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In March 2019 the HADES experiment recorded 14 billion Ag+Ag collisions at √SNN = 2.55 GeV as a part of the FAIR phase-0 physics program. With the capabilities to measure and analyze particles forming the bulk matter, namely pions, protons and light nuclei, as well as rare probes like dilepton decays of vectormesons and strange hadrons, the HADES experiment allows to study the properties of matter at high densities in great detail. In this contribution a special focus is put on the reconstruction of weakly decaying strange hadrons.
In this thesis, the emission of protons as well as the production of Λ hyperons, Κ0S mesons and 3ΛH hypernuclei are analyzed multi-differentially as a function of transverse momentum, rapidity and centrality. Therefore, the 3.03 billion 30 % most central Ag(1.58A GeV)+Ag events recorded by HADES are used. Furthermore, the lifetimes of Λ hyperons, Κ0S mesons and 3ΛH hypernuclei are measured. The obtained 3ΛH lifetime of (253 ± 24 ± 42) ps is compatible with the lifetime of free Λ hyperons, as predicted by theoretic calculations due to its low binding energy. Finally, also the double strange Ξ– hyperons are reconstructed. Unfortunately, the fully optimized signals lie below the confidence threshold of 5σ, which is why both an production rate and an upper production limit are estimated using averaged acceptance and efficiency corrections. Never before, 3ΛH or Ξ– were successfully reconstructed and analyzed in heavy-ion collisions at such low energies. The obtained results are compared to previous measurements and put in context with world data form different energies and collision systems.
n order to reach the desired intensities of heavy ion beams for the experiments at FAIR, SIS18 and SIS100 have to be operated with intermediate charge states. Operation with intermediate charge state heavy ions at the intensity level of about 1011 ions per cycle has never been demonstrated elsewhere and requires a dedicated upgrade program for SIS18 and a dedicated machine design for SIS100. The specific problems coming along with the intermediate charge state operation in terms of charge exchange processes at collisions with residual gas atoms, pressure bumps by ion induced desorption and corresponding beam loss appears far below the typical space charge limits. Thus, new design concepts and new technical equipment addressing these issues are developed and realized with highest priority. The upgrade program of SIS18 addressing the goal of minimum ionization beam loss and stable residual gas pressure conditions has been defined in 2005. A major part of this upgrade program has been successfully realized, with the result of a world record in accelerated number of intermediate charge state heavy ions.
Motiviert durch aktuelle atomphysikalische Fragestellungen zur Struktur und Dynamik der Materie im Bereich hochgeladener Schwerionen entstand der Bedarf zur Weiterentwicklung bestehender und zur Entwicklung neuartiger ortsauflösender Detektorsysteme. Die Untersuchung der Struktur ist hauptsächlich durch die hochauflösende spektroskopische Vermessung einzelner Energieniveaus der atomaren Hülle bestimmt und liefert grundlegende Einblicke in den atomaren Aufbau. Dabei stellen diese Resultate gerade bei schweren hochgeladenen Ionen eine exzellente Testmöglichkeit der QED in extrem starken Feldern dar. Die Dynamik der Materie zeigt sich in der Teilchendynamik (hier der Atomhülle) in extrem starken und extrem kurzen elektromagnetischen Feldern, wie sie bei Ion-Atom-Stößen auftreten. Beobachtet werden können hier vor allem Teilchen und Photonen-Polarisationsphänomene. Solche Polarisationseffekte sind jedoch nicht auf das Gebiet der atomaren Hülle beschränkt. Als ein Beispiel sei die Untersuchung laserbeschleunigter Teilchen genannt. Hier kann die Polarimetrie von Röntgenstrahlung, die durch Thomson-Streuung optischer Photonen an den zuvor auf relativistische Geschwindigkeiten beschleunigten Teilchen erzeugt wird, Aufschluß über die Natur des Beschleunigungsprozesses geben. Einblick in die lineare Polarisation der Röntgenphotonen im für unsere Arbeit interessanten Energiebereich von einigen 10 keV bis einigen 100 keV können mit Compton-Polarimetern gewonnen werden. Kommerziell sind Detektorsysteme, die eine ausreichende Granularität in Kombination mit hinreichender Detektordicke besitzen, um hohe Nachweiseffizienzen zu erreichen, jedoch nicht verfügbar. Im Rahmen der vorgelegten Arbeit, die sich mit Techniken der hochaufgelösten Röntgenspektroskopie und der Röntgenpolarimetrie an hochgeladenen Schwerionen befasst, wurden vielfältige Arbeiten an und mit orts-, zeit- und energieauflösenden planaren Ge(i)-Detektorsystemen durchgeführt. Wesentliches Ziel der Arbeit war es, ein zweidimensional ortsauflösendes planares Halbleiterdetektorsystem, das für den Einsatz im Kristallspektrometer FOCAL und als Compton-Polarimeter angepasst ist, bereitzustellen. Hierzu wurde ein 2D-µ-Streifendetektorsystem aufgebaut, das eine Ortsauflösung von 250µm, bzw. 1167µm in orthogonaler Richtung, bei einer Detektordicke von 11mm und eine Energieauflösung von etwa 2 keV für jeden einzelnen Streifen bei 60 keV Photonenenergie gewährleistet. Durch Messungen an der Synchrotronquelle ESRF, Grenoble (Frankreich), wurde die Eignung des Systems als bildgebendes Element im FOCAL Kristallspektrometer bei einer Photonenenergie von 60 keV und als Compton-Polarimeter bei einer Photonenenergie von 210 keV untersucht. Der große Vorteil in FOCAL ein ortsauflösendes Detektorsystem einzusetzen, liegt darin, dass alle interessanten Beugungswinkel simultan beobachtet werden können. Im herkömmlichen Ansatz würde man mit einer einfachen Diode und einem Kollimator den Bereich abfahren. Wegen der geringen Ereignisrate und dem hohen Untergrund ist dies jedoch nicht praktikabel. Herkömmliche Systeme wie CCD oder Gasdetektoren haben nicht die nötige Effizienz oder eine zu hohe Dunkelrate. Zur Untersuchung der für FOCAL wichtigen Eigenschaften wurden mehrere Positionen auf dem Detektor bei niedriger Energie mit einem fein kollimierten Photonenstrahl (50 x 50 µm2) gescannt. Neben der guten Energieauflösung des Detektorsystems von durchschnittlich 2.2 keV bei 60 keV, zeigen die Ergebnisse das homogene Verhalten der Detektoreffizienz, welche essentiell für den spektographischen Einsatz in FOCAL ist. Es konnten keine Hinweise auf messbare Ladungsverluste im Bereich des aktiven Detektorvolumens festgestellt werden. Ebenso konnte die Multiplizität (Anzahl der Streifen einer Detektorseite, die auf ein Ereignis reagieren), mit der ein Photon nachgewiesen wird, eindeutig mit der Strukturierung der Kontakte auf der Kristalloberfläche in Verbindung gebracht werden. Es stellte sich heraus, dass die Ereignisse der Multiplizität zwei dazu verwendet werden können um Ortsauflösungen deutlich unterhalb einer Streifenbreite zu erreichen. Diese Methode kann jedoch nur auf eine größere Anzahl von Ereignissen angewendet werden, nicht jedoch auf einzelne Ereignisse. Um das 2D-Ge(i)-µ-Streifendetektorsystem auf seine Eignung als Compton-Polarimeter zu testen, wurden Daten mit einem nahezu vollständig linear polarisierten Photonenstrahl (98% linear polarisiert) bei einer Energie von 210 keV aufgenommen. Die Daten zeigen die erwartete Dipol-ähnliche Asymmetrie im Ortsbild und dienen als Kalibrationsgrundlage zur Interpretation zukünftiger Experimente zur Polarimetrie in diesem Energiebereich. Parallel hierzu wurde an Simulationsprogrammen auf Basis der etablierten Monte Carlo Software EGS4 gearbeitet. Hiermit wurden Vorhersagen bezüglich des Nachweisverhaltens des Detektors auf linear polarisierte Röntgenstahlung gemacht. Ferner wurde für ein 4x4-Pixel-Polarimeter, das bei der ersten Bestimmung der linearen Polarisation der K-REC Strahlung von U92+ am Speichering ESR der GSI eingesetzt wurde, im Rahmen der Datenanalyse mit den auf EGS4-basierenden Programmen die Detektoreffizienz für linear polarisierte Strahlung einer bestimmten Energie simuliert. Mit diesen Simulationsergebnissen konnten die selbstentwickelten Methoden zur Korrektur der Nachweiswahrscheinlichkeit eines Compton-Ereignisses als Funktion des Wechselwirkungspunkts innerhalb des Detektorkristalls und der Energie erfolgreich verifiziert werden. Die detektorbezogenen Resultate dieser Arbeit fanden ihre erste Anwendung in der FOCAL-Spektrometer Strahlzeit 2006, deren genaue Beschreibung jedoch über den Umfang dieser Arbeit hinausgeht. Ebenso flossen die Erfahrungen, die mit den Detektorsystemen, im speziellen dem 2D-Ge(i)-µ-Streifendetektor, gemacht wurden in die Realisierung eines Si(Li)-Detektors mit 32+32 Streifen zur Compton-Polarimetrie bei niedrigeren Energien (ab 60 keV) ein, der gegenwärtig in ersten Experimenten am ESR eingesetzt wird.
The focus of this thesis is on quantum Heisenberg magnets in low dimensions. We modify the method of spin-wave theory in order to address two distinct issues. In the first part we develop a variant of spin-wave theory for low-dimensional systems, where thermodynamic observables are calculated from the Gibbs free energy for fixed order parameter. We are able to go beyond linear spin-wave theory and systematically calculate two-loop correction to the free energy. We use our method to determine the low-temperature physics of Heisenberg ferromagnets in one, two and three spatial dimensions. In the second part of the thesis, we treat a two-dimensional Heisenberg antiferromagnet in the presence of a uniform external magnetic field. We determine the low-temperature behavior of the magnetization curve within spin-wave theory by taking the absence of the spontaneous staggered magnetization into account. Additionally, we perform quantum Monte Carlo simulations and subsequently show that numerical findings are qualitatively comparable to spin-wave results. Finally, we apply our method to an experimentally motivated case of the distorted honeycomb lattice in order to determine the strength of the exchange interactions.
The QCD phase diagram at finite temperature and density has attracted considerable interest over many decades now, not least because of its relevance for a better understanding of heavy-ion collision experiments. Models provide some insight into the QCD phase structure but usually rely on various parameters. Based on renormalization group arguments, we discuss how the parameters of QCD low-energy models can be determined from the fundamental theory of the strong interaction. We particularly focus on a determination of the temperature dependence of these parameters in this work and comment on the effect of a finite quark chemical potential. We present first results and argue that our findings can be used to improve the predictive power of future model calculations.
Die transversale Betatronbewegung eines Ionenstrahls, genannt Tune, stellt neben der Strahlposition die wichtigste zu messende Strahleigenschaft für den stabilen Betrieb eines Kreisbeschleunigers dar. Die Einstellung des Tunes auf einen Arbeitspunkt unterliegt engen Grenzen, da eine Vielzahl resonanter Störungen existiert, die die Teilchenbewegung beeinflussen und somit Emittanzvergrößerung und Strahlverlust hervorrufen. Den gemessenen Tune mit hoher Auflösung in Zeit und Frequenz während der gesamten Beschleunigungsphase auszugeben ermöglicht eine Justierung der ionenoptischen Elemente der Strahlführung. Dadurch läßt sich die Teilchenzahl bis zur theoretischen Raumladungsgrenze erhöhen und darüber hinaus Teilchenverluste minimieren. Die Messungen wurden an Positionssonden (BPM) des Schwerionensynchrotrons SIS18 der "GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH" mit zwei verschiedenen Meßsystemen durchgeführt, was einen Vergleich der Systemauflösungen ermöglicht. Das Direkt Digitalisierende Meßsystem (DDM) wandelt das BPM-Elektrodensignal direkt nach der Verstärkerkette mit einer Rate von 125 MSa/s in digitale Daten um. Der Strahlschwerpunkt eines jeden Einzelbunches wird daraus mittels digitaler Prozessierung berechnet und durch Fouriertransformation dessen Frequenzspektrum bestimmt. Man erhält den fraktionalen Tune dadurch direkt im Basisband. Das am CERN entwickelte und für Parameter des SIS18 adaptierte Direct Diode Detection - System (DDD) zeigt ebenfalls den Tune im Basisband. Um den zu bearbeitenden Frequenzbereich erheblich zu reduzieren, werden bei diesem Verfahren die Bunchpeakwerte, die die Strahlschwingung enthalten, über ein RC-Element analog verzögert ausgegeben. Der erhaltene Tune kann daraus mit hoher Auflösung digitalisiert werden. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Meßaufbauten, die digitale Prozessierung der BPM-Daten mittels neuer Algorithmen sowie die Auswertung und Berechnung des Tunes gezeigt. Es werden typische Tuneverläufe diskutiert und ein Arbeitsbereich definiert, bei dem stabile Tunemessungen mit S/N von 30-50 dB ohne meßbare Vergrößerung der Strahlemittanz möglich sind. Die Auflösung der Tunemessung beträgt δqy = 3.50 · 10−4 und δqx = 7.97 · 10−4 für Anregungskickwinkel im Arbeitsbereich. Darüber hinaus werden physikalische Anwendungen des Systems diskutiert, indem verschiedene Einflüsse von ionenoptischen- und Strahlparametern auf den Tuneverlauf gezeigt und ausgewertet werden.
We compute the energy spectrum of photons which originate from the quark-annihilation process ss¯→γg in quark-gluon plasma. The spectrum peaks at an energy Eγmax∼2ms∼400 MeV in the rest frame of the plasma. We expect one photon from the above process in the energy range of 2ms±0.25ms per hundred quark-gluon plasmas of a size R=3 fm and a lifetime τ=6 fm/c formed in nuclear collisions.
The accurate knowledge of the neutron-induced fission cross-sections of actinides and other isotopes involved in the nuclear fuel cycle is essential for the design of advanced nuclear systems, such as Generation-IV nuclear reactors. Such experimental data can also provide the necessary feedback for the adjustment of nuclear model parameters used in the evaluation process, resulting in the further development of nuclear fission models. In the present work, the 240Pu(n,f) cross-section was measured at CERN's n_TOF facility relative to the well-known 235U(n,f) cross section, over a wide range of neutron energies, from meV to almost MeV, using the time-of-flight technique and a set-up based on Micromegas detectors. This measurement was the first experiment to be performed at n_TOF's new experimental area (EAR-2), which offers a significantly higher neutron flux compared to the already existing experimental area (EAR-1). Preliminary results as well as the experimental procedure, including a description of the facility and the data handling and analysis, are presented.
Neutron-induced fission cross sections of isotopes involved in the nuclear fuel cycle are vital for the design and safe operation of advanced nuclear systems. Such experimental data can also provide additional constraints for the adjustment of nuclear model parameters used in the evaluation process, resulting in the further development of fission models. In the present work, the 237Np(n,f) cross section was studied at the EAR2 vertical beam-line at CERN's n_TOF facility, over a wide range of neutron energies, from meV to MeV, using the time-of-flight technique and a set-up based on Micromegas detectors, in an attempt to provide accurate experimental data. Preliminary results in the 200 keV – 14 MeV neutron energy range as well as the experimental procedure, including a description of the facility and the data handling and analysis, will be presented.
Transmembrane proteins play crucial roles in biological systems as active or passive channels and receptors. Experimentally only few structures could be determined so far. Gaining structural insights enables besides a general understanding of biological mechanisms also further processing such as in drug design. Due to the lack of experimental data, reliable theoretical predictions would be of high value. However, for the same reason, missing data, the knowledge-based class of prediction methods that is well established for soluble proteins can not be applied. The goal of predicting transmembrane protein structures with ab initio methods demands locating the free energy minimum. Main difficulties here are, first, the computational costs of explicitly calculating all involved interactions and, second, providing an algorithm that is capable of finding the minimum within an extremely complex and rugged energy landscape. We have developed promising energy functions that describe the interactions of amino acids on a residue level, reducing computational costs while still containing most information on the atomistic level. We have also found a way to describe the interaction of the residues with its surrounding in a realistic manner by distinguishing residues exposed to the environment from those buried within helices using a sphere algorithm. The sphere algorithm can also be applied for a different purpose: one can measure how densely sidechains are packed for certain helical conformations, and thereby get an estimate of the sidechain entropy. In addition, overcrowding effects can be identified which are not well-described by the energy functions due to the pairwise calculation. To determine the absolute free energy minimum, we assume the helices to be located on an equidistance grid with slightly larger distances than to be expected. Optimizing the helices on the grid provides a starting point that should enable common minimizing algorithms, gradient-based or not, to find the absolute minimum beyond the grid. To simulate the dynamics of the helices on large time scales, we split them into rigid body dynamics and internal dynamics in terms of the dihedrals. The former one is well-known with its inherent problem of numerical drift and plenty of approaches to it, among which we have chosen the quaternions to represent the rotation of the rigid bodies. The latter one requires a detailed analysis of the torque size exerted on the dihedrals caused by the forces acting on the residues.
In this thesis, we present a detailed consideration of both qualitative and quantitative properties of static spherically symmetric solutions of the Einstein equations with self-interacting scalar fields. Our focus is on solutions with naked singularities. We study the qualitative properties of the solutions of the Einstein equations with real static self-interacting $N$ scalar fields, making some assumptions on self-interaction. We provide a rigorous proof that the corresponding solutions will be regular up to $r=0$. Furthermore, we find the rigorous form of asymptotic solutions near the singularity and at spatial infinity. We construct some examples of spherical-like naked singularities at $r=r_s\neq0$ in curvature coordinates.
We analyze the stability of the previously considered solutions against odd-parity gravitational perturbations and also examine the fundamental quasi-normal modes spectra. For the general class of the self-interaction potential, we demonstrate well-posedness of the initial problem and stability for positively defined potentials. As an example, we numerically study the case of the scalar field with power-law self-interaction potential and find the fundamental quasi-normal modes frequencies. We demonstrate that they differ from the standard Schwarzschild black hole case.
We study in detail the motion of particles in the vicinity of previously considered solutions. Mainly, we are interested in considering properties of the distribution of stable circular orbits around the corresponding configurations and images of the accretion disk for a distant observer. For all cases, we find possible types of stable circular orbit distributions and domains of parameters where they are realized.
We also demonstrate that the presence of self-interaction can lead to a new type of circular orbit distributions, which is absent in the linear massless scalar field case. We build Keplerian disk images in the plane of a distant observer and demonstrate the possibility to mimic the shadows of black holes.
The topic of this thesis is the theoretical description of the hadron gas stages in heavy-ion collisions. The overall addressed question hereby is: How does the hadronic medium evolve i.e. what are the relevant microscopic reaction mechanisms and the properties of the involved degrees of freedom? The main goal is to address this question specifically for hadronic multi-particle interactions. For this goal, the hadronic transport approach SMASH is extended with stochastic rates, which allow to include detailed balance fulfilling multi-particle reactions in the approach. Three types of reactions are newly-accounted for: 3-to-1, 3-to-2 and 5-to-2 reactions. After extensive verifications of the stochastic rates approach, they are used to study the effect of multi-particle interactions, particularly in afterburner calculations.
These studies follow complementary results for the dilepton and strangeness production with only binary reactions, which show that hadronic transport approaches are capable of describing observables when employed for the entire evolution of low-energy heavy-ion collisions. This is illustrated by the agreement of dilepton and strangeness production for smaller systems with SMASH calculations. It is, in particular, possible to match the measured strangeness production of phi and Xi hadrons via additional heavy nucleon resonance decay channels. For larger systems or higher energies, hadronic transport cascade calculations with vacuum resonance properties can point to medium effects. This is demonstrated extensively for the dilepton emission in comparisons to the full set of HADES dielectron data. The dilepton invariant mass spectra are sensitive to a medium modification of the vector meson spectral function for large collision systems already at low beam energies. The sensitivity to medium modifications is mapped out in detail by comparisons to a coarse-graining approach, which employs medium-modified spectral functions and is based on the same evolution.
The theoretical foundation of stochastic rates are collision probabilities derived from the Boltzmann equation's collision term with the assumption of a constant matrix element. This derivation is presented in a comprehensive and pedagogical fashion. The derived collision probabilities are employed for a stochastic collision criterion and various detailed-balance fulfilling multi-particle reactions: the mesonic Dalitz decay back-reaction (3-to-1), the deuteron catalysis (3-to-2) and the proton-antiproton annihilation back-reaction (5-to-2). The introduced stochastic rates approach is extensively verified by studies of the numerical stability and comparisons to previous results and analytic expectations. The stochastic rates results agree perfectly with the respective analytic results.
Physically, multi-particle reactions are demonstrated to be significant for different observables, most notably the yield of the partaking particles, even in the late dilute stage of heavy-ion reactions. They lead to a faster equilibration of the system than equivalent binary multi-step treatments. The difference in equilibration consequently influences the yield in afterburner calculations. Interestingly, the interpretation of results is not dependent on employing multi-particle or multi-step treatments, which a posteriori validates the latter.
As the first test case of multi-particle reactions in heavy-ion reactions, the mesonic 3-to-1 Dalitz decay is found to be dominated by the omega Dalitz decay back-reaction. While the effect on the medium is found to be negligible overall, the regeneration is found to be sizable: up to a quarter of Dalitz decays are regenerated.
Non-equilibrium rescattering effects are shown to be relevant for late collision stages for two particle species: deuteron and protons. In both cases, the relevant rescatterings involve multiple particles.
The deuteron pion and nucleon catalysis reactions equilibrate quickly in the afterburner stage at intermediate energies. The constant formation and destruction keeps the yield constant and microscopically explains the "snowballs in hell"-paradox. The yield is also generated with no d present at early times, which explains why coalescence models can also match the multiplicity.
New is the study of the 5-body back-reaction of proton-antiproton annihilations. This work marks the first realization of microscopic 5-body reactions in a transport approach to fulfill detailed balance for such reactions. A sizable regeneration due to the back-reaction of up to half of the proton-antiproton pairs lost due to annihilations is found. Consequently, both annihilation and regeneration in the late non-equilibrium stage are shown to have a significant effect on the p yield.
In systems containing singlet-oxygen and aromatic fluorescers energy transfer from singletoxygen dimers to the dye should be observable by emission of the fluorescer. In order to prove this hypothesis, externally generated singlet-oxygen (1Δg) was bubbled through the solutions of dyes (chlorophyll a, eosin y, rhodamine b, luminol, rubrene and acridine orange) in organic solvents.
Luminescence could be observed and its spectral distribution analyzed by sharp cut-off filters and interference filters (rubrene) . Spectra, rates of oxidation, addition of quenchers and the long lasting time dependence of the reported reactions lead to the conclusion that the observed afterglow is due to chemical oxidation mechanisms producing a chemiluminescence. Therefore an excitation of the substances investigated in these experiments by simple physical energy transfer seems not to be predominant.