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Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have the unique abilities of life-long self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation. They are routinely used in BM or stem cell transplantations to reconstitute the blood system of patients suffering from malignant or monogenic blood disorders. For an adequate production of each blood cell lineage in homeostasis and under stress conditions, the fate choice of HSCs to either self-renew or to differentiate must be strictly controlled. The incomplete understanding of the molecular mechanisms that control this balance makes it still impossible to maintain or expand undifferentiated HSCs in culture for advanced regenerative medical purposes.
The aim of this thesis was the identification and molecular characterisation of mechanisms that control the decision of HSCs to self-renew or to differentiate, and how they are connected to extrinsic cytokine signaling control. Prior to this thesis, a screening for genes upregulated under self-renewal promoting thrombopoietin (TPO) signaling via the transcription factors STAT5A/B in HSCs was conducted, and Growth arrest and DNA damage inducible 45 gamma (Gadd45g) was one of the regulated genes. GADD45G was described as stress sensor, DNA-damage response and tumor suppressor gene, that is epigenetically silenced in many solid tumors and leukemia. Furthermore, Gadd45g is upregulated in aged HSCs with impaired multi-lineage reconstitution abilities, and it is induced by differentiation promoting cytokines in GM-committed cells. However, the function of GADD45G in LT-HSCs was unknown. All these points warrant further investigation to unravel the function of GADD45G on early cell fate decisions of HSCs in hematopoiesis.
The expression of Gadd45g was stimulated by hematopoietic cytokines TPO, IL3 and IL6 both in HSCs and MPPs, making GADD45G an interesting target to focus on. To simulate the cytokine-induced expression GADD45G was lentivirally transduced in HSCs. Surprisingly, GADD45G did not induce cell cycle arrest or cell death in hematopoietic cells neither in vitro nor in vivo, as reported in many cell lines. Instead GADD45G revealed an enhanced and markedly accelerated differentiation of HSCs into mainly myelomonocytic cells, similar as observed for IL3 and IL6 containing cultures. Also in vivo, GADD45G rapidly initiates the differentiation program in HSCs at the expense of self-renewal and long-term engraftment, as shown by serial HSC transplantation experiments. Along the same line, HSCs from Gadd45g-knock out mice exhibited an increased self-renewal. In vitro, Gadd45g-/- progenitors showed higher and prolonged colony formation potential and slower expansion after cytokine stimulation. The loss of Gadd45g increased HSC self-renewal and improved repopulation in secondary recipients, determined by serial competitive transplantations. Taken together, GADD45G could be identified as molecular link between differentiation-promoting cytokine signaling and rapid differentiation induction in murine LT-HSCs.
As presented in this thesis the differentiation induction of GADD45G was mediated by the activation of the cascade of MAP3K4 – MKK6 –p38 MAPK. Small molecule inhibition of p38, but not JNK, blocked the GADD45G-induced differentiation. GADD45G binds to MAP3K4 and releases its auto-inhibitory loop by a change in confirmation, initiating this cascade. Phosphoflow cytometry demonstrated the activation of p38 and a downstream kinase MK2 by GADD45G expression in MPPs. Furthermore, the expression of constitutive active MAP3K4 and MKK6 were able to phenocopy GADD45G-induced differentiation, which could be blocked by p38 inhibition.
The other two family members GADD45A and B also induced accelerated differentiation in LT-HSCs. Interestingly, only GADD45G suppressed the differentiation into megakaryocyte and erythrocyte (Mek/E) lineage cells suggesting a role of GADD45G in lineage choice. Long-term time-lapse microscopy-based cell tracking of single LT-HSCs and their progeny revealed that, once GADD45G is expressed, the development of LT-HSCs into granulocyte-macrophage-committed progeny occurred within 36 hours, and uncovered a selective lineage choice with a severe reduction in Mek/E cells. Furthermore, no megakaryocytic-erythroid progenitors (MEPs) could develop from HSPCs in BM 2 weeks after transplantation suggesting a very early selection against Mek/E cell fates. In line with these findings, GADD45G-transduced MEPs could not expand or form colonies in vitro, demonstrating that the differentiation program induced by GADD45G is not compatible with Mek/E lineage fate. Gene expression profiling of HSCs indicated that GADD45G promotes myelomonocytic differentiation programs over programs for self-renewal or megakaryo-/ erythropoiesis. The here identified differentiation induction potential of GADD45G is so strong that the expression of GADD45G in primary acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells inhibited their expansion accompanied by enhanced differentiation and increased apoptosis.
The here presented work shows that IL3 and IL6 induce a differentiation program in HSCs via GADD45G and p38 closing the link of extrinsic cytokine signaling and differentiation induction. Since the loss of Gadd45g increased the self-renewal and slowed HSC differentiation, this may be utilized, i.e. by p38 inhibition, to ex vivo maintain and expand HSCs by preventing cytokine-induced differentiation. Furthermore, Re-expression of GADD45G may overcome the differentiation block in leukemia to eliminate these cells by driving them into terminal differentiation and apoptosis.
The liver as the biggest endocrine gland of the human body plays a central role in many metabolic pathways such as detoxification, storage of carbohydrates and distribution of lipids. As the liver receives blood supply from the gut by the portal vein, liver cells are often challenged with high concentrations of nutrients and components of our commensal microbiota. Therefore, the immune system of the liver induces a tolerant state, meaning no or low inflammatory reactions to those constant stimuli. Yet, as various pathogens target the liver, the hepatic immune system also needs the capability to induce strong immune responses quickly. Chronical damage to the liver, which can be caused by alcohol, pathogens or toxins, might lead to liver cirrhosis, where the amount of functional liver tissue is decreased dramatically. This pathology can worsen and lead to acute-on-chronic liver failure, whose high mortality is due to high inflammation and multi-organ failure. Interleukin-7 is a cytokine known for its pro-survival functions especially in lymphopoiesis. However, it is also very important for maintenance of mature immune cells in the liver. As mouse experiments have demonstrated an induction of Interleukin-7 in the liver as a response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide, we aimed to characterize the role of Interleukin-7 in hepatic immunoregulation in both health and disease.
The experiments were mostly based on in vitro approaches. Induction of Interleukin-7 in liver cells was analyzed using ELISA, quantitative PCR, and Immunoblotting. Knockdown of signal transduction components was performed by siRNA transfection. Primary immune cells isolated from healthy donor buffy coat were studied for their ability to respond to Interleukin-7. Activation of downstream signal transduction was assessed by Immunoblotting. Functional consequences of Interleukin-7 signaling, such as alterations in cellular metabolism, cellular survival and endotoxin tolerance, were studied in monocyte-derived macrophages. Finally, serum concentrations of Interleukin-7 and frequencies of Interleukin-7 receptor positive immune cells were quantified in patients with compensated or decompensated liver cirrhosis or acute-on-chronic liver failure.
Interleukin-7 expression could be observed in human hepatic cell lines and primary hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells when stimulated with IFNα or IFNγ, but not IFNλ. IRF-1 was identified as a key regulator of Interleukin-7 expression, as its transcription, translation and nuclear translocation were induced and enhanced upon IFNα or IFNγ, but not IFNλ treatment. We identified LPS-primed macrophages as innate immune target cells of Interleukin-7, which responded by an inhibitory phosphorylation of GSK3. This signal transduction led to enhanced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and abolished endotoxin tolerance. In parallel, cellular fitness was reduced as demonstrated by reduced intracellular ATP concentration and intracellular WST-1 staining. Finally, we could identify components of the in vitro signal transduction also in liver cirrhosis patients. However, Interleukin-7 serum concentrations were significantly in liver cirrhosis patients compared to healthy controls. In addition, the frequencies of Interleukin-7 receptor positive immune cell populations differed in patients and controls.
We identify Interleukin-7 as a pro-inflammatory cytokine in hepatic immunoregulation. It is part of a cascade where its induction is regulated by type I and type II Interferons and mainly restricted by the presence of IRF1. We demonstrate the importance of Interleukin-7 also for innate immune cells, where the abolishment of endotoxin tolerance may provide an interesting strategy of liver cirrhosis patients. In addition, reduced viability of macrophages in response to Interleukin-7 is a striking contrast to the well-described survival functions in lymphocytes. The decrease of serum Interleukin-7 levels and alterations of Interleukin-7 receptor positive immune cell populations suggest an important role for Interleukin-7 also in the diseased liver. Due to the identified mechanisms of action, Interleukin-7 may be an interesting candidate for immunotherapeutic approaches of liver cirrhosis and acute-on-chronic liver failure.
Food allergies are defined as an adverse health effect arising from a specific immune response that occurs reproducibly on exposure to a given food. The prevalence of food allergies has increased in the past decade. Epidemiologic studies involving controlled food challenges for the diagnosis of food allergies indicated that between 1 % to 10.8 % of the population have immunemediated non-toxic food hypersensitivity.
Despite the increasing prevalence, no curative treatment has been established for food allergies so far except the complete avoidance of the elicited food. To establish safe and effective immunotherapy for food allergies, it is of crucially importance to elucidate pathological mechanism of such diseases.
Food allergies are classified into IgE-mediated and non-IgE mediated (T-cell mediated) allergies, depending on the immunologic pathways and the role of the IgE on the pathogenesis of the disease. Allergic enteritis (AE) is a gastrointestinal form of food allergy. It is classified as non-IgE-mediated food allergy. However, patients with AE often develop IgE and high levels of IgE have been associated with development of persistent AE. The gastrointestinal symptoms of AE are nonspecific, resulting in the fact that a broad differential diagnoses including diagnostic approaches for allergic diseases are necessary to rule out other gastrointestinal pathologies. Biopsies of patients with allergic enteritis have shown infiltration of inflammatory cells (e.g. mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and T cells) in the lamina propria, disruption of intestinal villi, edema, and presence of goblet cells in the intestine...
B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (B-ALL) is characterized by the overproduction of lymphoblasts in the bone marrow (BM), and it is the most common cancer in children while being comparatively uncommon in adults. On the other hand, in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), 70% of cases are found in patients older than 50 years, making it uncommon in children. All CML cases and up to 3% of paediatric B- ALL (and 25% of adult B-ALL) cases are due to fusion gene BCR-ABL1, which gives rise to the cytoplasmatic, constitutively active oncoprotein, tyrosine kinase BCR-ABL1 through a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22. The constitutively active BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase leads to deregulation of different signal transduction pathways such as cell growth, proliferation and cell survival. The role of the bone marrow microenvironment (BMM) can mediate disease initiation (only in mice), progression, therapy resistance, and relapse, as has been increasingly recognized over the last two decades. In general, the BMM is a very complex arrangement of various cell types such as osteoblasts, osteoclasts, endothelial cells, adipocytes, mesenchymal stromal cells, macrophages and several others. In addition, the BMM is composed of multiple chemical and mechanical factors and extra cellular matrix (ECM) proteins which contribute to the BMM’s features influencing leukaemia behaviour. Considering the incidence of B-ALL and CML in children and in adults respectively, we hypothesized that the young and/or an aged BMM might also play a previously unrecognized role in the aggressiveness of B-ALL and CML. We proposed that BM, transduced with BCR-ABL1-expressing retrovirus in the murine transduction/transplantation model of B-ALL, transplanted into young versus old recipient mice would lead to a more aggressive disease in young mice, and similarly CML would be more aggressive in old recipient mice. In close recapitulation with the human incidence, induction of CML led to a significantly shorted survival in old recipient mice. On the other hand, induction of B-ALL showed a shortened survival in young compared to old syngeneic mice, as well as in a xenotransplantation model. Among the highly heterogenous composition of the BMM, we implicate young BM macrophages as a supportive niche for B-ALL cells. The results were found to be mostly due to potential soluble factors differentially secreted from young and old macrophages. Therefore, we hypothesized that the chemokine CXCL13, which has been demonstrated to play a role in B cell migration and act as a diagnostic marker in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neuroborreliosis, might be responsible for the observed phenotype. CXCL13 was found to be more highly expressed in healthy and leukaemic young mice as well as in conditioned medium of young macrophages. Using a variety of in vitro experiments, CXCL13 showed to significantly increase the proliferation and the migration of leukaemia cells when exposed to young macrophages, and the phenotype was rescued while using a CXCL13 neutralizing antibody. The CXCL13 role was also confirmed in vivo, since macrophage ablation led to a prolongation of survival in young mice and a reduction of CXCL13 levels. The use of an additional mouse model, leukaemia cells with CXCR5 deficiency, led to a significant prolongation of survival of young mice, confirming the importance of the CXCL13-CXCR5 axis in B-ALL. In line with our murine results, we found that human macrophages and CXCL13 levels were higher in pediatric B-ALL patients than in adults. Consistent with our murine data, the expression level of CXCR5 may act as a prognostic marker in B-ALL, as well as a predictive marker for central nervous system relapse in human B-ALL. The overall findings show that a young BMM, and in particular macrophages, influences B-ALL progression. We specifically identified CXCL13, secreted by young macrophages, as a promoter of proliferation of B-ALL cells, influencing survival in B-ALL via CXCR5. The CXCR5-CXCL13 axis may be relevant in human B-ALL, and higher CXCR5 expression in human B-ALL may act as a predictive marker.
Chronic inflammation is considered to be a cause of the autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, etc. The search for effective compounds with anti-inflammatory properties to combat these diseases is still ongoing. Natural compound narciclasine, derived from plants of Narcissus species, demonstrated its anti-inflammatory activity in in vivo arthritis models. Further investigation of narciclasine’s anti-inflammatory activity together with its impact on the interaction between leukocytes and endothelial cells was the main focus of this PhD thesis.
Narciclasine reduced the infiltration of monocytes and neutrophils to the abdomen and the concentration of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-6 and IL-1β. Together with this, it reduced acute visceral pain caused by zymosan injection. Narciclasine interfered with leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction in both in vivo and in vitro models. In vivo microscopy revealed that the compound reduced rolling, adhesion and transmigration of leukocytes in the vessels of an injured murine cremaster muscle. This observation was confirmed in the in vitro models for adhesion and transmigration where narciclasine reduced the level of leukocyte’s interaction with HUVECs. Narciclasine demonstrated profound anti-inflammatory properties based on its interference with leukocyte-endothelium interaction by downregulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules expression (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, CX3CL1) and shutdown of NF-κB pathway. All these effects were a result of the TNF receptor 1 protein translation blocking by narciclasine.
In this work the ability of the compound to reduce visceral pain, downregulate the expression of the endothelial cell adhesion molecules and to interfere with the interaction between leukocytes and endothelial cells was demonstrated for narciclasine for the first time. Obtained results open a promising insight into the understanding of narciclasine’s anti-inflammatory properties and justify further investigation of its potential for treatment of inflammatory diseases.
Chapter I of this work addressed the piggyBac (PB) transposon system, a non-viral genome engineering tool that is capable of efficiently performing stable integration of DNA sequences into a target cells genome and has already been used in clinical trials. However, the PB transposase has the problematic property of preferentially integrating transposons near transcriptional start sites (TSSs). This increases the likelihood of causing genotoxic effects, limiting its potential use as a tool in clinical applications. It has been shown in the past that the PB transposase shows physical interactions with BET proteins (e.g. BRD4) through Co-IP experiments. Representatives of these proteins are part of the transcriptional activation complex and are abundant at TSSs. Accordingly, it was previously proposed that this interaction is the underlying cause for the biased integration preference. For the first chapter of this thesis, the goal was to disrupt this interaction potentially modifying said integration preference. A secondary structure hypothesized to be mainly responsible for said interaction was extensively mutated resulting in several PB variants that were analyzed for their interaction capacity through a series of Co-IP experiments with BRD4. In total, seven substitutions were identified (E380F, V390K, T392Y, M394R, K407C, K407Q, and K407V) which exhibited reduced interaction capacity with BRD4. Each of the aforementioned mutants were used to generate integration libraries and, through NGS, it was determined if the integration preferences of the respective mutants had changed. In the immediate range 200 base pairs up- and downstream from known TSSs all mutants used exhibited a reduced integration bias. At a wider observation window 3 kbp up- and downstream from TSSs, further mutants with the substitutions M394R, T392Y and V390K showed a reduction in integration frequency of 17.3%, 1.5% and 5.4%, respectively, compared to the wildtype. Of particular note was the M394R mutant, which showed a reduction in all window sizes analyzed with a maximum of 65% less integration preference in the immediate vicinity of TSSs, theoretically generating a safety advantage over the wildtype transposase.
Chapter II was dedicated to the overall safety improvement for transposon-based gene modification and addresses the time point after the transgene has already been integrated and serious side effects may not be preventable. With this in mind, the aim was to develop a novel suicide-switch that can be stably introduced into cells via transposition, and reliably leads to cell death of the modified cells once activated. A system based on CRISPR/Cas9 was developed, where single guide RNAs were used to guide the Cas9 nuclease to Alu elements. These are short, repetitive sequences, which are distributed over the human genome in more than one million copies. Inducing double strand breaks within these elements would lead to genomic fragmentation and cell death. To be inducible, a transcriptional as well as post- translational control mechanism was added. Transcription of the Cas9 nuclease was regulated using a tet-on system, making expression dependent on doxycycline (DOX) supplementation. Furthermore, a version of the Cas9 nuclease called arC9 was used that allows double strand break generation only in the presence of 4-Hydroxytamoxifen (4-HT). Together with an expression cassette for the Alu-specific guide RNA and an expression cassette for the reverse tetracycline controlled transactivator all components were arranged between transposase-specific recognition sequences on a plasmid to allow transposon-system based gene transfer. The system was tested in HeLa cells. First, conditional expression of the arC9 nuclease was confirmed by addition of 1 μg/ml DOX. Second, the suicide-switch was further induced by adding 200 nM 4-HT and protein extracts were assayed for the KAP1 phosphorylation. Only upon induction with DOX and 4-HT phosphorylated KAP1 was detected, indicating DNA damage. Further, extensive growth and survival experiments were conducted to determine the effect of suicide-switch induction on cell proliferation and survival. Between 24 and 48 hours after induction, a halt in cell division was detected, after which extensive cell death was observed. Within 5 days post induction, >99% of all cells were eliminated. In the absence of both inducers, no significant differences in survival were observed compared to control cells line lacking Alu-specific guide RNAs. Microscopic examinations of the <1% surviving cell fraction revealed a senescence-associated phenotype and showed no signs of resumption of the cell division process. Accordingly, the second chapter of this thesis also achieved its goal in developing a functional suicide-switch that can be inserted into human cells via transposition, is highly dependent on the necessary induction signals, and exhibits excellent elimination capabilities in the context tested.
KMT2A-rearrangements are causative for 70-80% all infant acute lymphoblastic leukemias (Pieters et al., 2019, 2007). Among these, the translocation t(4;11)(q21;23) generating the oncogenic fusion genes KMT2A::AFF1 and AFF1::KMT2A is the most frequent one, accounting for almost every second case of KMT2A-r infant ALL (Meyer et al., 2018). Despite passing a multimodal chemotherapy, 64% of patients achieve an event including relapse or death within four years from diagnosis, and overall survival three years from relapse remains poor with only 17% (Driessen et al., 2016; Pieters et al., 2019, 2007). Vari-ous studies have shown that relapse and therapy resistance were not mediated by chemotherapy-induced mutagenesis as there was no accumulation of secondary mutations in the dominant leukemic clone between diagnosis and relapse (Agraz-Doblas et al., 2019; Andersson et al., 2015; Bardini et al., 2011; Dobbins et al., 2013; Driessen et al., 2013; Mullighan et al., 2007).
Intriguingly, exclusively infant t(4;11) ALL patients were reported to subdivide in two groups depending on the level of HOXA gene cluster expression (Trentin et al., 2009). The HOXAlo group displayed a high expression of IRX1 and the HOXAhi group a low expression of IRX1 (Symeonidou and Ottersbach, 2021; Trentin et al., 2009). Importantly, the HOXAlo/IRX1hi group was characterized to possess a strongly ele-vated relapse incidence compared to the HOXAhi/IRX1lo group (Kang et al., 2012; Stam et al., 2010). IRX1 was identified to upregulate the Early growth response genes EGR1, EGR2 and EGR3 (Kühn et al., 2016).
The doctoral project “EGR-mediated relapse mechanisms in infant t(4;11) acute lymphoblastic leuke-mia” aimed to investigate a potential correlation between the HOXAlo-IRX1-EGR axis and relapse development in infant t(4;11) ALL. The primary objective was to clarify through which molecular mechanism(s) relapse development despite continuous chemotherapy could be achieved. In this context, the role of the EGR genes has been investigated. In addition, this project aimed to disclose molecular targets which could offer novel therapeutic interventions to interfere with therapy resistance and relapse formation.
Proteinen die ExHepatitis C ist eine entzündliche Erkrankung der Leber, die durch das Hepatitis-C-Virus (HCV) verursacht wird. Trotz vieler Bemühungen ist heutzutage immer noch keine prophylaktische Vakzinierung verfügbar. Neuartige Therapien versprechen eine hohe Heilungsrate, sind aber mit hohen Kosten verbunden. HCV induziert oxidativen Stress, welcher für das Auftreten und die Progression der Pathogenese eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Um zellulären Stress (z.B. durch ROS) entgegenzuwirken, haben Zellen cytoprotective und detoxifizierende Mechanismen entwickelt, die die zelluläre Homöostase aufrechterhalten. Dabei kontrolliert der redoxsensitive Transkriptionsfaktor Nrf2 als Heterodimer zusammen mit sMaf- pression von cytoprotective und ROS-detoxifizierenden Genen. Vorherige Studien haben gezeigt, dass HCV den Nrf2/ARE-Signalweg beeinträchtigt. Dabei induziert HCV eine Translokation der sMaf-Proteine aus dem Zellkern in das Cytoplasma, wo diese das virale Protein NS3 binden. Im Cytoplasma lokalisierte sMaf-Proteine verhindern dadurch eine Translokation von Nrf2 in den Zellkern. Folglich ist die Expression von Nrf2/ARE-abhängigen cytoprotective Genen inhibiert und intrazelluläre ROS-Spiegel dauerhaft erhöht. Ein weiterer zentraler cytoprotective Mechanismus ist die Autophagie. Sie dient der Aufrechterhaltung der zellulären Homöostase durch den Abbau von defekten Proteinen und Organellen. Des Weiteren ist bekannt, dass Autophagie nicht nur im Laufe von Nährstoffmangel induziert wird, sondern auch durch erhöhte Mengen an ROS. In sämtlichen Studien konnte beobachtet werden, dass Autophagie für die Aufrechterhaltung des viralen Lebenszyklus eine wesentliche Rolle spielt, da sie mit der Ausbildung des membranous web, der Translation, der Replikation und der Freisetzung des Virus interferiert. Ausgehend davon sollte in dieser Arbeit zunächst die Relevanz von HCV-induziertem oxidativen Stress, resultierend aus der Nrf2/ARE-Signalweginhibition, als möglicher Aktivator der Autophagie untersucht werden. Dabei wurde in HCV-positiven Zellen eine Akkumulation von LC3-II beobachtet, was auf eine Induktion der Autophagie schließen lässt. In Übereinstimmung damit wurde eine erhöhte Expression von Autophagie-Markerproteinen in HCV-infizierten PHHs detektiert. Im Laufe der Autophagie wird p62 abgebaut. Somit sollte eine Induktion der Autophagie in einer Verminderung der Menge an p62 resultieren. Nichtsdestotrotz ist eine Akkumulation von p62 in HCV-positiven Zellen nachzuweisen. Dies erscheint zunächst widersprüchlich. Aufgrund der Tatsache, dass die Expression der katalytischen Untereinheit des Proteasoms (PSMB5) Nrf2-abhängig ist, führt die beeinträchtigte Nrf2-Aktivität in HCV-positiven Zellen jedoch zu einer verringerten Aktivität des konstitutiven Proteasoms. Dieser Befund kann auch die erhöhte Halbwertzeit von p62 in HCV-positiven Zellen erklären. Kürzlich wurde ein Zusammenspiel des Nrf2/ARE-Signalwegs und der Autophagie beobachtet. Dabei kann Nrf2 nicht nur über den kanonischen Signalweg aktiviert werden, sondern auch durch eine direkte Interaktion des phosphorylierten Autophagie-Adaptorproteins p62 (pS[349] p62) mit Keap1. In HCV-positiven Zellen können nicht nur eine Zunahme der Gesamtmenge von p62 beobachtet werden, sondern auch erhöhte Mengen an pS[349] p62. Die Berechnung des Quotienten aus pS[349] p62 und p62 zeigt in etwa eine Verdopplung der Menge an pS[349] p62 , was auf eine vermehrte Phosphorylierung von p62 in HCV-positiven Zellen rückschließen lässt. Des Weiteren konnte beobachtet werden, dass erhöhte Mengen an ROS, wie sie auch in HCV-positiven Zellen vorkommen, Autophagie induzieren können, die durch eine Akkumulation von LC3-II und die Zunahme von LC3 Puncta charakterisiert ist. Auch eine Zunahme von pS[349] p62 konnte beobachtet werden. Ferner resultierte die Überexpression der phosphomimetischen Mutante (p62 [S351E]) in einer Akkumulation von LC3-II, was auf die Fähigkeit von pS[349] p62 rückschließen lässt, Autophagie zu induzieren. Eine Modulation der Autophagie mittels der Inhibitoren 3-Methyladenin und Bafilomycin führte zu einer inhibierten Freisetzung von infektiösen viralen Partikeln und unterstreicht damit, dass der Autophagie eine essentielle Bedeutung bei der Freisetzung viraler Partikel zukommt. Eine HCV-Infektion wird sowohl von erhöhten Mengen an ROS als auch von einer Induktion der Autophagie begleitet. Dementsprechend führte eine Verminderung des intrazellulären Radikalspiegels durch eine Inkubation mit den Radikalfängern PDTC und NAC zu geringeren Mengen an LC3-II und pS[349] p62. Dabei konnte auch eine Abnahme der freigesetzten infektiösen viralen Partikel beobachtet werden, was ein Zusammenspiel zwischen erhöhten Mengen an ROS, Induktion der Autophagie und Virusfreisetzung nahelegt. Vorschlag: Erhöhte Mengen an ROS werden durch eine Aktivierung des Nrf2/ARE-Signalwegs detoxifiziert und würden somit den zuvor beschriebenen viralen Mechanismus verhindern. HCV die Aktivierung Nrf2/ARE-regulierter Gene beeinträchtigt, wurde die Hypothese aufgestellt, dass in HCV-positiven Zellen dieser komplexe Mechanismus dazu dient, die Translokation des pS[349] p62-abhängig freigesetzte Nrf2 in den Zellkern zu verhindern. Das wiederum hat eine eingeschränkte Expression von Nrf2/ARE-abhängigen Genen und Detoxifizierung von ROS zur Folge. Um diese Hypothese experimentell zu untersuchen, wurden HCV-positive und negative Zellen cotransfiziert mit dem p62 Wildtyp (p62 [wt]), der p62 phosphomimetischen Mutante (p62 [S351E]) oder einem Kontrollplasmid in Kombination mit einem Reporterkonstrukt, welches die Nrf2-Aktivierung darstellt (OKD48). Während in HCV-negativen Zellen im Vergleich zum p62 [wt] eine Transfektion mit p62 [S351E] zu einer signifikanten Aktivierung des Nrf2-abhängigen Reportergens führt konnte dies in HCV-positiven Zellen nicht beobachtet werden. Zusammengenommen beschreiben diese Ergebnisse einen neuartigen Mechanismus wie HCV das Zusammenspiel zwischen dem Nrf2/ARE-Signalweg, erhöhten Mengen an ROS und Autophagie beeinflusst. Dabei übt HCV einen negativen Effekt auf den Nrf2/ARE-Signalweg aus, um dem pS[349] p62-abhängig freigesetzten Nrf2 zu entkommen. Folglich werden erhöhte Mengen an ROS aufrechterhalten, die eine Induktion der Autophagie ermöglichen, welche für die Freisetzung viraler Partikel essentiell ist.
Cardiac progenitor cells hold great potential for regenerative therapies in heart disorders. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating cardiac progenitor cell expansion and differentiation remain poorly defined. Here we show that the multi- adaptor protein Ldb1, which mediates interactions between different classes of LIM domain transcription factors, is a multifunctional regulator of cardiac progenitor cell differentiation. Ldb1-deficient embryonic stem cells (ESCs) show a markedly decreased expression of second heart field (SHF) marker genes and subsequently impaired cardiomyocyte differentiation. Conditional ablation of Ldb1 in the early SHF using an Isl1-Cre driver led to embryonic lethality at Embryonic day (E)10.5 with cardiac abnormalities including a significantly smaller right ventricle and a shortened outflow tract, supporting a crucial role of Ldb1 in the SHF. Mechanistically we show that the importance of Ldb1 for SHF development is two-fold: On the one hand, Ldb1 binds to Isl1 and protects it from proteasomal degradation, as a consequence of which Ldb1-deficiency leads to an almost complete loss of Isl1+ cardiovascular progenitor cells. On the other hand the Isl1/Ldb1 complex promotes long-range promoter-enhancer interactions at the loci of the core cardiac transcription factors Mef2c and Hand2. Chromosome conformation capture followed by sequencing (3C- seq) identified specific Ldb1-mediated interactions of the Isl1/Ldb1 responsive Mef2c anterior heart field enhancer with genes which play key roles in cardiac progenitor cell function and cardiovascular development. These interactions are of critical importance to regulate the expression of the downstream target genes since their expression levels are strongly dependent on the Ldb1/Isl1 levels. Overexpression of an Ldb1 mutant, which contains the LIM interaction domain and thereby can protect Isl1 protein from degradation, but lacks the dimerization domain and thus cannot promote long-range interactions, does not collaborate with Isl1 to regulate the expression of their common targets and results in defects in Isl1+ cardiac progenitor differentiation. In this thesis we show one of the first examples of genome-wide chromatin reorganization mediated by a developmental regulated, cell type specific, transcription complex. Ldb1 in concert with Isl1 promotes long range promoter- enhancer and enhancer-enhancer interactions in order to create active chromatin hub where gene important for heart development can be co-regulated. Moreover, Isl1 and Ldb1 genetically interact during heart development, as Isl1/Ldb1 haplodeficient embryos show various cardiac anomalies. The dosage-sensitive interdependence between Isl1 and Ldb1 in the expression of these key factors in cardiogenesis, further supports a key role of the Isl1/Ldb1 complex in coordinating a three dimensional genome organization, upstream of a regulatory network driving cardiac differentiation and heart development.
In conclusion, the Isl1/Ldb1 complex orchestrate a genome-wide three dimensional chromatin reorganization resulting in a transcriptional program responsible for the differentiation of multipotent cardiac progenitor cells into cardiomyocytes.
Human MSCs are currently deployed in a wide range of clinical applications and disease models, because of their regenerative and immune modulatory potential. Unfortunately, the fate of MSCs after systemic administration and the related interactions within the blood circulation are still not fully understood. The majority of i.v. or i.a administered MSCs accumulate in the lungs and loose traceability after 3-4 days in vivo144. Since engraftment rate and long term persistence of injected MSCs seems rather low, we tried to improve in vivo kinetics by using hyperosmolaric injection media (HyperHAES) in order to describe the impact on biodistribution, cell morphology and survival rate. In vitro culture related changes in morphology and surface expression patterns were analysed using flow cytometry and brightfield morphology scan in correlation with calibrated microbeads. In vivo tracking of male PKH67 labeled human MSCs in an immunecompetent mouse model were achieved using SRY-gene qRT-PCR analysis and flow cytometry/fluorescence microscopy at different time points. Kinetics, viability and cell-cell interaction of HyperHAES coinjected MSCs in comparison to NaCl 0.9% injection media were assessed with a combination of altering mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), caspase 3/7-activity, additional survival and surface markers. Incubation of human MSCs in hyperosmolaric injection media (HyperHAES) shortly before i.v. injection decreased average diameter of culture expanded MSCs about 30% (from 48.7±2.29μm to 34.6±2.04μm) and improved viability and retrieval rate of injected MSCs within 24h. HyperHAES decreased significantly the loss of MMP and the signal intensity of the dead cell marker PI in comparison to isotonic control. HyperHAES treated MSCs are detected at higher frequencies in most murine tissues but didn`t result in alterations of interaction with the host immune system or caspase activation. Additionally, HyperHAES seemed to enable MSCs to reach organs with smaller microcirculation like the spleen. Functional impairment of MSC in HyperHAES was analysed with Phalloidin A staining for cytoskeletal activation and showed no signs of disturbed actin polymerization, whereas nuisance of migration and immunemodulatory characteristics were not addressed. PKH67 labeled MSCs decrease in size after i.v. injection in mice, acquire apoptotic and phagocytic cell markers, and accumulate in lungs and liver. This process could be delayed but not reverted by preincubation of MSCs in HyperHAES. Our findings help to explain the rapid loss of traceable MSCs after systemic delivery.