atlantic lowlands with the ranges of most of these species ending in southern Nicaragua. The central mountains constitute the southern limit of distribution of several highland species. In general, there is a greater contribution of reptile than amphibian species to the total herpetofauna present in each forest formation. This unbalance is slightly higher in the dry than in the moist parts of the country. The similarities in the composition of the reptiles between the different forests formations seem to be relatively distinct on an elevation factor, whereas in amphibians similarities might be better explained in correlation with humidity. The total amount of amphibian and reptile species in Nicaragua has a Middle American Element dominance and varies between amphibians and reptiles, with and a greater South American Element influence in anurans and a greater Old Northern Element influence in reptiles. In general, there is a greater percentage of species with a South American Element in extreme southeastern Nicaragua with a decreasing tendency towards northern Nicaragua. Taking in account the geography and geologic history of Nicaragua as well as the known Central American dispersal routes, I identify species of probable occurrence in Nicaragua as well as those places with a greater potential to hold undescribed endemic species. Conservation In Nicaragua, no amphibian or reptile populations are entirely free from anthropogenic impact. I determine the endangerment level of all Nicaraguan amphibian and reptile species using the IUCN categorizations and the Environmental Vulnerability Scores. Seventy-six species (31.9%) of Nicaraguan amphibians and terrestrial reptiles have high vulnerability, 118 (49.6%) medium vulnerability, and 44 (18.5%) low vulnerability. Eighteen species (7.4% of the total herpetofauna) are unknown from protected areas, including 13 high vulnerability species (three are endemic), four medium vulnerability species, and one low vulnerability species. To preserve the future of Nicaragua’s amphibians and reptiles, every species should reside in at least one protected area, the protected areas must be guarded, and monitoring programs are needed to detect changes in amphibian and reptile populations, prioritizing highly vulnerable species.
Zusammenfassung Die Alzheimersche Krankheit (AD) ist mit 60% die am häufigsten auftretende Art der Demenz. Weltweit sind ca. 24 Mio. Menschen von der neurodegenerativen Krankheit betroffen, welche sich durch den Verlust der kognitiven Fähigkeiten auszeichnet. Es gibt zwei Ausprägungen der Demenz, zum einen die sporadische Verlaufsform, die bei Menschen in einem Alter ab 65 Jahren auftritt und zum anderen die familiäre Alzheimersche Krankheit (FAD), die schon weitaus jüngere Menschen betrifft und auf genetische Mutationen zurück zu führen ist. Beide Formen der Demenz zeigen den gleichen neuropathologische Phänotyp, der zur Ausbildung von extrazellulären Plaques und intrazellulären Neurofibrillen führt. Durch die Entstehung der Plaques und der Neurofibrillen werden die Verbindungen zwischen den einzelnen Neuronen verringert und die Neuronen sterben ab. Für das Auftreten der FAD sind Mutationen in den Genen des Amyloid Vorläufer Proteins (APP, Substrat) sowie der Aspartatprotease Einheit des γ-Sekretase Komplexes, Presenilin 1 (PS1) oder Presenilin 2 (PS2), verantwortlich. Die γ-Sekretase ist ein membranständiger Komplex bestehend aus den vier Untereinheiten PS1 oder PS2, Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 und Pen-2. Um ausreichende Informationen über den γ-Sekretase Komplex bezüglich seiner Interaktionsflächen, seines Katalysemechanismus und seiner Substraterkennung zu erhalten, wäre es hilfreich seine 3 Dimensionale Struktur aufzuklären, wozu große Mengen der sauberen und homogenen Proteine benötigt werden. Die Herstellung von ausreichenden Proteinmengen stellt derzeit aber einen Engpass für die strukturelle und funktionelle Charakterisierung des γ-Sekretase Komplexes in-vitro dar. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, which affects 24 million people worldwide. It is a neurodegenerative disorder, which occurs either in its most common form in people over 65 years or in the rare early-onset familial AD (FAD). Responsible for the autosomal dominant FAD are mutations in the genes encoding for the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the two homologues integral membrane proteins Presenilin 1 (PS1) and Presenilin 2 (PS2). The two PSs are major but alternative components of the intramembrane aspartyl protease γ-secretase. Further components are the membrane proteins Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 and Pen-2. Production of sufficient amounts of protein samples is still the major bottleneck for the detailed functional and structural in-vitro characterization of the γ-secretase complex. Due to toxicity, stability and targeting problems, the overproduction of MPs in conventional in-vivo systems often has only limited success. Therefore, efficient expression protocols using the cell-free (CF) system were established in this work. After optimization, I was able to produce up to milligram amounts of the single proteins PS1 and PS2, the cleavage products PS1-NTF and PS1-CTF, and Pen-2. The in-vitro produced γ-secretase subunits were further characterized, concerning their purity, secondary fold, thermal stability and homogeneity. Highest purities with over 90% after affinity chromatography could be achieved for PS1-CTF and Pen-2. Reconstitution of PS1, PS1-NTF, PS1-CTF and Pen-2 into E. coli liposomes results in a homogeneously distribution, which gives evidence for a structural folding. This was confirmed by CD spectroscopy of PS1-CTF and Pen-2. The thermal stability of Pen-2 shows a transition at 68°C, whereas PS1-CTF is stable up to 95°C. Both proteins show in addition homogeneous elution profiles investigated by analytical SEC and exhibit a monomeric (Pen-2) or dimeric (PS1-CTF) character analyzed by blue native PAGE. Different methods were performed to get evidence about the assembly of the complex, like pull-down experiments, immunoprecipitation, co-expression of radioactive labeled subunits and titration assays by liquid-state NMR. First hints for an interaction of the CF synthesized proteins could be observed by co-expression. Supplemental, Pen-2 and CTF could be purified in sufficient amounts and to apparent homogeneity that allow structural approaches by X-ray crystallography and liquid-state NMR spectroscopy. First conditions for protein crystals were achieved for Pen-2 and structural investigations of PS1-CTF by liquid-state NMR could be performed after optimization of the expression-, purification- and detergent conditions.
The mitsva reflects one of the most pivotal concepts of Judaism. It sanctifies those who answer its calling, and the Jew and Judaism is unique and “chosen” because of it. In this article we highlight the various ways the mitsvot and Halakha transform us and mold the Jewish personality: (a) by converting the “ought” into a “must”; (b) by transforming daily prosaic acts of man into sacred deeds; (c) by converting simple chronological, linear time into special moments of kedusha. The mitsva involves the total personality - “head, heart and hand” and makes the body equally important with the soul in the service of Hashem. Sanctification is accomplished both through deed and thought. The Torah wants the Jew to build an environment which strengthens his religious values and has designated Erets Yisrael as the most fitting place for kedusha.
We propose a variation of online paging in two-level memory systems where pages in the fast cache get modified and therefore have to be explicitly written back to the slow memory upon evictions. For increased performance, up to alpha arbitrary pages can be moved from the cache to the slow memory within a single joint eviction, whereas fetching pages from the slow memory is still performed on a one-by-one basis. The main objective in this new alpha-paging scenario is to bound the number of evictions. After providing experimental evidence that alpha-paging can adequately model flash-memory devices in the context of translation layers we turn to the theoretical connections between alpha-paging and standard paging. We give lower bounds for deterministic and randomized alpha-paging algorithms. For deterministic algorithms, we show that an adaptation of LRU is strongly competitive, while for the randomized case we show that by adapting the classical Mark algorithm we get an algorithm with a competitive ratio larger than the lower bound by a multiplicative factor of approximately 1.7.
Background Multidirectional interactions in social (or communication) networks can have a profound effect on mate choice behavior. For example, Poecilia mexicana males show weaker expression of mating preferences when being observed by an audience male. It was suggested that this behavior is an adaptation to reduce sperm competition risk, which arises because commonly preferred female phenotypes will receive attention also by surrounding males, and/or because the audience male can copy the focal male's mate choice. Do P. mexicana males indeed respond to perceived sperm competition risk? We gave males a choice between two females and repeated the tests under one of the following conditions: (1) during the 2nd part of the tests an empty transparent cylinder was presented (control); (2) an audience male inside the cylinder observed the focal male throughout the 2nd part, or (3) the audience male was presented only before the tests, but could not eavesdrop during the actual choice tests (non-specific sperm competition risk treatments); (4) the focal male could see a rival male sexually interacting with the previously preferred, or (5) with the non-preferred female before the 2nd part of the tests (specific sperm competition risk treatments). Results When comparing the strength of individual male preferences between the 1st and 2nd part of the tests (before and after presentation of an audience), male preferences declined slightly also during the control treatment (1). However, the decrease in strength of male preferences was more than two-fold stronger in audience treatment (2), i.e., with non-specific sperm competition risk including the possibility for visual eavesdropping by the audience male. No audience effect was found in treatments (3) and (5), but a weak effect was also seen when the focal male had seen the previously preferred female sexually interact with a rival male (treatment 4; specific sperm competition risk). Conclusions When comparing the two 'non-specific sperm competition risk' treatments (2 and 3), a very strong effect was found only when the audience male could actually observe the focal male during mate choice in treatment (2). This suggests that focal males indeed attempt to conceal their mating preferences in the visual presence of other males so as to avoid mate choice copying. When there is no potential for eavesdropping [treatment (3)], non-specific specific sperm competition risk seems to play a minor or no role. Congruent with studies on other poeciliid species, our results also show that P. mexicana males respond to perceived specific sperm competition risk, and tend to share their mating effort more equally among females when the resource value of their previously preferred mate decreases (after mating with a rival male). However, this effect is comparatively weak.
Background: Nitric oxide (NO) is an essential vasodilator. In vascular diseases, oxidative stress attenuates NO signaling by both chemical scavenging of free NO and oxidation and down-regulation of its major intracellular receptor, the alpha/beta heterodimeric heme-containing soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC). Oxidation can also induce loss of sGC's heme and responsiveness to NO.
Results: sGC activators such as BAY 58-2667 bind to oxidized/heme-free sGC and reactivate the enzyme to exert disease-specific vasodilation. Here we show that oxidation-induced down-regulation of sGC protein extends to isolated blood vessels. Mechanistically, degradation was triggered through sGC ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. The heme-binding site ligand, BAY 58-2667, prevented sGC ubiquitination and stabilized both alpha and beta subunits.
Conclusion: Collectively, our data establish oxidation-ubiquitination of sGC as a modulator of NO/cGMP signaling and point to a new mechanism of action for sGC activating vasodilators by stabilizing their receptor, oxidized/heme-free sGC.
Poster presentation: Self-organized critical (SOC) systems are complex dynamical systems that may express cascades of events, called avalanches [1]. The SOC state was proposed to govern brain function, because of its activity fluctuations over many orders of magnitude, its sensitivity to small input and its long term stability [2,3]. In addition, the critical state is optimal for information storage and processing [4]. Both hallmark features of SOC systems, a power law distribution f(s) for the avalanche size s and a branching parameter (bp) of unity, were found for neuronal avalanches recorded in vitro [5]. However, recordings in vivo yielded contradictory results [6]. Electrophysiological recordings in vivo only cover a small fraction of the brain, while criticality analysis assumes that the complete system is sampled. We hypothesized that spatial subsampling might influence the observed avalanche statistics. In addition, SOC models can have different connectivity, but always show a power law for f(s) and bp = 1 when fully sampled. This may not be the case under subsampling, however. Here, we wanted to know whether a state change from awake to asleep could be modeled by changing the connectivity of a SOC model without leaving the critical state. We simulated a SOC model [1] and calculated f(s) and bp obtained from sampling only the activity of a set of 4 × 4 sites, representing the electrode positions in the cortex. We compared these results with results obtained from multielectrode recordings of local field potentials (LFP) in the cortex of behaving monkeys. We calculated f(s) and bp for the LFP activity recorded while the monkey was either awake or asleep and compared these results to results obtained from two subsampled SOC model with different connectivity. f(s) and bp were very similar for both the experiments and the subsampled SOC model, but in contrast to the fully sampled model, f(s) did not show a power law and bp was smaller than unity. With increasing the distance between the sampling sites, f(s) changed from "apparently supercritical" to "apparently subcritical" distributions in both the model and the LFP data. f(s) and bp calculated from LFP recorded during awake and asleep differed. These changes could be explained by altering the connectivity in the SOC model. Our results show that subsampling can prevent the observation of the characteristic power law and bp in SOC systems, and misclassifications of critical systems as sub- or supercritical are possible. In addition, a change in f(s) and bp for different states (awake/asleep) does not necessarily imply a change from criticality to sub- or supercriticality, but can also be explained by a change in the effective connectivity of the network without leaving the critical state.
Poster presentation: The brain is autonomously active and this self-sustained neural activity is in general modulated, but not driven, by the sensory input data stream [1,2]. Traditionally one has regarded this eigendynamics as resulting from inter-modular recurrent neural activity [3]. Understanding the basic modules for cognitive computation is, in this view, the primary focus of research and the overall neural dynamics would be determined by the the topology of the intermodular pathways. Here we examine an alternative point of view, asking whether certain aspects of the neural eigendynamics have a central functional role for overall cognitive computation [4,5]. Transiently stable neural activity is regularly observed on the cognitive time-scale of 80–100 ms, with indications that neural competition [6] plays an important role in the selection of the transiently stable neural ensembles [7], also denoted winning coalitions [8]. We report on a theory approach which implements these two principles, transient-state dynamics and neural competition, in terms of an associative neural network with clique encoding [9]. A cognitive system [10] with a non-trivial internal eigendynamics has two seemingly contrasting tasks to fulfill. The internal processes need to be regular and not chaotic on one side, but sensitive to the afferent sensory stimuli on the other side. We show, that these two contrasting demands can be reconciled within our approach based on competitive transient-state dynamics, when allowing the sensory stimuli to modulate the competition for the next winning coalition. By testing the system with the bars problem, we find an emerging cognitive capability. Only based on the two basic architectural principles, neural competition and transient-state dynamics, with no explicit algorithmic encoding, the system performs on its own a non-linear independent component analysis of input data stream. The system has rudimentary biological features. All learning is local Hebbian-style, unsupervised and online. It exhibits an ever-ongoing eigendynamics and at no time is the state or the value of synaptic strengths reset or the system restarted; there is no separation between training and performance. We believe that this kind of approach – cognitive computation with autonomously active neural networks – to be an emerging field, relevant both for system neuroscience and synthetic cognitive systems.
Poster presentation: How can two distant neural assemblies synchronize their firings at zero-lag even in the presence of non-negligible delays in the transfer of information between them? Neural synchronization stands today as one of the most promising mechanisms to counterbalance the huge anatomical and functional specialization of the different brain areas. However, and albeit more evidence is being accumulated in favor of its functional role as a binding mechanism of distributed neural responses, the physical and anatomical substrate for such a dynamic and precise synchrony, especially zero-lag even in the presence of non-negligible delays, remains unclear. Here we propose a simple network motif that naturally accounts for zero-lag synchronization of spiking assemblies of neurons for a wide range of temporal delays. We demonstrate that when two distant neural assemblies do not interact directly but relaying their dynamics via a third mediating single neuron or population and eventually achieve zero-lag coherent firing. Extensive numerical simulations of populations of Hodgkin-Huxley neurons interacting in such a network are analyzed. The results show that even with axonal delays as large as 15 ms the distant neural populations can synchronize their firings at zero-lag in a millisecond precision after the exchange of a few spikes. The role of noise and a distribution of axonal delays in the synchronized dynamics of the neural populations are also studied confirming the robustness of this sync mechanism. The proposed network module is densely embedded within the complex functional architecture of the brain and especially within the reciprocal thalamocortical interactions where the role of indirect pathways mimicking direct cortico-cortical fibers has been already suggested to facilitate trans-areal cortical communication. In summary the robust neural synchronization mechanism presented here arises as a consequence of the relay and redistribution of the dynamics performed by a mediating neuronal population. In opposition to previous works, neither inhibitory, gap junctions, nor complex networks need to be invoked to provide a stable mechanism of zero-phase correlated activity of neural populations in the presence of large conduction delays.