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Clean water is fundamental to human health and ecosystem integrity. However, water quality deteriorates due to novel anthropogenic pollutants present at microgram per liter concentrations in urban water cycles (termed micropollutants). Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) have been identified as major point sources for aquatic (micro-)pollutants. Chemical and ecotoxicological analyses have shown that conventional biological WWTPs do not fully remove micropollutants and associated toxicities, which is often because of mobile, polar and/or recalcitrant compounds and transformation products (TPs). To minimize possible environmental risks, advanced wastewater treatment (AWWT) technologies could be a promising mitigation measure. Multiple processes are therefore being developed and evaluated such as ozonation and ozonation followed by granulated activated carbon (GAC) or biological filtration. Assessing the performance of these combined AWWTs was the focus the TransRisk project. Within this project, this thesis accomplished four major goals.
Firstly, the preparation of (waste)water samples was optimised for in vitro bioassays. Acidification, filtration and solid phase extraction (SPE) were tested for their impact on environmentally relevant in vitro endocrine activities, mutagenicity, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity. Significantly different outcomes of these assays were detected comparing neutral and acidified samples. Sample filtration had a lesser impact, but in some cases retention of particle-bound compounds could have caused significant toxicity losses. Out of three SPE sorbents the Telos C18/ENV at sample pH 2.5 extracted highest toxicity, some undetected in aqueous samples. These results indicate that sample preparation needs to be optimised for specific sample matrices and bioassays to avoid false-positive or -negative detects in effect-based analyses.
Secondly, the above listed in vitro toxicities were monitored in a protected region for drinking water production in South-West Germany (2012-2015). Out of 30 sampling sites surface water and groundwater were the least polluted. Nonetheless, a few groundwater samples induced high anti-estrogenic activity that prompted further monitoring. The latter included a waterworks in which no toxicity was detected. Hospital wastewater also had elevated in vitro toxicities and hospitals are, thus, relevant intervention points for source control. The biological WWTPs were effective in removing most of the detected toxicity, and the selected bioassays proved to be pertinent tools for water quality assessment and prioritisation of pollution hotspots.
Thirdly, the in vivo bioassay ISO10872 based on Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was adapted for this thesis. Using this model, a median effect concentration (EC50) for reproductive toxicity of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon β-naphthoflavone (β- NF) of 114 µg/L was computed which is slightly lower than reported in the scientific literature. β-NF induced cyp-35A3::GFP (a biomarker in transgenic animals) in a time and concentration dependent manner (≤ 21.3–24 fold above controls). β-NF spiked wastewater samples supported earlier hypotheses on particle-bound pollutants. Reproductive toxicity (96 h) and cyp-35A3 induction (24 h) of biologically treated and/or ozonated wastewater extracts and growth promoting effects of GAC/biologically filtered ozonated wastewater extracts were observed. This suggested the presence of residual bioactive/toxic chemicals not included in the targeted chemical analysis. It also highlighted the importance of integrating multiple (apical and molecular) endpoints in wastewater assessments.
Fourthly, five in vitro and the adapted C. elegans bioassay were integrated into a wastewater quality evaluation (developed within TransRisk). Out of the five AWWT options, ozonation (at 1 g O3,applied/g DOC, HRT ~ 18 min) combined with nonaerated GAC filtration was rated most effective for toxicity removal. All five AWWTs largely removed estrogenic and (anti-)androgenic activities, but not anti-estrogenic activity and mutagenicity, which even increased during ozonation. This has been observed in related studies and points towards toxic TPs. These results also emphasized the need for implementing an effective post-treatment for ozonation. The results from a parallel in vivo study with Lumbriculus variegatus and Potamopyrgus antipodarum conducted on site at the WWTP (using flow through systems) were in accordance with the C. elegans results. In this context, it is suggested to further implement C. elegans as sensitive, feasible and ecologically relevant model.
In conclusion, this thesis shows how optimised sample preparation, long-term (in vitro) environmental monitoring, sensitive and ecologically relevant (in vivo) bioassays as well as innovative evaluation concepts, are pivotal in improving the removal of micropollutants and their toxicities with AWWTs. Future research should further develop and evaluate measures at sewer systems, conventional biological, tertiary and other advanced treatment technologies, as well as sociopolitical strategies (e.g., source control or natural conservation) and restoration projects. The effect-based tools optimised in this thesis will support assessing their success.
Bacterial biosynthetic assembly lines, such as non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) and polyketide synthases, are often subject of synthetic biology – because they produce a variety of natural products invaluable for modern pharmacotherapy. Acquiring the ability to engineer these biosynthetic assembly lines allows the production of artificial non-ribosomal peptides (NRP), polyketides, and hybrids thereof with new or improved properties. However, traditional bioengineering approaches have suffered for decades from their very limited applicability and, unlike combinatorial chemistry, are stigmatized as inefficient because they cannot be linked to the high-throughput screening platforms of the pharmaceutical industry. Although combinatorial chemistry can generate new molecules cheaper, faster, and in greater numbers than traditional natural product discovery and bioengineering approaches, it does not meet current medical needs because it covers only a limited biologically relevant chemical space. Hence, methods for high-throughput generation of new natural product-like compound libraries could provide a new avenue towards the identification of new lead compounds. To this end, prior to this work, we introduced an artificial synthetic NRPS type, referred to as type S NRPS, to provide a first-of-its-kind bicombinatorial approach to parallelized high-throughput NRP library generation. However, a bottleneck of these first two generations of type S NRPS was a significant drop in production yields. To address this issue, we applied an iterative optimization process that enabled titer increases of up to 55-fold compared to the non-optimized equivalents, restoring them to wild-type levels and beyond.
Rationale: The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is stimulated by hypoxia, and although the AMPKα1 catalytic subunit has been implicated in angiogenesis, little is known about the role played by the AMPKα2 subunit in vascular repair.
Objective: To determine the role of the AMPKα2 subunit in vascular repair.
Methods and Results: Recovery of blood flow after femoral artery ligation was impaired (>80%) in AMPKα2-/- versus wild-type mice, a phenotype reproduced in mice lacking AMPKα2 in myeloid cells (AMPKα2ΔMC). Three days after ligation, neutrophil infiltration into ischemic limbs of AMPKα2ΔMC mice was lower than that in wild-type mice despite being higher after 24 hours. Neutrophil survival in ischemic tissue is required to attract monocytes that contribute to the angiogenic response. Indeed, apoptosis was increased in hypoxic neutrophils from AMPKα2ΔMC mice, fewer monocytes were recruited, and gene array analysis revealed attenuated expression of proangiogenic proteins in ischemic AMPKα2ΔMC hindlimbs. Many angiogenic growth factors are regulated by hypoxia-inducible factor, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α induction was attenuated in AMPKα2-deficient cells and accompanied by its enhanced hydroxylation. Also, fewer proteins were regulated by hypoxia in neutrophils from AMPKα2ΔMC mice. Mechanistically, isocitrate dehydrogenase expression and the production of α-ketoglutarate, which negatively regulate hypoxia-inducible factor-1α stability, were attenuated in neutrophils from wild-type mice but remained elevated in cells from AMPKα2ΔMC mice.
Conclusions: AMPKα2 regulates α-ketoglutarate generation, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α stability, and neutrophil survival, which in turn determine further myeloid cell recruitment and repair potential. The activation of AMPKα2 in neutrophils is a decisive event in the initiation of vascular repair after ischemia.
Neuronale Repräsentation intrinsischer cochleärer Signale im Colliculus inferior der Wüstenrennmaus
(2008)
Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die neuronale Repräsentation von cochleären Verzerrungsprodukten im auditorischen Mittelhirn der Wüstenrennmaus. Die hohe Sensitivität und die gute Frequenzauflösung des Hörorgans der Säugetiere basiert auf einer aktiven mechanischen Verstärkung der schallinduzierten Basilarmembranschwingung im Innenohr. Die äußeren Haarsinneszellen, die während des Transduktionsprozesses zyklisch ihre Länge ändern und dabei zusätzliche Schwingungsenergie in das System zurückführen, sind der zugrunde liegende Motor des aktiven cochleären Verstärkers. Die stark nichtlinearen Eigenschaften dieses Verstärkers führen allerdings bei gleichzeitiger Verstärkung mehrerer Frequenzkomponenten zur Generierung von Kombinationsschwingungen, welche im Ursprungssignal nicht vorhanden sind. Wird das Ohr beispielsweise durch zwei Töne mit den Frequenzen f1 und f2 stimuliert (f1<f2), so entstehen verschiedene Kombinationsschwingungen, deren prominenteste das quadratische (f2-f1) und das cubische (2 f1-f2) Verzerrungsprodukt sind. Diese Verzerrungen des Ursprungssignals breiten sich von ihrem Entstehungsort im Innenohr, dem Überlappungsbereich der Stimuluswanderwellen, im Flüssigkeitsraum der Cochlea aus und werden über das Mittelohr in den Gehörgang übertragen. Im Gehörgang sind sie mit Hilfe eines sensitiven Mikrophons als otoakustische Emissionen (DPOAE - distortion product otoacoustic emissions) messbar. Zusätzlich bilden sie an ihrem Resonanzort auf der Basilarmembran, vergleichbar mit einem externen Stimuluston gleicher Frequenz, eine eigene Wanderwelle aus und aktivieren den Transduktionsprozess. Die neuronalen Korrelate der cochleären Verzerrungsprodukte sind auf verschiedenen Stationen der Hörbahn messbar und cochleäre Verzerrungsprodukte können als separate Töne wahrgenommen werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die neuronalen Korrelate und otoakustischen Emissionen von cochleären Verzerrungsprodukten erstmals simultan bestimmt. Durch den direkten Vergleich der neuronalen Aktivität mit der peripheren Emissionsmessung sollen eventuelle zentralnervöse Veränderungen der Repräsentation der cochleären Verzerrungsprodukte untersucht werden. Dazu wurde die elektrische Aktivität von 91 Neuronen des Colliculus inferior der Wüstenrennmaus während der Stimulation durch zwei hochfrequente Stimulustöne gemessen. Die Frequenzen der Stimulustöne waren so gewählt, dass die Frequenz eines, durch sie evozierten Verzerrungsproduktes, mit der charakteristischen Frequenz des jeweiligen Neurons übereinstimmte. In 95 % aller Messungen konnte eine robuste neuronale Aktivität während Zweitonstimulation gemessen werden, die sich auf die Stimulation durch ein spezifisches cochleäres Verzerrungsprodukt zurückführen lässt. Bei einem Teil der Versuche wurden die Verzerrungsprodukte durch direkte intracochleäre Auslöschung mit einem dritten Tonstimulus eindeutig als Quelle der neuronalen Aktivität bestätigt. Für Verzerrungsproduktfrequenzen oberhalb 1,3 kHz lassen sich die Antworten der Neurone im schwellennahen Bereich gut mit den simultan im Gehörgang bestimmten DPOAE-Pegeln erklären, was einen engen Zusammenhang zwischen intracochleärem Verzerrungsproduktpegel und DPOAE-Pegel nahe legt. Bei höheren Stimuluspegeln konnten die maximalen neuronalen Antworten auf den intracochleären Verzerrungsproduktstimulus signifikant von der Einzeltonantwort abweichen, wobei sowohl eine Erhöhung als auch eine Reduktion der Maximalantwort möglich war. Ein inhibitorischer bzw. verstärkender Einfluss der Stimulustöne auf die neuronale Verzerrungsproduktantwort wird als mögliche Ursache der Unterschiede diskutiert. Für Verzerrungsproduktfrequenzen unterhalb 1,3 kHz wurde ein deutlicher Unterschied zwischen dem intracochleären Verzerrungsproduktpegel und dem im Gehörgang gemessenen Emissionspegel deutlich. Ein Teil der getesteten tieffrequenten Neurone antwortete während Zweitonstimulation bereits für Stimuluspegel, die unterhalb der Reintonschwelle des Neurons lagen. Eine frequenzspezifische Verschlechterung der Mittelohrübertragungsleistung bei tiefen Frequenzen wird als mögliche Ursache für die unterschwelligen Antworten der Neurone diskutiert. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen, dass cochleäre Verzerrungsprodukte einen substanziellen Anteil an der neuronalen Repräsentation von komplexen Stimuli haben können. Im Besonderen machen die vorgestellten Daten deutlich, dass die neuronalen Repräsentation der Grundfrequenz eines komplexen Klangs wesentlich von cochleären Verzerrungsprodukten beeinflusst sein kann. Dies bedeutet, dass bereits im Innenohr Tonhöheninformation extrahiert werden kann und damit die Relevanz in der Literatur diskutierter neuronaler Mechanismen zur Berechnung von Tonhöhe relativiert wird.
In the published article, there was an error regarding the affiliation for Diana Abondano Almeida. As well as having affiliation 2, they should also have Department of Wildlife-/Zoo-Animal-Biology and Systematics, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Goethe Universität, Frankfurt, Germany.
The authors apologize for this error and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A major roadblock in the epitranscriptomics field is the lack of transcriptome-wide methods to detect more than a single RNA modification type at a time, identify RNA modifications in individual molecules, and estimate modification stoichiometry accurately. We address these issues with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current), a new method that concurrently detects N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual RNA molecules from the same sample, as well as differential methylation between any two conditions. CHEUI processes observed and expected nanopore direct RNA sequencing signals with convolutional neural networks to achieve high single-molecule accuracy and outperforms other methods in detecting m6A and m5C sites and quantifying their stoichiometry. CHEUI’s unique capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a non-random co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in mRNA transcripts in cell lines and tissues. CHEUI unlocks an unprecedented potential to study RNA modification configurations and discover new epitranscriptome functions.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A major roadblock in the epitranscriptomics field is the lack of transcriptome-wide methods to detect more than a single RNA modification type at a time, identify RNA modifications in individual molecules, and estimate modification stoichiometry accurately. We address these issues with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current), a new method that concurrently detects N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual RNA molecules from the same sample, as well as differential methylation between any two conditions, using signals from nanopore direct RNA sequencing. CHEUI processes observed and expected signals with convolutional neural networks to achieve high single-molecule accuracy and outperform other methods in detecting m6A and m5C sites and quantifying their stoichiometry. CHEUI’s unique capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a non-random co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in mRNA transcripts in cell lines and tissues. CHEUI unlocks an unprecedented potential to study RNA modification configurations and discover new epitranscriptome functions.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A major roadblock in the epitranscriptomics field is the lack of transcriptome-wide methods to detect more than a single RNA modification type at a time, identify RNA modifications in individual molecules, and estimate modification stoichiometry accurately. We address these issues with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current), a new method that concurrently detects N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual RNA molecules from the same sample, as well as differential methylation between any two conditions. CHEUI processes observed and expected nanopore direct RNA sequencing signals with convolutional neural networks to achieve high single-molecule accuracy and outperforms other methods in detecting m6A and m5C sites and quantifying their stoichiometry. CHEUI’s unique capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a non-random co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in mRNA transcripts in cell lines and tissues. CHEUI unlocks an unprecedented potential to study RNA modification configurations and discover new epitranscriptome functions.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A major roadblock in the epitranscriptomics field is the lack of transcriptome-wide methods to detect more than a single RNA modification type at a time, identify RNA modifications in individual molecules, and estimate modification stoichiometry accurately. We address these issues with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current), a new method that concurrently detects N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual RNA molecules from the same sample, as well as differential methylation between any two conditions. CHEUI processes observed and expected nanopore direct RNA sequencing signals with convolutional neural networks to achieve high single-molecule accuracy and outperforms other methods in detecting m6A and m5C sites and quantifying their stoichiometry. CHEUI’s unique capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a non-random co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in mRNA transcripts in cell lines and tissues. CHEUI unlocks an unprecedented potential to study RNA modification configurations and discover new epitranscriptome functions.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A major roadblock in the epitranscriptomics field is the lack of transcriptome-wide methods to detect more than a single RNA modification type at a time, identify RNA modifications in individual molecules, and estimate modification stoichiometry accurately. We address these issues with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current), a new method that concurrently detects N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual RNA molecules from the same sample, as well as differential methylation between any two conditions. CHEUI processes observed and expected nanopore direct RNA sequencing signals with convolutional neural networks to achieve high single-molecule accuracy and outperforms other methods in detecting m6A and m5C sites and quantifying their stoichiometry. CHEUI’s unique capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a non-random co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in mRNA transcripts in cell lines and tissues. CHEUI unlocks an unprecedented potential to study RNA modification configurations and discover new epitranscriptome functions.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A major roadblock in the epitranscriptomics field is the lack of transcriptome-wide methods to detect more than a single RNA modification type at a time, identify RNA modifications in individual molecules, and estimate modification stoichiometry accurately. We address these issues with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current), a new method that concurrently detects N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual RNA molecules from the same sample, as well as differential methylation between any two conditions. CHEUI processes observed and expected nanopore direct RNA sequencing signals with convolutional neural networks to achieve high single-molecule accuracy and outperforms other methods in detecting m6A and m5C sites and quantifying their stoichiometry. CHEUI’s unique capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a non-random co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in mRNA transcripts in cell lines and tissues. CHEUI unlocks an unprecedented potential to study RNA modification configurations and discover new epitranscriptome functions.
The epitranscriptome embodies many new and largely unexplored functions of RNA. A significant roadblock hindering progress in epitranscriptomics is the identification of more than one modification in individual transcript molecules. We address this with CHEUI (CH3 (methylation) Estimation Using Ionic current). CHEUI predicts N6-methyladenosine (m6A) and 5-methylcytidine (m5C) in individual molecules from the same sample, the stoichiometry at transcript reference sites, and differential methylation between any two conditions. CHEUI processes observed and expected nanopore direct RNA sequencing signals to achieve high single-molecule, transcript-site, and stoichiometry accuracies in multiple tests using synthetic RNA standards and cell line data. CHEUI’s capability to identify two modification types in the same sample reveals a co-occurrence of m6A and m5C in individual mRNAs in cell line and tissue transcriptomes. CHEUI provides new avenues to discover and study the function of the epitranscriptome.
Rhythmic changes in environmental lighting conditions have ever been the most reliable environmental cue for life on earth. Nature has therefore selected a genetically encrypted endogenous clock very early in evolution, as it provided cells and subsequently organisms with the ability to anticipate persevering periods of light and darkness. Rhythm generation within the mammalian circadian system is achieved by clock genes and their protein products. The mammalian endogenous master clock, which synchronizes the body to environmental time, is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. As an integral part of the time-coding system, the pineal gland serves the need to tune the body to the temporal environment by the rhythmic nocturnal synthesis and immediate release of the hormone melatonin. In contrast to the transcriptional regulation of melatonin synthesis in rodents, a post-translational shaping is indicated in the human pineal gland. Another important mediator of circadian time and seasonality to the body is the pituitary gland. The aim of this work was to elucidate regulation of melatonin synthesis in the human pineal gland. Furthermore, presence and regulation of clock genes in the human pineal and pituitary gland, and in the SCN were analyzed. Therefore, human tissue, taken from regular autopsies, was analyzed simultaneously for different parameters involved in melatonin biosynthesis and circadian rhythm generation. Presented data demonstrate that post-mortem brain tissue can be used to detect the remnant profile of pre-mortem adaptive changes in neuronal activity. In particular, our results give strong experimental support for the idea that transcriptional mechanisms are not dominant for the generation of rhythmic melatonin synthesis in the human pineal gland. Together with data obtained for clock genes and their protein products in the pituitary, data presented here offer 1) a new working hypothesis for post-translational regulation of melatonin biosynthesis in the human pineal gland, and 2) a novel twist in the molecular competence of clock gene proteins, achieved by nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling in neuronal and neuroendocrine human tissue. Furthermore, in this study, oscillations in abundance of clock gene proteins were demonstrated for the first time in the human SCN.
Seed dispersal is a key ecosystem function for plant regeneration, as it involves the movement of seeds away from the parental plants to particular habitats where they can germinate and transition to seedlings and ultimately adult plants. Seed dispersal is shaped by a diversity of abiotic and biotic factors, particularly by associations between plants and climate and between plants and other species. Due to the ongoing loss of biodiversity and changing global conditions, such interactions are prone to change and pose a severe threat to plant regeneration. One way to address this challenge is to study associations between plant traits and abiotic and biotic factors to understand the potential impacts of global change on plant regeneration. Plant communities have long been analyzed through the lens of vegetative traits, mainly ignoring how other traits interact and respond to the environment. For instance, while associations between vegetative traits (e.g., specific leaf area, leaf nitrogen content) and climate are well studied, there are few case studies of reproductive traits in relation to trait-environment associations in the context of global change.
Thus, the overarching aim of this dissertation is to explore how trait-environment associations, with a special focus on reproductive traits, can improve our understanding of the effect that global change may have on seed dispersal, and ultimately on plant regeneration. To this end, my research focuses on studying associations between plant traits and abiotic and biotic factors along an elevational gradient in both forests and deforested areas of tropical mountains. This dissertation addresses three principal research objectives.
First, I investigate the extent to which reproductive (seed and fruit traits) and vegetative traits (leaf traits) are related to abiotic and biotic factors for communities of fleshy-fruited plants in the Ecuadorian Andes. I used multivariate analyses to test associations between four (a)biotic factors and seven reproductive traits and five vegetative traits measured on 18 and 33 fleshy fruited plant species respectively. My analyses demonstrate that climate and soil conditions are strongly associated with the distribution of both reproductive and vegetative traits in tropical tree communities. The production of “costly” vs. “cheap” seeds, fruits and leaves, i.e., the production of few rewarding fruits and acquisitive leaves versus the production of many less-rewarding fruits and conservative leaves, is primarily limited by temperature, whereas the size of plant organs is more related to variation in precipitation and soil conditions. My findings suggest that associations between reproductive and vegetative traits and the abiotic environment follow similar principles in tropical tree communities.
Second, I assess how climate and microhabitat conditions affect the prevalence of endozoochorous plant species in the seed rain of tropical montane forests in southern Ecuador. I analyzed seed rain data for an entire year from 162 traps located across an elevational gradient spanning of 2000 m. I documented the microhabitat conditions (leaf area index and soil moisture next to each seed trap) at small spatial scale as well as the climatic conditions (mean annual temperature and rainfall in each plot) at large spatial scale. After a one-year of sampling, I counted 331,838 seeds of 323 species/morphospecies. My analyses demonstrate that the prevalence of endozoochorous plant species in the seed rain increases with temperature across elevations and with leaf area index within elevations. These results show that the prevalence of endozoochory is shaped by the interplay of both abiotic and biotic factors at large and small spatial scales.
Third, I examine the potential of seed rain to restore deforested tropical areas along an elevational gradient in southern Ecuador. For this chapter, I collected seed rain using 324 seed traps installed in 18 1-ha plots in forests (nine forest plots) and in pastures (nine deforested plots) along an elevational gradient of 2000 m. After a sampling period of three months, I collected a total of 123,039 seeds of 255 species/morphospecies from both forests and pastures along the elevational gradient. I did not find a consistent decrease in the amount and richness of seed rain between forests and pastures, but I detected a systematic change in the type of dispersed seeds, as heavier seeds and a higher proportion of endozoochorous species were found in forests compared to pastures at all elevations. This finding suggests that deforestation acts as a strong filter selecting seed traits that are vital for plant regeneration.
Understanding the role that trait-environment associations play in how plant communities regenerate today could serve as a basis for predicting changes in regeneration processes of plant communities under changing global conditions in the near future. Here, I show how informative the measurement of reproductive traits and trait environment associations are in facilitating the conservation of forest habitats and the restoration of deforested areas in the context of global change.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) in root nodules of grain legumes such as chickpea is a highly complex process that drastically affects the gene expression patterns of both the prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic interacting cells. A successfully established symbiotic relationship requires mutual signaling mechanisms and a continuous adaptation of the metabolism of the involved cells to varying environmental conditions. Although some of these processes are well understood today many of the molecular mechanisms underlying SNF, especially in chickpea, remain unclear. Here, we reannotated our previously published transcriptome data generated by deepSuperSAGE (Serial Analysis of Gene Expression) to the recently published draft genome of chickpea to assess the root- and nodule-specific transcriptomes of the eukaryotic host cells. The identified gene expression patterns comprise up to 71 significantly differentially expressed genes and the expression of twenty of these was validated by quantitative real-time PCR with the tissues from five independent biological replicates. Many of the differentially expressed transcripts were found to encode proteins implicated in sugar metabolism, antioxidant defense as well as biotic and abiotic stress responses of the host cells, and some of them were already known to contribute to SNF in other legumes. The differentially expressed genes identified in this study represent candidates that can be used for further characterization of the complex molecular mechanisms underlying SNF in chickpea.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde die Rolle des Transkriptionsfaktors Meis2 als Ko-Faktor in der Entwicklung des anterioren Neuralrohrs untersucht. Hierbei gaben funktionelle Untersuchungen durch Fehl- und Überexpressionsstudien mittels in ovo Mikroelektroporation im Hühnchenembryo, Aufschluss über eine besondere Rolle von Meis2 bei der Spezifizierung und Entwicklung des Tectum opticums. Überdies führten bio-chemische Untersuchungen zur Identifizierung neuer, bislang noch nicht beschriebener Interaktionspartner von Meis2 im sich entwickelnden optischen Tektum und in den Anlagen der Augen. Diese Untersuchungen geben einen weiteren Einblick in die Funktionsweise von Meis2 als Ko-Transkriptionsfaktor. Zusammengefasst lieferten die Untersuchungen der vorliegenden Arbeit folgende Erkenntnisse: I) Im Mittelhirn ist Meis2-Expression unter den bislang beschriebenen Regulatoren der Mittelhirnentwicklung einzigartig: es ist von Beginn an nicht dynamisch und kennzeichnet ausschließlich die dorsalen Alarplatten des Mittelhirns, den Bereich des zukünftigen optischen Tektums (Kapitel 3.1). Diese Expression unterliegt einer strikten negativen Regulation durch sezernierte Moleküle und Transkriptionsfaktoren der benachbarten Regionen des Neuralrohrs (Kapitel 3.2). II) Meis2 ist für tektale Entwicklung erforderlich: Die Überexpression des dominant negativ wirkenden Konstruktes Meis2EnR störte die Entwicklung tektumspezifischer Strukturen sowohl in der frühen als auch in der späteren Entwicklung (Kapitel 3.3.1 und 3.3.2). Zudem kam es zur Unterdrückung der tektalen Gene ephrinB1 und Dbx1 (Kapitel 3.3.3 und 3.3.4). III) Meis2 ist für tektale Entwicklung ausreichend: Die Fehlexpression von Meis2 führte zur Induktion und Entwicklung ektopischer tektaler Strukturen im Dienzephalon (Kapitel 3.3.5). Dabei führte Meis2 bereits 24 h nach Fehlexpression zur Transdifferenzierung des dienzephalischen in mesenzephalisches Zellschicksal, veränderte jedoch nicht das Schick-sal des metenzephalischen Gewebes (Kapitel 3.3.7). IV) Bei der Induktion tektaler Strukturen ist Meis2 nicht Bestandteil des regulatorischen Netzwerks des Mittel-Hinterhirn Organisators (MHO), eines sekundären Organisators, welcher die Entwicklung der Mittel-Hinterhirn Region steuert (Kapitel 3.3.8). V) Meis2 bildet jedoch im Mittelhirn in vivo Komplexe mit Otx2, einem Schlüsselmolekül zur Spezifizierung des anterioren Neuralrohrs (Kapitel 3.4.1 - 3.4.3). VI) Meis2 kann in vitro durch Bindung an Otx2 einer Grg4/Tle4-vermittelten Unter-drückung der transkriptionellen Aktivität von Otx2 entgegenwirken (Kapitel 3.4.4). Otx2 kann, wie bereits in Arbeiten anderer Labors beschrieben, kontext-abhängig entweder als transkriptioneller Repressor oder Aktivator wirken. Die in dieser Arbeit dargestellten Ergebnisse zeigen daher einen möglichen molekularen Mechanismus auf, wie durch zeitlich und räumlich kontrollierte Bindung eines Ko-Aktivators an Otx2 dessen transkrip-tionelle Aktivität wieder hergestellt werden kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit beschreiben zum ersten Mal einen Transkriptionsfaktor, der unabhängig vom regulatorischen Netzwerk des MHO, die Entwicklung des optischen Tektums induziert. Sie liefern somit ein neuartiges mögliches Modell zur Spezifizierung anteriorer Hirnstrukturen: Die Induktion tektaler Entwicklung erfolgt nach Etablierung der Mittel-Hinterhirn Region durch Meis2, einem tektumspezifischen Ko-Faktor von Otx2. VII) Meis2 bildet, im sich entwickelnden Mittelhirn, auch Komplexe mit den beiden Regulatoren der Tektumentwicklung Pax3 und Pax7 (Kapitel 3.4.5). VIII) Außerdem konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit zwei weitere mögliche Interaktions-partner von Meis2 in den Anlagen der Augen identifiziert werden: Pax6, einem „master control gene“ der Augenentwicklung (Kapitel 3.4.6) und das Enzym Parp-1 (Kapitel 3.4.7), einem weit verbreiteten und vielseitigen Regulator der Genexpression. Diese Ergebnisse liefern Hinweise auf weitere wichtige Funktionen des Ko-Transkriptions-faktors Meis2 in der Entwicklung des anterioren Zentralnervensystems.
The development of the atrioventricular (AV) canal and the cardiac valves is tightly linked and a critically regulated process. Anomalies in components of the involved pathways can lead to congenital valve malformations, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in neonates. Myocardial Bmp as well as endocardial Notch and Wnt signaling have been identified as critical factors for the induction of EMT during the formation of the endocardial cushions and cardiac valves. Of these, canonical Wnt signaling positively regulates endocardial proliferation and EMT but negatively regulates endocardial differentiation. Further, elevated Wnt signaling leads to the ectopic expression of myocardial Bmp ligands suggesting a high level of integration of the involved pathways and crosstalk amongst the different cardiac tissues.
Here we have identified a novel role for Id4 as a mediator between Bmp and Wnt signaling. Id4 belongs to the Id family of proteins and is known to be involved in bone and nervous system development. We found that in zebrafish, id4 is expressed in the endocardium of the AV canal at embryonic stages and throughout the atrial chamber in addition to AV canal, in adults. Using transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) we established an id4 mutant allele. Our analysis shows that id4 mutant larvae are susceptible to retrograde blood flow, and show aberrant expression of developmental valvular markers. These include expanded expression domains of markers like bmp4, cspg2a and Alcam. In contrast, valve maturation as assessed by the expression of spp1 is considerably reduced in id4 mutants. Using conditional transgenic systems, along with elegant in vivo imaging of transgenic reporter lines, we further found that id4 is a transcriptional target of Bmp signaling, and it is capable of dose dependently restricting Wnt signaling in the endocardium of the Atrioventricular Canal.
Taken together, our data identifies Id4 as a novel player in Atrioventricular Canal and valve development. We show that Id4 function is important in valve development acting downstream of Bmp signaling by restricting endocardial Wnt to allow valve maturation
Nearly 170 million people are chronically infected with HCV and thus at risk of developing liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although new and effective oral antiviral drugs are available, there is still the need for a preventive vaccine. In addition, in light of the high number of patients who are chronically infected with HCV the development of a therapeutic vaccine will present a support or even an alternative to the expensive medications.
To induce HCV-specific immune responses in a vaccine model, the HBV capsid is used as a carrier to deliver HCV antigens. Due to its icosahedral structure, the HBV capsid is highly immunogenic and helps to elicit a strong B cell response against the delivered antigens. In addition, the translocation motif (TLM) from the HBV surface protein is fused to the core protein. The TLM conveys membrane-permeability to the carrier capsid, enabling antigen transfer into the cytoplasm, and thus allows immunoproteasomal processing and MHC class I-mediated presentation of the antigen. To load the capsid with foreign antigens, a strep-Tag/streptavidin system is utilized. Recombinant capsids and antigens were purified from the E. coli production system. Detailed characterization of the carrier capsid demonstrated the proper assembly, adequate thermal stability and the successful loading of the foreign antigens onto the capsid surface.
As a further step, seven different HCV-derived proteins were produced and purified for the coupling on the surface of TLM-core particles. The characterization of their immunogenicity using this system is being performed.
Using ovalbumin as a model antigen, which is coupled to the carrier capsids via strep-Tag/streptavidin binding, shows that this system is suitable to efficiently deliver antigens into the cytoplasm of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), leading to the activation of APCs. This activation was assessed by measuring the secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α, in addition to the upregulation of activation markers (CD40, CD80, CD69, and MHC class I). Upon activation, the APCs were able to activate ova-specific CD8+ T cells measured by secreted IFN-γ, which was up to 20-folds more than IFN-γ secreted upon incubation with free ovalbumin. These data indicate that the TLM-capsid is suitable to serve as a carrier to deliver foreign antigens into the cytoplasm of APCs leading to MHC class I-mediated presentation and induction of an antigen-specific CTLs response.
Anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) is a major process in the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle in which nitrite and ammonium are converted to dinitrogen gas and water through the highly reactive intermediate hydrazine. So far, it is unknown how anammox organisms convert the toxic hydrazine into nitrogen and harvest the extremely low potential electrons (−750 mV) released in this process. We report the crystal structure and cryo electron microscopy structures of the responsible enzyme, hydrazine dehydrogenase, which is a 1.7 MDa multiprotein complex containing an extended electron transfer network of 192 heme groups spanning the entire complex. This unique molecular arrangement suggests a way in which the protein stores and releases the electrons obtained from hydrazine conversion, the final step in the globally important anammox process.
Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous and persistent pollutants, and have been detected in a wide variety of media, from soils to aquatic systems. MPs, consisting primarily of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyacrylamide polymers, have recently been found in 12% of samples of honey collected in Ecuador. Recently, MPs have also been identified in honey bees collected from apiaries in Copenhagen, Denmark, as well as nearby semiurban and rural areas. Given these documented exposures, assessment of their effects is critical for understanding the risks of MP exposure to honey bees. Exposure to polystyrene (PS)-MPs decreased diversity of the honey bee gut microbiota, followed by changes in gene expression related to oxidative damage, detoxification, and immunity. As a result, the aim of this perspective was to investigate whether wide-spread prevalence of MPs might have unintended negative effects on health and fitness of honey bees, as well as to draw the scientific community’s attention to the possible risks of MPs to the fitness of honey bees. Several research questions must be answered before MPs can be considered a potential threat to bees.
The sequenced genome of the poly-extremophile Exiguobacterium sp. S17, isolated from modern stromatolites at Laguna Socompa (3,570 m), a High-Altitude Andean Lake (HAAL) in Argentinean Puna revealed a putative proteorhodopsin-encoding gene. The HAAL area is exposed to the highest UV irradiation on Earth, making the microbial community living in the stromatolites test cases for survival strategies under extreme conditions. The heterologous expressed protein E17R from Exiguobacterium (248 amino acids, 85% sequence identity to its ortholog ESR from E. sibiricum) was assembled with retinal displaying an absorbance maximum at 524 nm, which makes it a member of the green-absorbing PR-subfamily. Titration down to low pH values (eventually causing partial protein denaturation) indicated a pK value between two and three. Global fitting of data from laser flash-induced absorption changes gave evidence for an early red-shifted intermediate (its formation being below the experimental resolution) that decayed (τ1 = 3.5 μs) into another red-shifted intermediate. This species decayed in a two-step process (τ2 = 84 μs, τ3 = 11 ms), to which the initial state of E17-PR was reformed with a kinetics of 2 ms. Proton transport capability of the HAAL protein was determined by BLM measurements. Additional blue light irradiation reduced the proton current, clearly identifying a blue light absorbing, M-like intermediate. The apparent absence of this intermediate is explained by closely matching formation and decay kinetics.
Nahrungsmittelallergikern steht aufgrund inakzeptabler Nebenwirkungen bei der spezifischen Immuntherapie zurzeit noch keine kausale Therapie dieser Erkrankung zur Verfügung. Demzufolge bleibt die Vermeidung der entsprechenden Lebensmittel für Nahrungsmittelallergiker der einzige Weg möglicherweise lebensbedrohlichen allergischen Reaktionen zu entgehen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Potential eines viralen Vektors für die Verwendung bei der spezifischen Immuntherapie der Lebensmittelallergie zu untersuchen. Die Überlegung dahinter war, das Risiko eines anaphylaktischen Schocks, der bei Injektion eines Allergens immer gegeben ist, durch intrazelluläre Expression des Proteins über das rekombinante Virus zu verringern. Zusätzlich dazu bringt das modifizierte Vacciniavirus Ankara (MVA) ideale Voraussetzungen für eine Allergievakzine mit: Die Infektion mit MVA führt zu einer stark Th1-gerichteten Immunantwort gegen die viral exprimierte Proteine, die möglicherweise die allergische Th2-gerichtete Immunantwort modulieren kann. Die prophylaktische Immunisierung mit MVA-OVA im Mausmodell der systemischen Sensibilisierung gegen Ovalbumin (OVA) führte dosisabhängig zur Suppression der spezifischen IgE-Antwort und somit zum Schutz vor allergischer Sensibilisierung. Zusätzlich konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass die Vakzinierung mit MVA-OVA eine dauerhafte spezifische IgG-Antwort induziert. Diese Daten unterstützen das Konzept einer Modulation der Sensibilisierung durch MVA-Vakzine. Weiterhin wurden zwei rekombinante Vakzinen generiert, mittels derer entweder das Tropomyosin aus Garnelen (Pen a 1) oder das Lipid-Transfer-Protein aus Haselnuss (Cor a 8) intrazellulär exprimiert werden konnte. Dass die Sensibilisierung gegen diese Allergene häufig mit schweren allergischen Reaktionen korreliert, unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit einer verbesserten Immuntherapie in diesem Bereich. Während MVA-Pen a 1 in ausreichender Menge und Qualität für die Verwendung im Mausmodell hergestellt werden konnte, gelang es nicht, eine homogene Population von MVA-Cor a 8 zu gewinnen, in der das Selektionsgen K1L nicht mehr vorhanden war. Parallel zur Virusherstellung wurden Mausmodelle der Sensibilisierung gegen Cor a 8 und Pen a 1 entwickelt. Vergleiche unterschiedlicher Mausstämme ergaben, dass sich Mäuse des Stammes CBA/J am empfänglichsten für eine systemische Sensibilisierung mit Cor a 8 sind. Aufgrund von Erfahrungen zur Sensibilisierung gegen Pen a 1 wurden Mäuse des Stammes C3H/HeJ bei der Etablierung eines Garnelenallergiemodells verwendet. Es zeigte sich, dass durch die intragastrale Applikation von 0,1 mg Pen a 1 sowie Choleratoxin als Adjuvanz (drei Gaben in dreiwöchigem Abstand), gefolgt von einer systemischen Gabe des Allergens mit Aluminiumhydroxid eine spezifische Sensibilisierung hervorgerufen werden konnte, die nach Exposition mit Pen a 1 zu allergischen Symptomen führte. Auch in diesem Modell bot die prophylaktische Immunisierung mit MVA-Pen a 1 Schutz vor Pen a 1spezifischer Sensibilisierung. Um die therapeutische Effektivität der Vakzine ermitteln zu können, muss die begonnene Etablierung eines Allergiemodells mit symptomauslösenden Provokationen und immunologischen Analysen weitergeführt werden. Der in dieser Studie beobachtete starke schützende Effekt einer Vakzinierung mit MVA vor allergischer Sensibilisierung und das sehr gute Sicherheitsprofil dieses Vektors in klinischen Studien zu anderen Erkrankungen belegt die Möglichkeit einer Verwendung von MVA zur erfolgreichen spezifischen Immuntherapie der Lebensmittelallergie.
Binding free energy calculations that make use of alchemical pathways are becoming increasingly feasible thanks to advances in hardware and algorithms. Although relative binding free energy (RBFE) calculations are starting to find widespread use, absolute binding free energy (ABFE) calculations are still being explored mainly in academic settings due to the high computational requirements and still uncertain predictive value. However, in some drug design scenarios, RBFE calculations are not applicable and ABFE calculations could provide an alternative. Computationally cheaper end-point calculations in implicit solvent, such as molecular mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann surface area (MMPBSA) calculations, could too be used if one is primarily interested in a relative ranking of affinities. Here, we compare MMPBSA calculations to previously performed absolute alchemical free energy calculations in their ability to correlate with experimental binding free energies for three sets of bromodomain–inhibitor pairs. Different MMPBSA approaches have been considered, including a standard single-trajectory protocol, a protocol that includes a binding entropy estimate, and protocols that take into account the ligand hydration shell. Despite the improvements observed with the latter two MMPBSA approaches, ABFE calculations were found to be overall superior in obtaining correlation with experimental affinities for the test cases considered. A difference in weighted average Pearson () and Spearman () correlations of 0.25 and 0.31 was observed when using a standard single-trajectory MMPBSA setup ( = 0.64 and = 0.66 for ABFE; = 0.39 and = 0.35 for MMPBSA). The best performing MMPBSA protocols returned weighted average Pearson and Spearman correlations that were about 0.1 inferior to ABFE calculations: = 0.55 and = 0.56 when including an entropy estimate, and = 0.53 and = 0.55 when including explicit water molecules. Overall, the study suggests that ABFE calculations are indeed the more accurate approach, yet there is also value in MMPBSA calculations considering the lower compute requirements, and if agreement to experimental affinities in absolute terms is not of interest. Moreover, for the specific protein–ligand systems considered in this study, we find that including an explicit ligand hydration shell or a binding entropy estimate in the MMPBSA calculations resulted in significant performance improvements at a negligible computational cost.
In high light, the antenna system in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms switches to a photoprotective mode, dissipating excess energy in a process called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ). Diatoms exhibit very efficient NPQ, accompanied by a xanthophyll cycle in which diadinoxanthin is de-epoxidized into diatoxanthin. Diatoms accumulate pigments from this cycle in high light, and exhibit faster and more pronounced NPQ. The mechanisms underlying NPQ in diatoms remain unclear, but it can be mimicked by aggregation of their isolated light-harvesting complexes, FCP (fucoxanthin chlorophyll-a/c protein). We assess this model system by resonance Raman measurements of two peripheral FCPs, trimeric FCPa and nonameric FCPb, isolated from high- and low-light-adapted cells (LL, HL). Quenching is associated with a reorganisation of these proteins, affecting the conformation of their bound carotenoids, and in a manner which is highly dependent on the protein considered. FCPa from LL diatoms exhibits significant changes in diadinoxanthin structure, together with a smaller conformational change of at least one fucoxanthin. For these LL-FCPa, quenching is associated with consecutive events, displaying distinct spectral signatures, and its amplitude correlates with the planarity of the diadinoxanthin structure. HL-FCPa aggregation is associated with a change in planarity of a 515-nm-absorbing fucoxanthin, and, to a lesser extent, of diadinoxanthin. Finally, in FCPb, a blue-absorbing fucoxanthin is primarily affected. FCPs thus possess a plastic structure, undergoing several conformational changes upon aggregation, dependent upon their precise composition and structure. NPQ in diatoms may therefore arise from a combination of structural changes, dependent on the environment the cells are adapted to.
In dieser Arbeit sollte der Einfluss von Trockenstress auf die Photosyntheserate von einer repräsentativen C3-Art und dreier repräsentativer Arten unterschiedlicher C4-Subtypen vergleichend untersucht werden, wobei die drei Subtypen der C4-Photosynthese im Vordergrund standen. Anhand der ausgewählten Arten der Modell-Gattung Panicum (s.l.), P. bisulcatum (C3), P. bulbosum (NADP-ME), P. miliaceum (NAD-ME) und P. maximum (PCK), konnten die unterschiedlichen Stoffwechseltypen, an phylogenetisch nah verwandten Arten, auf Unterschiede in der physiologischen Antwort auf den abiotischen Stressfaktor Trockenheit untersucht werden. Hierfür wurden zwei verschiedene Arten der Trockenstressinduktion durchgeführt. Ein Vergleich der Arten in Hinblick auf Unterschiede in der Trockentoleranz erfolgte anhand von Hydrokulturversuchen mit PEG6000 als Osmotikum. In diesem Fall wurde der jeweilige Stress sehr schnell induziert und über die Dauer von 6 Tagen in unterschiedlichen Intensitäten konstant gehalten. Anhand der durchgeführten Gaswechselmessungen und Bestimmungen der Chlorophyllfluoreszenzparameter konnte eindeutig die C3-Art P. bisulcatum als die am sensitivsten auf Trockenstress reagierende Art identifiziert werden. Die drei C4-Arten lagen in ihrer physiologischen Antwort auf die unterschiedlichen Trockenstressintensitäten verhältnismäßig nah zusammen. Bei schwächerem osmotischen Stress zeigte aber P. miliaceum, der Vertreter des NAD-ME Subtyps, eindeutig die geringste Beeinflussung der untersuchten Photosyntheseparameter, was im Wesentlichen auch bei stärkerem osmotischen Stress bestätigt wurde. Zudem zeigte P. miliaceum bei 1400 ppm CO2 im Messgas im Vergleich zu den anderen getesteten Arten eine signifikant höhere Wassernutzungseffizienz, was die bessere Anpassung des NAD-ME Subtypen an osmotischen Stress unterstreicht. Bei dem Trockenstressexperiment in Erde stand die physiologische Maximalantwort auf den natürlicheren, verhältnismäßig langsam induzierten, aber letztendlich starken Trockenstress im Vordergrund. Hier wurde für jede Art untersucht, welche limitierenden Faktoren unter Trockenstress auf die Photosyntheserate wirken. Dafür wurde neben Gaswechsel- und Chlorophyllfluoreszenzmessungen mit der Bestimmung der In-vitro-Aktivitäten der Enzyme des C4-Zyklus, der Bestimmung der PEPC und RubisCO-Gehalte anhand von SDS-PAGE und Western-Blot-Analysen, und der Bestimmung des Deepoxidationsgrades des Xanthophyllzykluses ausgewählte Teilreaktionen der C4-Photosynthese genauer untersucht. Bei allen untersuchten C4- Arten konnte bei dem starken Trockenstress eine eindeutige nicht-stomatäre Limitierung der Photosyntheserate festgestellt werden. Bei der C3-Art P. bisulcatum sprechen die Ergebnisse für eine Mischung aus stomatären und nicht-stomatären Faktoren, die die Photosynthese unter Trockenstress limitieren. Hier konnte eine Abnahme des RubisCO-Gehalts unter Trockenstress beobachtet werden, was ein möglicher Faktor für eine nicht-stomatäre Limitierung der Photosyntheserate unter Trockenstress sein kann. Aufgrund der im Mittel reduzierten In-vitro-Aktivitäten der Enzyme des NADP-ME C4-Zyklus (PPDK, PEPC, NADP-MDH und NADP-ME) und einer Abnahme des PEPC- und RubisCOGehalts bei trockengestressten P. bulbosum im Vergleich zu der entsprechenden Kontrolle, konnte bei dem Vertreter des NADP-ME Subtyps die nicht-stomatäre Limitierung der Photosyntheserate auf eine generelle Abnahme der an der C4-Photosynthese beteiligten Enzyme zurückgeführt werden. Anhand der Bestimmung der In-vitro-Aktivitäten von P. maximum konnte gezeigt werden, dass die als Nebenweg beschriebene Decarboxylierung des CO2 über das NAD-ME in den BSZ, wahrscheinlich im gleichen Maße abläuft wie der von KANAI und EDWARDS (1999) beschriebene Hauptweg (Decarboxylierung in den BSZ durch die PCK). Die beobachtete nicht-stomatäre Limitierung der Photosyntheserate unter Trockenstress wurde auf eine mögliche Abnahme der In-vitro-Aktivitäten des sogenannten Nebenweges zurückgeführt. Bei P. miliaceum, dem repräsentativen Vertreter des NAD-ME Subtyps, zeigte keines der C4-Enzyme eine Abnahme der In-vitro-Aktivität, noch konnte eine Abnahme des RubisCO Gehalts unter Trockenstress im Vergleich zur Kontrolle beobachtet werden. Diese Beobachtung deutete auf eine In-Situ-Inhibierung eines der C4-Enzyme hin. Aus diesem Grund wurden in dieser Arbeit bei P. miliaceum weiterführende Untersuchungen zur posttranslationalen Regulation der PEPC durchgeführt. Obwohl die PEPC unter Trockenstress in phosphorylierter und somit aktiver Form vorliegt, konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei trockengestressten P. miliaceum eine In-Situ-Inhibition der PEPC aufgrund einer Feedback-Inhibition durch das unter Trockenstress in den MZ akkumulierende Transportmetabolit Aspartat wahrscheinlich ist und somit die Photosyntheserate limitieren kann.
Eine Einschränkung des Hörvermögens durch Schäden der Sinnesrezeptoren im Innenohr gilt beim Menschen sowie bei allen anderen Säugetieren als irreversibel. Die Hörforschung ist an der Frage interessiert, ob durch Plastizität in zentralen Teilen des auditorischen Systems Kompensationsmechanismen die Folgen mildern können. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Frage, ob und in welchem Umfang nach peripheren Hörschäden durch zentrale Kompensationsmechanismen eine Erholung des Hörvermögens auftritt auf der Basis von plastischen Änderungen der neuronalen Verarbeitung der Eingangssignale aus dem geschädigten Hörorgan. Schäden des Sinnesepithels im Innenohr, z.B. durch überlaute Beschallung oder ototoxische Substanzen, betreffen in der Regel zunächst die äußeren Haarzellen und führen zu einem Verlust der Empfindlichkeit und Frequenzspezifität des Hörvermögens. Eine primäre selektive Schädigung der inneren Haarzellen (IHZ) tritt im Tiermodell, aus unbekannten Gründen nur bei einer Spezies auf, dem Chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger) und zwar nach Gabe des antineoplastischen Medikament Carboplatin. Das gute Tieffrequenzhören der Chinchillas (0.1-20 kHz) ermöglicht außerdem Aussagen zur akustischen Signalverarbeitung in einem für das menschliche Gehör relevanten Frequenzbereich (0.02-16 kHz). Dieses Tiermodell bietet somit die Gelegenheit, die Veränderungen in zentralen Teilen des auditorischen Systems nach einer definierten sensorischen Schädigung zu untersuchen. Hierfür kommt u.a. das auditorische Mittelhirn, der Colliculus Inferior (IC) in Frage. Der IC wird als Hauptintegrationszentrum der Hörbahn angesehen weil er Eingänge von fast allen vor ihm liegenden auditorischen Kernen (z.B. Nucleus cochlearis, Nucleus olivaris und Leminscus lateralis) bekommt. Ein weiterer Grund für die Wahl des IC als Untersuchungsgebiet der vorliegenden Arbeit ist, die Frage zu beantworten, ob die auf der Ebene des auditorischen Kortex bereits nachgewiesene funktionelle Plastizität auch auf der Ebene des IC schon realisiert oder vorbereitet wird. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht das Antwortverhalten der Neurone im ICc an wachen Tieren vor und nach einem selektiven Teilverlust der IHZ bei Erhalt der äußeren Haarzellen. Die Arbeitshypothese ist, dass es nach einem abgeschwächten sensorischen Eingang zu Veränderungen der exzitatorischen und inhibitorischen Antwortfelder kommt, die als funktionelle Plastizität bzw. als Kompensation verstanden werden können. Anhand elektrophysiologischer Ableitungen im ICc von wachen, chronisch implantierten Tieren wurden die exzitatorischen und die inhibitorischen Antwortfelder der Neurone durch Einton- und Zweiton- Stimulation getrennt gemessen und bestimmt. Die Resultate zeigen, dass die exzitatorischen und inhibitorischen Antworteigenschaften im IC bei wachen und narkotisierten Tieren unterschiedlich sind. In wachen Tieren weist die Inhibition generell höhere Variation auf als in narkotisierten Tieren und ist unabhängiger von der Art der Exzitation. Eine Carboplatinbehandlung führte bei allen Tieren nach 3-7 Tagen zu einer Abnahme der Amplituden und einer Erhöhung der Schwellen der akustisch evozierten Hirnstammpotentiale (ABRs). Die histologische Untersuchung des Innenohres (10 Wochen nach Carboplatinbehandlung), zeigte bei allen Tieren Verluste der IHZ (zwischen 20 und 60%) entlang der gesamten Basilarmembran. Es wurden aber keine Verluste von ÄHZ festgestellt. Die Gehirn-Schnitte zeigten, dass die Registrierungen aus dem zentralen Teil des Colliculus Inferior stammen. Die physiologische Untersuchung der Antworteigenschaften der Neurone im IC 4-6 Wochen nach der carboplatinbedingten Schädigung der IHZ zeigte eine Reduktion der Inhibition, die u.a. deutlich an dem Verlauf der Intensitätskennlinien zu beobachten war. Nach dem Teilverlust der IHZ wurden viel weniger nichtmonotone Kennlinien gefunden als vor der Innenohrschädigung. Darüber hinaus beobachteten wir eine Reduzierung der inhibitorischen Regionen und eine signifikante Ausweitung der exzitatorischen Antwortfelder nach dem Teilverlust der IHZ. Die Resultate der vorliegenden Arbeit führen zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass nach einer Teilschädigung der inneren Haarzellen, unter Erhalt der ÄHZ nur ein geringer Sensitivitätsverlust in der zentralen Hörbahn auftritt. Der Verlust von 20-60% der IHZ und der damit einhergehende reduzierte afferente Informationsfluss führt zu physiologischen Veränderungen in der Hörbahn, die im IC von wachen Tieren vor allem durch eine Reduktion der Inhibition hervortritt. Dies deutet daraufhin, dass zentrale Kompensationsmechanismen bei peripheren Hörschäden nicht, wie bisher vermutet, erst in kortikalen sondern zum Teil bereits in subkortikalen Arealen (im Mittelhirn) stattfinden.
Interleukin-11 signaling is a global molecular switch between regeneration and scarring in zebrafish
(2022)
The two diametrically opposing outcomes after tissue damage are regeneration and fibrotic scarring. After injury, adult mammals predominantly induce fibrotic scarring, which most often leads to patient lethality. Fibrotic scarring is the deposition of excessive extracellular matrix that matures and hinders tissue function. The scarring response is mainly orchestrated by myofibroblasts, which arise only upon tissue damage, from various cellular origins, including tissue resident fibroblasts, endothelial cells and circulating blood cells. On the contrary, species like zebrafish, possess the remarkable capacity to regenerate their damaged tissues. After injury, instead of inducing a myofibroblast-mediated fibrogenic gene program, cells in these species undergo regenerative reprogramming at the transcriptional level to activate vital cellular processes needed for regeneration, including proliferation, dedifferentiation, and migration. Several pro-regenerative mechanisms have been identified to date. Most of them, if not all, are also important for tissue homeostasis and hence, are not injury specific. Therefore, the central aim of this study is to identify injury-specific mechanisms that not only induce regeneration, but also limit fibrotic scarring.
To test the notion that fibrotic scarring limits regeneration, I first compared the scarring response in the regenerative zebrafish heart after cryoinjury with what is known in the non-regenerative adult mouse heart. I found that zebrafish display ~10-fold less myofibroblast differentiation compared to adult mouse after cardiac injury. With these findings, I hypothesized that zebrafish employ mechanisms to actively suppress scarring response. Using a novel comparative transcriptomic approach coupled with genetic loss-of-function analyses, I identified that Interleukin-6 (Il-6) cytokine family-mediated Stat3 is one such pro-regenerative pathway in zebrafish.
Il-6 cytokine family consists of Il-6, Interleukin-11 (Il-11), Ciliary neurotrophic factor, Leukemia inhibitory factor, Oncostatin M, and Cardiotrophin-like cytokine factor 1. Il-6 family ligands signal through their specific receptors and a common receptor subunit (Il6st or Gp130). Using gene expression analyses after adult heart and adult caudal fin injuries in zebrafish, I identified that both the Il-11 cytokine encoding paralogous genes (il11a and il11b) are the highest expressed and induced among the Il-6 family cytokines. Hence, I chose Il-11 signaling as a candidate pathway for further analysis. To investigate the role of Il-11 signaling, I generated genetic loss-of-function mutants for both the ligand (il11a and il11b) and the receptor (il11ra) encoding genes. Using various tissue regeneration models across developmental stages in these mutants, I identified that Il-11/Stat3 signaling is indispensable for global tissue regeneration in zebrafish.
To investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which Il-11 signaling promotes regeneration, I performed transcriptomics comparing the non-regenerative il11ra mutant hearts and fins with that of the wild types, respectively. I identified that Il-11 signaling orchestrates both global and tissue-specific aspects of regenerative reprogramming at the transcriptional level. In addition, I also found that impaired regenerative reprogramming in the il11ra mutant hearts and fins resulted in defective cardiomyocyte and osteoblast repopulation of the injured area, respectively.
On the other hand, by deep phenotyping the scarring response in il11ra mutant hearts and fins, I identified that Il-11 signaling limits myofibroblast differentiation. Furthermore, I found that cardiac endothelial cells and fibroblasts are one of the major responders to injury-induced Il-11 signaling. Using lineage tracing, I found that both the endothelial and fibroblast lineages in the non-regenerative il11ra mutants commit to a myofibroblast fate, spearheading the scarring response. In addition, using cell type specific manipulations, I showed that Il-11 signaling in cardiac endothelial cells allows cardiomyocyte repopulation of the injured area. Finally, using human endothelial cells in culture, I uncovered a novel feedback mechanism by which Il-11 signaling limits fibrogenic gene expression by inhibiting its parent activator and a master regulator of tissue fibrosis, TGF-β signaling.
Overall, I identified Interleukin-11/Stat3 signaling as the first global regulator of regeneration in zebrafish. Briefly, I showed that Interleukin-11 signaling promotes regeneration by regulating two crucial cellular aspects in response to injury – (1) it promotes regenerative reprogramming, thereby allowing cell repopulation of the injured area and (2) it limits mammalian-like fibrotic scarring by inhibiting myofibroblast differentiation and TGF-β signaling. Altogether, these zebrafish data, together with the contradicting mammalian data strongly indicate that the secrets of tissue regeneration lie downstream of IL-11 signaling, in the differences between regenerative and non-regenerative species. Furthermore, I establish the non-regenerative il11ra mutant as an invaluable zebrafish model to study mammalian tissue fibrosis.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurden unterschiedliche Aspekte der Verbreitung der Vertreter des Pseudoterranova decipiens Komplexes betrachtet und Fragestellungen zur Ökologie und Humanpathogenität der Parasiten bearbeitet. Sie basiert auf drei (ISI-) Fachartikeln, in denen die Nutzung von Fischparasitengemeinschaften als ökologische Indikatoren für entlegene Ökosysteme des Südpolarmeeres (I), die Modellierung geeigneter Verbreitungsgebiete für Arten mit geringen Vorkommensdaten am Beispiel des P. decipiens Komplexes (II) und das Vorkommen potentiell humanpathogener P. bulbosa in unterschiedlichen Mikrohabitaten in Atlantischem Kabeljau (III) thematisiert wurde.
Die Parasitengemeinschaften der in Studie I untersuchten, nahverwandten Antarktisdorsche (Nototheniinae) Nototheniops larseni (n=40), N. nudifrons (n=40) und Lepidonotothen squamifrons (n=49) unterschieden sich hauptsächlich hinsichtlich seltener Parasitenarten. Pseudoterranova decipiens E zählte zu den häufigsten Parasiten der drei betrachteten Wirtsarten. Die Analyse der Wirtsspektren der auf Artebene bestimmten Parasiten zeigte eine geringe Spezifität antarktischer Fischparasiten im Larven- (z.B. Pseudoterranova decipiens E) und Adultstadium (z.B. Elytrophalloides oatesi). Für eine Nutzung als Bioindikatoren ergibt sich die Empfehlung, nicht auf einzelne Parasitenarten, sondern die Zusammensetzung von Parasitenfaunen zurückzugreifen und Parameter wie Abundanz oder Intensität zu berücksichtigen. Vergleiche mit Literaturdaten legten nahe, dass ein Studiendesign, das den periodischen Vergleich der Parasitierungsmuster von Nototheniinae ermöglichen soll, Standorteffekte berücksichtigen sollte. Da es sich bei der Probennahme demersaler Fische um ein aufwändiges und einschneidendes Verfahren handelt, sollten alternative Samplingmethoden vorangetrieben und eine Datenbasis dafür geschaffen werden.
Um die Belastung von Speisefischen mit potentiell humanpathogenen Parasiten in bestimmten Fanggebieten abzuschätzen, kann anhand von Vorkommens- und Umweltdaten mittels statistischer Modelle die Habitateignung für den Parasiten bestimmt werden. Eine Voraussetzung für eine verlässliche Modellierung bilden die Wahl eines geeigneten Algorithmus und die Qualität der Eingangsdaten. Für die Modellierung geeigneter Verbreitungsgebiete für die sechs Arten des P. decipiens Komplexes wurde im Rahmen von Studie II erstmalig ein biotischer Deskriptor herangezogen. Dem Ansatz lag die Annahme zugrunde, dass das Vorkommen geeigneter Endwirte der entscheidende, limitierende Faktor für die Verbreitung eines Parasiten ist, da nur so der Lebenszyklus geschlossen werden kann. Als Hypothesentest dienten Vergleiche der ökologischen Nischen von Parasiten und ihren spezifischen Endwirten im Nischenraum. Anhand der Endwirtdistanz wurde eine Verbesserung der Modellierungsergebnisse mit MaxEnt, gegenüber der ausschließlich auf abiotischen Prädiktoren basierenden Modellierung, für alle Pseudoterranova Arten, insbesondere jene mit einer geringen Anzahl Fundpunkte, erzielt. Grundsätzlich ist der Ansatz auf marine Parasitenarten, deren spezifische Endwirte verlässliche Vorkommensdaten aufweisen, übertragbar. Die Methode stellt jedoch keinen Ersatz für die Erhebung von Vorkommensdaten dar, weshalb die genetische Bestimmung schwer zu identifizierender Taxa sowie die Angabe von Metadaten in jeder parasitologischen Studie obligatorisch sein sollten.
Die Verteilung potentiell humanpathogener Parasitenstadien in für den menschlichen Verzehr vorgesehenen Fischen kann ein entscheidender Faktor für die Übertragung sein. Im Rahmen von Studie III wurde mit dem Referenztranskriptom von P. bulbosa das erste Transkriptom für eine Art den P. decipiens Komplexes erstellt. Anhand einer differentiellen Genexpressionsanalyse wurde untersucht, was die Verteilung der Parasiten auf unterschiedliche Mikrohabitate beeinflusst haben könnte. Dabei wurden siebzig differentiell exprimierte Gene identifiziert, die in aus Leber (32 Gene) und Viscera (38 Gene) von Atlantischem Kabeljau (Gadus morhua) isolierten Proben von P. bulbosa hochreguliert waren. Eine Erklärung für diesen subtilen Unterschied könnte ein Dauerstadium der P. bulbosa Larven zum Zeitpunkt der Probennahmen sein. Ob sich bestimmte Mikrohabitate innerhalb des Wirtes begünstigend auf den Parasiten auswirken, muss mit Hilfe experimenteller Studien gezeigt werden. Erste in Studie III erhobene Daten zum allergenen Potential von P. bulbosa sollten in serologischen Studien getestet werden. Als Grundlage für die Bewertung des pathogenen Potentials von P. bulbosa, sowie der weiteren Arten des P. decipiens Komplexes, sollten in experimentellen Studien NGS-Daten erhoben werden.
Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurde in drei methodisch unterschiedlichen Studien ein Bedarf besserer Referenzdaten aufgezeigt. Bestreben diese Datenlücken zu schließen, um das Potential der Methoden besser ausschöpfen zu können, müssen zukünftig noch weiter verstärkt werden.
We examined the feedback between the major protein degradation pathway, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), and protein synthesis in rat and mouse neurons. When protein degradation was inhibited, we observed a coordinate dramatic reduction in nascent protein synthesis in neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. The mechanism for translation inhibition involved the phosphorylation of eIF2α, surprisingly mediated by eIF2α kinase 1, or heme-regulated kinase inhibitor (HRI). Under basal conditions, neuronal expression of HRI is barely detectable. Following proteasome inhibition, HRI protein levels increase owing to stabilization of HRI and enhanced translation, likely via the increased availability of tRNAs for its rare codons. Once expressed, HRI is constitutively active in neurons because endogenous heme levels are so low; HRI activity results in eIF2α phosphorylation and the resulting inhibition of translation. These data demonstrate a novel role for neuronal HRI that senses and responds to compromised function of the proteasome to restore proteostasis.
Capoeta damascina (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) is one of the most common freshwater fish species, found throughout the Levant, Mesopotamia, Turkey and Iran. According to the state of knowledge prior to this study, C. damascina, which is distributed over a wide range of isolated water bodies, was not a well-defined species. It was questionable whether it represents a single species or a complex of closely related species with high intraspecific and comparatively low interspecific variability. The goal of this study was to investigate the taxonomy, systematic position of the C. damascina species complex and the phylogenetic relationships among its members, based on morphological features as well as molecular phylogeny. Samples obtained from throughout the geographic range of this species complex were subjected to comparative morphological analyses in order to define, properly diagnose and separate species within the C. damascina complex. To elucidate phylogenetic relationships among members of the C. damascina species complex, samples were subjected to genetic analyses, using two molecular markers targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI, n = 103) and the two adjacent divergence regions (D1-D2) of the nuclear 28S rRNA genes (LSU, n = 65). Based on morphological and molecular genetic data, six closely related species were recognized within the C. damascina complex: C. buhsei, C. caelestis, C. damascina, C. saadii, C. umbla and an undescribed species, Capoeta sp.1. Analyses of the morphometric and meristic data obtained in this study revealed phenotypic variability among the various populations within a species and among the different species. Such differences in morphological characters reflect genetic differences, environmentally induced phenotypic variation or both, as the meristic phenotype of fish is sometimes a consequence of environmental parameters acting on the genotype. Based on phylogenetic analyses, two main lineages were identified within the C. damascina species complex: a western lineage represented by C. caelestis, C. damascina and C. umbla and an eastern lineage represented by C. buhsei, C. saadii and Capoeta sp.1. The close phylogenetic relationships between C. damascina and C. umbla and the sharing of same haplotypes between one specimen of C. damascina from Euphrates and another of C. umbla from Tigris reflect one of three possibilites: recent speciation, mitochondrial introgression or a combination of both. The results obtained in this study indicate that speciation of the above-mentioned six taxa is quite recent and that their dispersal and present-day distribution can be related to Pleistocene events. The drying out of the Persian Gulf, probably during one of the first glacials of the Pleistocene, led the ancestor of the C. damascina species complex in Mesopotamia to reach the rivers of the Gulf and of Hormuz basins and differentiate there, giving rise to the eastern lineage (ancestor of C. buhsei, C. saadii and Capoeta sp.1). As connections presumably existed among the different river drainages and basins in Iran during the wet periods of the Pleistocene, the ancestor of C. buhsei, C. saadii and Capoeta sp.1 was subsequently able to colonize the various Iranian drainages and differentiate there, giving rise to C. buhsei, C. saadii and Capoeta sp.1. After the separation from the eastern lineage, the western lineage, represented by the ancestor of C. damascina, C. umbla and C. caelestis, most likely reached the Levant from the Tigris-Euphrates system during the Pleistocene glacials, when river connections existed in the regions of the upper courses of Ceyhan Nehri (southern Turkey) and some western affluents to the Euphrates. From Ceyhan Nehri, it dispersed into other rivers in southern Turkey during Pleistocene periods of low sea levels until it reached Göksu Nehri and evolved into C. caelestis. The sister population differentiated into C. damascina and C. umbla. Based on the results obtained in this study, it is likely that C. damascina colonized the Levant and southern Turkey during the Pleistocene glacials. This is well supported by the low genetic variability among the C. damascina populations. Direct connections existed among the river drainages in the Levant during the Pleistocene periods of low sea level, thus serving as a pathway for the dispersal of C. damascina. The results of this study provide a coherent picture of the taxonomic position, phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of the C. damascina species complex and explain present patterns of distribution considering paleogeographic events.
Capoeta damascina was earlier considered by many authors as one of the most common freshwater fish species found throughout the Levant, Mesopotamia, Turkey, and Iran. However, owing to a high variation in morphological characters among and within its various populations, 17 nominal species were described, several of which were regarded as valid by subsequent revising authors. Capoeta damascina proved to be a complex of closely related species, which had been poorly studied. The current study aims at defining C. damascina and the C. damascina species complex. It investigates phylogenetic relationships among the various members of the C. damascina complex, based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. Phylogenetic relationships were projected against paleogeographical events to interpret the geographic distribution of the taxa under consideration in relation to the area’s geological history. Samples were obtained from throughout the geographic range and were subjected to genetic analyses, using two molecular markers targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (n = 103) and the two adjacent divergence regions (D1-D2) of the nuclear 28S rRNA genes (n = 65). Six closely related species were recognized within the C. damascina complex, constituting two main lineages: A western lineage represented by C. caelestis, C. damascina, and C. umbla and an eastern lineage represented by C. buhsei, C. coadi, and C. saadii. The results indicate that speciation of these taxa is rather a recent event. Dispersal occurred during the Pleistocene, resulting in present-day distribution patterns. A coherent picture of the phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history of the C. damascina species complex is drawn, explaining the current patterns of distribution as a result of paleogeographic events and ecological adaptations.
The reggie protein family consists of two homologous members, reggie-1 and reggie-2, also termed flotillin-2 and flotillin-1, respectively, that are ubiquitously expressed and evolutionarily well conserved, suggesting an important but so far ill-defined function. In various cell types, both reggies have been found to be constitutively associated with lipid rafts by means of acylation modifications and oligomerization. Lipid rafts are glycosphingolipid- and cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains which have been implicated in several cellular processes including membrane transport and signal transduction through growth factor receptors. However, the molecular details of these processes are still poorly understood. With the observation that reggies colocalize with activated glycosylphosphatidylinositolanchored proteins (GPI-APs) and Fyn kinase in rafts, a role for these proteins in signaling events has been suggested. In agreement with that, we have previously shown that reggie-1 becomes multiply tyrosine phosphorylated by Src kinases in response to epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulation, pointing to a function for reggie-1 in growth factor signaling. Furthermore, overexpression of reggie-1 enhances spreading on fibronectin substrate in a tyrosine-dependent manner, thus revealing a role for reggie-1 in regulation of actin cytoskeleton through growth factor receptors. Due to the similarity shared by reggie proteins at amino acid level and to their ability to form hetero-oligomeric complexes, the first aim of this study was to analyze the putative tyrosine phosphorylation of reggie-2 in growth factor stimulated cells. Similarly to reggie-1, reggie-2 was found to be multiply tyrosine phosphorylated by Src kinase and to exist in a molecular complex with Src, with the degree of co-immunoprecipitation dependent on the activity of Src. Recent studies from us have also shown that administration of EGF results in the endocytosis of reggie-1 from the plasma membrane into endosomes, which is in line with a proposed role for reggies in membrane trafficking processes. In order to characterize in detail the endocytic mechanism that mediates the uptake of reggie-1, the dependency of reggie-1 endocytosis on clathrin and dynamin was investigated by means of overexpressing a variant form of Eps15 or a dominant negative form of dynamin-2. In either case the translocation of reggie-1 into endosomes in response to EGF was not affected, and this, together with the results that reggie-1 colocalized with cholera toxin (CTX) but not with transferrin receptor (TfnR) during EGF signaling, indicates that reggie-1 is taken up by means of a dynaminindependent, raft-mediated pathway. These findings are very well in line with recent data showing the pathway of entry into cells of reggie-2 as a raft-mediated endocytic pathway. The endocytosis of reggie-2 in response to EGF was also analyzed in this study. Similarly to reggie-1, in growth factor stimulated cells reggie-2 underwent a translocation from the plasma membrane to endosomes where the two reggies were found to colocalize with each other, suggesting that epidermal growth factor signaling might trigger the endocytosis of reggie oligomers. In addition, colocalization with both the late endosomal marker LAMP3/CD63 and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was detected, again indicating a function for reggies in signal transduction through growth factor receptors. EGFR has been reported to localize in rafts but, although this association is thought to be functional during EGF stimulation, how segregation of EGFR into rafts modulates its endocytosis and signaling is still under debate. Since reggie oligomers have recently been suggested to define a raft subtype, a further aim of this study was to investigate whether the depletion of reggies by means of small interfering RNA could interfere with the signaling and the trafficking through EGFR. Knockdown of reggie-2 resulted in an altered tyrosine phosphorylation of EGFR in response to EGF, while the degree of ubiquitination was not affected. Less efficient phosphorylation of tyrosine residues, especially of those which are docking sites for Grb2 and Shc, led in turn to an impaired activation of p38 and ERK1/2 MAPKs. Depletion of reggie-2 did not affect the early trafficking of activated EGFRs, with receptors being endocytosed and delivered to late endosomes as efficiently as in control cells. This would be in line with the normal degree of ubiquitination observed for EGFR, as ubiquitin moieties have been proposed to represent sorting tags that ensure receptor endocytosis into early endosomes and its proper intracellular trafficking. On the contrary, after prolonged EGF stimulation, depletion of reggie-2 resulted in a decreased downregulation of both receptor-bound ligand and EGFR, and in their accumulation in intracellular vesicles, thus pointing to a role for reggie-2 in the degradative pathway. Taken all together, these data ndicate that the association of EGFR with reggie-microdomains is likely to be important for proper receptor trafficking and signaling.
Glucokinase (GK) is a key enzyme of glucose metabolism in liver and pancreatic beta-cells, and small molecule activators of GK (GKAs) are under evaluation for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. In liver, GK activity is controlled by the GK regulatory protein (GKRP), which forms an inhibitory complex with the enzyme. Here, we performed isothermal titration calorimetry and surface plasmon resonance experiments to characterize GK-GKRP binding and to study the influence that physiological and pharmacological effectors of GK have on the protein-protein interaction. In the presence of fructose-6-phosphate, GK-GKRP complex formation displayed a strong entropic driving force opposed by a large positive enthalpy; a negative change in heat capacity was observed (Kd = 45 nm, DeltaH = 15.6 kcal/mol, TDeltaS = 25.7 kcal/mol, DeltaCp = -354 cal mol(-1) K(-1)). With k(off) = 1.3 x 10(-2) s(-1), the complex dissociated quickly. The thermodynamic profile suggested a largely hydrophobic interaction. In addition, effects of pH and buffer demonstrated the coupled uptake of one proton and indicated an ionic contribution to binding. Glucose decreased the binding affinity between GK and GKRP. This decrease was potentiated by an ATP analogue. Prototypical GKAs of the amino-heteroaryl-amide type bound to GK in a glucose-dependent manner and impaired the association of GK with GKRP. This mechanism might contribute to the antidiabetic effects of GKAs.
Ulrike Anders hat zwischen Januar und September 2005 Zähne und Gebiß rezenter Schleichkatzen (Viverridae) untersucht und Parameter identifiziert, anhand derer sich Nahrungspräferenzen zuordnen lassen. Viverriden gelten als basale Carnivoren mit omnivorem Nahrungsspektrum. Da die für echte Katzen so typische Brechschere und die Reduktion des Gebisses nur wenig ausgeprägt ist, gilt ihr Gebiss als unspezialisiert. Dennoch besitzen Viverriden Nahrungspräferenzen, die sich in der Umgestaltung ihres Gebisses, auch in einzelnen Zahnpositionen niederschlägt. Diese Veränderungen wurden metrisch charakterisiert.
Across the entire animal kingdom, sociality, i.e. the tendency of individual animals to form a group with conspecifics, is a common trait. Environmental changes have to be met with corresponding, quick adaptations. For social species, the presence of conspecifics is important for survival and if social animals are deprived of access to conspecifics, this can lead to strong and lasting changes on a physiological level as well as behaviour. Gene expression changes responsible for these adaptations have so far not been understood in detail. As social isolation leads to changes on a neuronal level, it is important to investigate the gene expression changes that are induced in the brain. In this thesis, next-generation RNA-sequencing was applied to zebrafish, a well-established model organism characterized by its high degree of companionship. Within the entire brain, gene expression was analysed in zebrafish that were raised either with conspecifis or in isolation, ranging from 5 to 21 days post fertilization. Using this approach, several genes were identified that were downregulated by social isolation. In this thesis, I focused on one of these consistently downregulated genes, parathyroid hormone 2 (pth2). The expression of pth2 was demonstrated to be bidirectionally regulated by the number of conspecifics present and to be responsive to changes in the social environment within 30 minutes. Regulation of pth2 does not occur by visual or chemosensory access to conspecifcs, but is mediated by mechanosensory perception of other fish via the lateral line. In an experiment using an artificial mechanical stimulation paradigm, it was shown that the features necessary to elicit pth2 transcription closely mimick the locomotion of actual zebrafish. Other, similar stimulation paradigms are not capable to induce this transcriptional response.
Das Leben aller Organismen wird grundlegend durch den tages- und jahreszeitlich bedingten Wechsel der Beleuchtungsverhältnisse geprägt. Die Anpassung der Stoffwechselprozesse und Verhaltensweisen an diese Oszillationen erfolgt nicht passiv, sondern wird durch eine innere Uhr gesteuert. Tageszeitliche Rhythmen, die auch ohne den Einfluss äußerer, periodisch verlaufender Umgebungsreize (Zeitgeber) ablaufen, werden als zirkadiane Rhythmen bezeichnet. Im Säugetier steuert ein endogener Rhythmusgenerator im Nucleus suprachiasmaticus (SCN) zirkadiane Rhythmen, indem er periphere Oszillatoren miteinander synchronisiert. Auf molekularer Ebene besteht dieser endogener Rhythmusgenerator aus Aktivatoren (BMAL1 und CLOCK/NPAS2) und Inhibitoren (PER1/2 und Cry1/2), die in Rückkopplungsschleifen die Grundlage für die Rhythmogenese steuern. Die Synchronisation dieses molekularen Uhrwerkes an die Umgebungszeit erfolgt durch Licht, das in der Retina wahrgenommen und an das SCN weitergeleitet wird. Die Signaltransduktionskaskaden nach einem Lichtpuls in der frühen und der späten Nacht unterscheiden sich dabei wesentlich: Ein Lichtpuls während der frühen Nacht führt zu einer erhöhten Freisetzung von Ca2+-Ionen über Ryanodin Rezeptoren (RYR), während ein Lichtpuls während der späten Nacht zu einer erhöhten Guanylylcyclase Aktivität führt. Um zu untersuchen, wie der endogene Rhythmusgenerator seinen Lichteingang reguliert, wurde die Licht-vermittelte Phasenverzögerung in BMAL1+/+- (profizienten) und BMAL1-/-- (defizienten) Mäusen untersucht. Die Befunde aus den in-situ Hybridisierungsstudien, RTQ-PCR und immunhistochemischen Untersuchungen dieser Arbeit zeigten, dass in BMAL1-/--Mäusen die Licht-induzierte mPer-Expression während der frühen Nacht selektiv beeinträchtigt ist. Zudem konnte gezeigt werden, dass die mRNA- und Proteinmengen von RYRs in BMAL1-/--Mäusen dramatisch reduziert waren. Ryr1:: und Ryr2::Luciferase-Reportersstudien zeigten darüber hinaus, dass die Ryr-Expression durch CLOCK/BMAL1 aktiviert und durch CRY1inhibiert werden kann. Diese Ergebnisse liefern den ersten Beweis dafür, dass der endogene Rhythmusgenerator des Säugers die Signalübertragung seines eigenen Lichteingangs regulieren kann. Weiterhin wurde in dieser Arbeit die ontogenetische Entwicklung des endogenen Rhythmusgenerators im SCN und in einem Melatonin-abhängigen peripheren Oszillator, der PT, untersucht und miteinander verglichen. Dazu wurden die Uhrengenproteine im fetalen (E18), postnatalen (P2 & P10) und adulten SCN und in der PT von C3H-Mäusen zu vier verschiedenen zirkadianen Zeitpunkten mittels Immunhistochemie untersucht. Die Anzahl immunreaktiver SCN-Zellen gegen alle untersuchten Uhrengenproteine (außer BMAL1) war im Fetus signifikant niedriger, als in der adulten Maus. Auch im SCN neonataler (P2) Mäuse erreichte die Anzahl immunreaktiver Zellen noch nicht das Niveau der adulten Maus. Erst 10 Tage nach der Geburt (P10) zeigen alle Uhrengenproteine im SCN ein adultes Verteilungsmuster. Offenbar reift das Uhrwerk im SCN von Mäusen graduell während der postnatalen Entwicklungsphase. Dabei besteht eine zeitliche Korrelation zwischen der Reifung des endogenen Rhythmusgenerators im SCN und der Ausbildung von inter-suprachiasmatischen und retino-suprachiaamatischen neuronalen Kontakten. Im Gegensatz zum SCN zeigte der Melatonin-abhängigen Oszilllator in der PT bereits im Fetus einen nahezu vollständig ausgeprägten Rhythmus der Uhrengenproteine. Da das fetale Pinealorgan noch nicht zur rhythmischen Melatonin-Synthese fähig ist, liegt es nahe, dass das mütterliche Melatonin die rhythmische Expression der Uhrengene in der fetalen PT reguliert. Wie in vitro Untersuchungen an PER2::LUCIFERASE-Mäusen zeigten, hat das mütterliche Melatonin offenbar auch einen modulierenden Einfluss auf den fetalen SCN. Bei diesen Mäusen konnte im fetalen und postnatalen SCN ein zirkadianer Rhythmus in der PER2-Synthese nachgewiesen werden, der eine relativ lange Periodenlänge aufwies und nach 3 Tagen zum Erliegen kam. Eine Stimulation mit Melatonin führte zu einer deutlichen Verkürzung der Periodenlänge im PER2-Rhythmus. Folglich scheint das mütterliche Melatonin eine wichtige Quelle für Informationen der Umgebungszeit im Fetus zu sein. Um die Uhrengenexpression während der Maus-Ontogenese in vitro auf zellulärer Ebene darzustellen, wurde in dieser Arbeit zudem ein vom murinen Per2-Promoter angetriebenes DsRed- Reportersystem etabliert und der Versuch begonnen, eine darauf basierende transgene Maus zu generieren.
Neurons collect their inputs from other neurons by sending out arborized dendritic structures. However, the relationship between the shape of dendrites and the precise organization of synaptic inputs in the neural tissue remains unclear. Inputs could be distributed in tight clusters, entirely randomly or else in a regular grid-like manner. Here, we analyze dendritic branching structures using a regularity index R, based on average nearest neighbor distances between branch and termination points, characterizing their spatial distribution. We find that the distributions of these points depend strongly on cell types, indicating possible fundamental differences in synaptic input organization. Moreover, R is independent of cell size and we find that it is only weakly correlated with other branching statistics, suggesting that it might reflect features of dendritic morphology that are not captured by commonly studied branching statistics. We then use morphological models based on optimal wiring principles to study the relation between input distributions and dendritic branching structures. Using our models, we find that branch point distributions correlate more closely with the input distributions while termination points in dendrites are generally spread out more randomly with a close to uniform distribution. We validate these model predictions with connectome data. Finally, we find that in spatial input distributions with increasing regularity, characteristic scaling relationships between branching features are altered significantly. In summary, we conclude that local statistics of input distributions and dendrite morphology depend on each other leading to potentially cell type specific branching features.
RBFOX1 is a highly pleiotropic gene that contributes to several psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Both rare and common variants in RBFOX1 have been associated with several psychiatric conditions, but the mechanisms underlying the pleiotropic effects of RBFOX1 are not yet understood. Here we found that, in zebrafish, rbfox1 is expressed in spinal cord, mid- and hindbrain during developmental stages. In adults, expression is restricted to specific areas of the brain, including telencephalic and diencephalic regions with an important role in receiving and processing sensory information and in directing behaviour. To investigate the effect of rbfox1 deficiency on behaviour, we used rbfox1sa15940, a rbfox1 loss-of-function line. We found that rbfox1sa15940 mutants present hyperactivity, thigmotaxis, decreased freezing behaviour and altered social behaviour. We repeated these behavioural tests in a second rbfox1 loss-of-function line with a different genetic background, rbfox1del19, and found that rbfox1 deficiency affects behaviour similarly in this line, although there were some differences. rbfox1del19 mutants present similar thigmotaxis, but stronger alterations in social behaviour and lower levels of hyperactivity than rbfox1sa15940 fish. Taken together, these results suggest that rbfox1 deficiency leads to multiple behavioural changes in zebrafish that might be modulated by environmental, epigenetic and genetic background effects, and that resemble phenotypic alterations present in Rbfox1-deficient mice and in patients with different psychiatric conditions. Our study thus highlights the evolutionary conservation of rbfox1 function in behaviour and paves the way to further investigate the mechanisms underlying rbfox1 pleiotropy on the onset of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders.
RBFOX1 is a highly pleiotropic gene that contributes to several psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Both rare and common variants in RBFOX1 have been associated with several psychiatric conditions, but the mechanisms underlying the pleiotropic effects of RBFOX1 are not yet understood. Here we found that, in zebrafish, rbfox1 is expressed in spinal cord, mid- and hindbrain during developmental stages. In adults, expression is restricted to specific areas of the brain, including telencephalic and diencephalic regions with an important role in receiving and processing sensory information and in directing behaviour. To investigate the effect of rbfox1 deficiency on behaviour, we used rbfox1sa15940, a rbfox1 loss-of-function line. We found that rbfox1sa15940 mutants present hyperactivity, thigmotaxis, decreased freezing behaviour and altered social behaviour. We repeated these behavioural tests in a second rbfox1 loss-of-function line with a different genetic background, rbfox1del19, and found that rbfox1 deficiency affects behaviour similarly in this line, although there were some differences. rbfox1del19 mutants present similar thigmotaxis, but stronger alterations in social behaviour and lower levels of hyperactivity than rbfox1sa15940 fish. Taken together, these results suggest that rbfox1 deficiency leads to multiple behavioural changes in zebrafish that might be modulated by environmental, epigenetic and genetic background effects, and that resemble phenotypic alterations present in Rbfox1-deficient mice and in patients with different psychiatric conditions. Our study thus highlights the evolutionary conservation of rbfox1 function in behaviour and paves the way to further investigate the mechanisms underlying rbfox1 pleiotropy on the onset of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders.
Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, ausgewählte Gruppen der Dekapoden (brachyure Krabben, Einsiedler und Porzellankrebse) des PersischArabischen Golfes und des Golfes von Oman taxo nomischfaunistisch zu erfassen, eine Abschätzung des Artenreichtums und der Faunenzusam mensetzung vorzunehmen und die zoogeographischen Beziehungen innerhalb der Golfregion und zu anderen Teilen des westlichen Indischen Ozeans zu analysieren. Die Dekapodenfauna der Golfregion war -- im Gegensatz zur sehr viel besser untersuchten des Roten Meeres -- bislang Gegenstand vergleichsweise weniger wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten, und der faunistischtaxonomische Kenntnisstand stellte sich als entsprechend lückenhaft dar. Dies erwies sich einerseits als Problem bei der Beurteilung des Zustands von Lebensgemeinschaften und Folgeschäden nach der Ölkatastrophe von 1991, andererseits als Hindernis für Faunen vergleiche und zoogeographische Studien. Um vor allem die bislang wenig bearbeiteten eulitoralen Lebensräume wie Watten und Man groven, aber auch Korallenriffe, intensiv zu beproben, wurden Sammelreisen in verschiedene Teile des PersischArabischen Golfes und den Golf von Oman durchgeführt. Daneben wurde umfangreiches Museumsmaterial der bedeutenden Sammlungen aus der Golfregion taxonomisch untersucht, mit Material aus anderen Regionen verglichen und neu bewertet. Insgesamt konnte für den PersischArabischen Golf das Vorkommen von 188 Arten brachy urer Krabben, 20 Pagurideen (Einsiedlerkrebse) und 18 Porcellaniden (Porzellankrebse) eindeutig belegt werden; 43 Arten (37 Brachyuren, 4 Pagurideen und 2 Porcellaniden) wurden erstmals für den Golf nachgewiesen. Bei 11 dieser Neunachweise handelt es sich um bislang unbeschriebene Arten. Ein faunistischer Vergleich zu anderen Teilen des Indischen Ozeans zeigt, daß der Golf für die untersuchten Taxa insgesamt deutlich artenärmer als das Rote Meer oder die ostafrikanische Küste ist. Dies ist vor allem auf die geringere Ausdehnung und schlechtere Entwicklung von Korallenriffen sowie das Fehlen von Tiefwasserhabitaten, aber auch auf das Vorherrschen extre mer ökologischer Bedingungen in weiten Teilen des Golfes zurückzuführen. Zwischen verschie denen systematischen und ökologischen Gruppen bestehen allerdings große Unterschiede hinsichtlich des Artenreichtums. Während hartboden und korallenassoziierte Gruppen im Golf deutlich unterrepräsentiert sind, findet sich bei weichbodenbewohnenden Taxa eine vergleichs weise artenreiche Fauna. Besonders auffallend ist dabei der Artenreichtum der eulitoralen Ocypodidae, die mit 23 Arten im Golf eine weitaus höhere Artendiversität erreichen als im Roten Meer oder an der ostafrikanischen Küste und gemeinsam mit den ebenfalls vorwiegend in der Gezeitenzone leben den Grapsiden einen Schwerpunkt der Arbeit bildeten. Innerhalb der Golfregion zeigten sich für diese Familien große Unterschiede hinsichtlich des Artenreichtums und der Faunenzusammen setzung. Die Wattgebiete und Mangroven des nördlichen und des südöstlichen PersischArabi schen Golfes sowie des Golfes von Oman fallen dabei durch ihre sehr diverse Fauna auf. Stark verarmt ist dagegen die eulitorale Fauna des südwestlichen und westlichen Teils des Persisch Arabischen Golfes. Der Grund für diese Verarmung ist dabei vor allem im hohen Salzgehalt des küstennahen Wasserkörpers zu sehen. Die Ergebnisse der faunistischtaxonomischen Auswertungen ermöglichten eine zoogeogra phische Analyse, bei der die Dekapodenfauna sowohl auf ihre Homogenität innerhalb der Golf region, als auch auf ihre Beziehungen zu der aus anderen Teilen des Indischen Ozeans untersucht wurde. Hierzu wurden Endemismusraten und Verbreitungsmuster der aus dem Golf nachgewie senen Arten betrachtet sowie Faunenähnlichkeiten mit Hilfe multivariater statistischer Methoden analysiert. Zoogeographisch stellt sich die Dekapodenfauna der Golfregion als Mischung unterschied licher zoogeographischer Elemente dar. Dies reflektiert die Lage des Golfes am Übergang zwischen westlichem Indischen Ozean und indischer bzw. indomalaiischer Region. Die Endemis musraten liegen bei 6 % für Porcellaniden, 7 % für Brachyuren und rund 10 % für Pagurideen. Für keine der Gruppen läßt sich daraus eine Begründung für eine eigene Faunenprovinz oder ein Endemismuszentrum ableiten. Neben den Endemiten beinhaltet die Fauna Arten unterschied licher geographischer Beziehungen. Den größten Anteil stellen weit verbreitete Arten, die je nach Gruppe zwischen der Hälfte und zwei Dritteln der im Golf vorkommenden Arten ausmachen. Für die Einsiedlerkrebse sind daneben vor allem Arten aus dem Roten Meer und dem Golf von Aden von Bedeutung, was auf eine enge Beziehung der Pagurideenfauna zu diesen Gebieten hin weist. Dagegen sind für die Brachyuren indopakistanische und indomalaiische Arten von weit aus größerer Bedeutung, was eine größere Ähnlichkeit der Krabbenfauna zu der Pakistans und Indiens andeutet. Innerhalb der Golfregion ergaben sich für die Brachyurenfauna, insbesondere für Ocypodi den, deutliche Unterschiede hinsichtlich der zoogeographischen Beziehungen. Während der von östlichen Faunenelementen dominierte nördliche und östliche Golf kaum westliche Faunen elemente aufweist, stellen diese im südlichen Golf und vor allem im westlichen Teil des Golfes von Oman einen erheblichen Anteil an der Gesamtfauna. Getrennt werden diese beiden Gebiete durch die Bereiche des südlichen und westlichen Golfes, in denen die extrem hohen Salzgehalte eine wirksame Verbreitungsbarriere darstellen. Zumindest für einige Taxa ist demnach die Golf region nicht als einheitliche faunistischzoogeographische Region zu betrachten. Während der nördliche und östliche Teil des PersischArabischen Golfes zoogeographisch eng mit Pakistan verbunden sind, zeigen sein südlicher Teil und der westliche Golf von Oman engere Beziehungen zum Golf von Aden und dem Roten Meer. Aufgrund der vergleichsweise guten Dokumentation der Faunenzusammensetzung in ver schiedenen Teilen des Indischen Ozeans ließ sich für Ocypodiden und Grapsiden ein überregio naler Faunenvergleich mit Hilfe multivariater Analysenmethoden durchführen und eine zoogeo graphische Unterteilung des Indischen Ozeans vornehmen. Innerhalb des westlichen Teils des Indischen Ozeans lassen sich dabei drei Regionen aufgrund ihrer Faunenähnlichkeit voneinander abgrenzen. Dies sind -- eine ost/südostafrikanische Region, die von der Nordostküste Südafrikas bis nach Somalia reicht -- eine west/südarabische Region bestehend aus Rotem Meer, Golf von Aden, der südarabi schen Küste und dem westlichen Golf von Oman, die auch in den südöstlichen Persisch Arabischen Golf hineinzieht -- eine ostarabischpakistanische oder iranischpakistanische Region, die den nördlichen und östlichen Teil des PersischArabischen Golfes, den östlichen Golf von Oman sowie Pakistan und Nordwestindien umfaßt Hinsichtlich der Besiedlungsgeschichte des PersischArabischen Golfes zeigen die Ergebnisse, daß eine Besiedlung durch eulitorale Krabben zum größten Teil von der indischen Seite aus entlang der iranischen Küste stattgefunden haben muß, während später eingewanderte westliche Elemente aufgrund der massiven Salinitätsbarriere und der Strömungsverhältnisse auf den süd östlichsten Teil beschränkt blieben. Vor allem die Gezeitenzonen des PersischArabischen Golfes weisen teilweise sehr diverse Lebensgemeinschaften auf, deren Artenzusammensetzung in ihrer Mischung unterschiedlicher zoogeographischer Elemente einzigartig ist und den Einfluß verschiedener Wasserkörper auf den Golf anzeigt. Für die Ocypodiden führt dies zu einer hohen regionalen oder gammaDiversität sowie einer über reine Artendiversität hinausgehenden Diversität der Lebensgemeinschaften. Während sich die Folgen des Golfkriegs als weniger gravierend als ursprünglich befürchtet erwiesen haben, könnten Habitatzerstörung und schleichende Verschmutzung die Lebensgemein schaften des PersischArabischen Golfes irreparabel schädigen.
Dissecting the complexities of mammalian heart development and regenerative capacity require thorough understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms through the expression pattern of proteins and post-translational modifications. To obtain insights intoactivated signaling pathways that control the cellular phenotype during postnatal heart development, we generated a comprehensive map of phosphorylation sites. In total we identified 21,261 phosphorylation sites and 8985 proteins in developing mouse hearts by mass spectrometry. The in-vivo SILAC (stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture) approach allowed robust quantification of phosphorylation sites and proteins, which are regulated during heart development. We found several activated pathways involved in cell cycle regulation and detected numerous kinases and transcription factors to be regulated on protein and phosphopeptide level. Most strikingly, we identified a novel mitochondrial protein, known previously as Perm1, as a highly phosphorylated factor regulated during heart development. We renamed Perm1 as MICOS complex subunit Mic85 since it shows robust physical interaction with MICOS complex subunits, including Mitofilin (Mic60), Chchd3 (Mic19), Chchd6 (Mic25) and the outer membrane protein Samm50. Moreover, Mic85 is localized to the mitochondrial inner membrane facing the intermembrane space and the dynamics of Mic85 protein expression is regulated by the ubiquitin-proteasomal system through phosphorylation of casein kinase 2 on its PEST motif. Silencing of Mic85 in cultured neonatal cardiomyocytes impairs mitochondrial morphology and compromises oxidative capacity. Our findings support a clear role for Mic85 in the maintenance of mitochondrial architecture and in its contribution to enhanced energetics during developing and adult mouse cardiomyocytes. The transgenic Mic85 knockout mouse generated with a GFP knock-in will support future in vivo investigations on the integrity of mitochondria and the function of Mic85 in cardiac development.
Attitude polarization describes an increasing attitude difference between groups and is increasingly recognized as a multidimensional phenomenon. However, a unified framework to study polarization across multiple dimensions is lacking. We introduce the attitudinal space framework (ASF) to fully quantify attitudinal diversity. We highlight two key measures—attitudinal extremization and attitudinal dispersion—to quantify across- and within-group attitudinal patterns. First, we show that affective polarization in the US electorate is weaker than previously thought based on mean differences alone: in both Democrat and Republican partisans, attitudinal dispersion increased between 1988 and 2008. Second, we examined attitudes toward wolves in Germany. Despite attitude differences between regions with and without wolves, we did not find differences in attitudinal extremization or dispersion, suggesting only weak attitude polarization. These results illustrate how the ASF is applicable to a wide range of social systems and offers an important avenue to understanding societal transformations.
Large carnivores often impact human livelihoods and well‐being. Previous research has mostly focused on the negative impacts of large carnivores on human well‐being but has rarely considered the positive aspects of living with large carnivores. In particular, we know very little on people's direct experiences with large carnivores like personal encounters and on people's awareness and tolerance toward their exposure to large carnivores. Here, we focus on the wolf (Canis lupus), and report on a phone survey in Germany. We examined whether encounters with wolves were positive or negative experiences and quantified people's awareness and tolerance related to their exposure to wolves. We found that the majority of people reported positive experiences when encountering wolves, regardless of whether wolves were encountered in the wild within Germany, in the wild abroad, or in captivity. The frequency of encounters did not affect the probability to report positive, neutral, or negative experiences. Moreover, people in Germany expressed a high tolerance of living in close vicinity to wolves. These findings are novel and important because they highlight the positive aspects of living in proximity with large carnivores in human‐dominated landscapes.
Southern African protected areas (PAs) harbour a great diversity of animals, which represent a large potential for wildlife tourism. In this region, global change is expected to result in vegetation changes, such as bush encroachment and increases in vegetation density. However, little is known on the influence of vegetation structure on wildlife tourists’ wildlife viewing experience and satisfaction. In this study, we collected data on vegetation structure and perceived mammal densities along 196 road transects (each 5 km long) and conducted a social survey with 651 questionnaires across four PAs in three Southern African countries. Our objectives were 1) to assess visitors’ attitude towards vegetation, 2) to test the influence of perceived mammal density and vegetation structure on the easiness to spot animals, and 3) on visitors’ satisfaction during their visit to PAs. Using a Boosted Regression Tree procedure, we found mostly negative non-linear relationships between vegetation density and wildlife tourists’ experience, and positive relationships between perceived mammal densities and wildlife tourists’ experience. In particular, wildlife tourists disliked road transects with high estimates of vegetation density. Similarly, the easiness to spot animals dropped at thresholds of high vegetation density and at perceived mammal densities lower than 46 individuals per road transect. Finally, tourists’ satisfaction declined linearly with vegetation density and dropped at mammal densities smaller than 26 individuals per transect. Our results suggest that vegetation density has important impacts on tourists’ wildlife viewing experience and satisfaction. Hence, the management of PAs in savannah landscapes should consider how tourists perceive these landscapes and their mammal diversity in order to maintain and develop a sustainable wildlife tourism.
A quantitative analysis of photoreceptor properties was performed in the retina of the nocturnal deer mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus, using pigmented (wildtype) and albino animals. The aim was to establish whether the deer mouse is a more suitable model species than the house mouse for photoreceptor studies, and whether oculocutaneous albinism affects its photoreceptor properties. In retinal flatmounts, cone photoreceptors were identified by opsin immunostaining, and their numbers, spectral types, and distributions across the retina were determined. Rod photoreceptors were counted using differential interference contrast microscopy. Pigmented P. maniculatus have a rod-dominated retina with rod densities of about 450.000/mm(2) and cone densities of 3000 - 6500/mm(2). Two cone opsins, shortwave sensitive (S) and middle-to-longwave sensitive (M), are present and expressed in distinct cone types. Partial sequencing of the S opsin gene strongly supports UV sensitivity of the S cone visual pigment. The S cones constitute a 5-15% minority of the cones. Different from house mouse, S and M cone distributions do not have dorsoventral gradients, and coexpression of both opsins in single cones is exceptional (<2% of the cones). In albino P. maniculatus, rod densities are reduced by approximately 40% (270.000/mm(2)). Overall, cone density and the density of cones exclusively expressing S opsin are not significantly different from pigmented P. maniculatus. However, in albino retinas S opsin is coexpressed with M opsin in 60-90% of the cones and therefore the population of cones expressing only M opsin is significantly reduced to 5-25%. In conclusion, deer mouse cone properties largely conform to the general mammalian pattern, hence the deer mouse may be better suited than the house mouse for the study of certain basic cone properties, including the effects of albinism on cone opsin expression.
Camellia sinensis is one of the major crops grown in Taiwan and has been widely cultivated around the island. Tea leaves are prone to various fungal infections, and leaf spot is considered one of the major diseases in Taiwan tea fields. As part of a survey on fungal species causing leaf spots on tea leaves in Taiwan, 19 fungal strains morphologically similar to the genus Diaporthe were collected. ITS (internal transcribed spacer), tef1-α (translation elongation factor 1-α), tub2 (beta-tubulin), and cal (calmodulin) gene regions were used to construct phylogenetic trees and determine the evolutionary relationships among the collected strains. In total, six Diaporthe species, including one new species, Diaporthe hsinchuensis, were identified as linked with leaf spot of C. sinensis in Taiwan based on both phenotypic characters and phylogeny. These species were further characterized in terms of their pathogenicity, temperature, and pH requirements under laboratory conditions. Diaporthe tulliensis, D. passiflorae, and D. perseae were isolated from C. sinensis for the first time. Furthermore, pathogenicity tests revealed that, with wound inoculation, only D. hongkongensis was pathogenic on tea leaves. This investigation delivers the first assessment of Diaporthe taxa related to leaf spots on tea in Taiwan.
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) is caused by polyglutamine expansion in Ataxin-2 (ATXN2). This factor binds RNA/proteins to modify metabolism after stress, and to control calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis after stimuli. Cerebellar ataxias and corticospinal motor neuron degeneration are determined by gain/loss in ATXN2 function, so we aimed to identify key molecules in this atrophic process, as potential disease progression markers. Our Atxn2-CAG100-Knock-In mouse faithfully models features observed in patients at pre-onset, early and terminal stages. Here, its cerebellar global RNA profiling revealed downregulation of signaling cascades to precede motor deficits. Validation work at mRNA/protein level defined alterations that were independent of constant physiological ATXN2 functions, but specific for RNA/aggregation toxicity, and progressive across the short lifespan. The earliest changes were detected at three months among Ca2+ channels/transporters (Itpr1, Ryr3, Atp2a2, Atp2a3, Trpc3), IP3 metabolism (Plcg1, Inpp5a, Itpka), and Ca2+-Calmodulin dependent kinases (Camk2a, Camk4). CaMKIV–Sam68 control over alternative splicing of Nrxn1, an adhesion component of glutamatergic synapses between granule and Purkinje neurons, was found to be affected. Systematic screening of pre/post-synapse components, with dendrite morphology assessment, suggested early impairment of CamKIIα abundance together with the weakening of parallel fiber connectivity. These data reveal molecular changes due to ATXN2 pathology, primarily impacting excitability and communication.
In dieser Arbeit, deren Hauptanliegen die Erstellung eines pflanzensoziologischen Systems war, wurde die Segetalvegetation der Sudanzone Westafrikas durch vegetationskundliche Aufnahmen erfasst. Zu den Aufnahmen wurden Bodenproben entnommen und Befragungen über die Anbaumethoden sowie Nutzung der Segetalarten durchgeführt. Um ein repräsentatives Bild der Segetalvegetation zu erreichen, wurden Regionen in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Benin, Senegal und Mali zur Analyse ausgewählt, die in der Süd-, Nordsudanzone sowie in angrenzenden Gebieten der Sahelzone lagen. 601 Arten aus 70 Familien wurden identifiziert. Vier Familien, nämlich Poaceae, Leguminosae- Papilionaceae, Cyperaceae und Asteraceae dominieren in der Segetalflora und stellen die Hälfte der Arten, während die übrigen Familien, mit oft nur einem Vertreter, weniger repräsentiert sind. Corchorus tridens, Mitracarpus scaber und Leucas martinicensis, die drei häufigsten Segetalarten in der Sudanzone stammen jedoch nicht aus den vier oben genannten Familien. Die meisten Arten sind Therophyten und haben eine in den Tropen eingeschränkte Verbreitung. Es sind entweder pantropische (42 %), afrikanische Arten (32) oder paläeotropische Arten (20 %). Aus den 1120 Aufnahmen wurden 65 Gesellschaften beschrieben. Ein Vergleich dieser Gesellschaften führte zur Erarbeitung einer synoptischen Tabelle, deren Einheiten zur Herausarbeitung von pflanzensoziologischen Syntaxa dienten. Dabei wurden die bis dato beschriebenen Einheiten der Segetal- sowie Ruderalvegetation in den Tropen zum Vergleich einbezogen. Ein pflanzensoziologisches System der Segetalvegetation in der Sudanzone wurde erstellt. Zwei neue Klassen wurden definiert: die Leucetea martinicensis und die Caperonietea palustris. Die Leucetea martinicensis kommen auf den trockenen Böden vor und enthalten zwei Ordnungen: die Commelinietalia benghalensis auf gedüngten und die Polycarpeaetalia corymbosae auf ungedüngten Feldern. Die Commelinietalia benghalensis bestehen aus zwei Verbänden, dem Celosion trigynae und dem Tridaxion procumbentis. Der erste Verband ist sowohl in der Nord- als in der Südsudanzone anzutreffen, während der zweite nur in der Südsudanzone zu beobachten ist. Die Polycarpeaetalia corymbosae beinhalten drei Verbände: das Brachiarion distichophyllae, das Merremion tridentatae und das Jacquemontion tamnifoliae. Das Brachiarion distichophyllae kommt überall in der Sudanzone vor und bevorzugt die häufigen pisolithenreichen Böden. Das Merremion tridentatae ist auch in der gesamten Sudanzone verbreitet. Es ist überwiegend auf ausgesprochen sandigen Böden zu finden. Das Jacquemontion tamnifoliae hat einen eindeutigen Schwerpunkt in der Sahelzone und den Übergangsgebieten zur Sudanzone. Das ist der Verband, der auf den Hirsefeldern der Dünen in der Sahelzone wächst. Die Caperonietea palustris sind eine edaphisch stark geprägte Klasse. Sie wachsen auf den extrem tonreichen Vertisolen. Da diese eine Seltenheit in der Sudanzone sind, stellen die Caperonietea palustris eine ganz besondere Vegetation in der Sudanzone dar. Darin wurden zwei Assoziationen beschrieben: das Sorghetum arundinaceum und das Hygrophiletum auriculatae. Die Segetalvegetation auf den Reisfeldern in den Senken gehört zur neuen Ordnung Melochietalia corchorifoliae, die den Phragmitetea TÜXEN
Hereditary Parkinson’s disease (PD) can be triggered by an autosomal dominant overdose of alpha-Synuclein (SNCA) as stressor or the autosomal recessive deficiency of PINK1 Serine/Threonine-phosphorylation activity as stress-response. We demonstrated the combination of PINK1-knockout with overexpression of SNCAA53T in double mutant (DM) mice to exacerbate locomotor deficits and to reduce lifespan. To survey posttranslational modifications of proteins underlying the pathology, brain hemispheres of old DM mice underwent quantitative label-free global proteomic mass spectrometry, focused on Ser/Thr-phosphorylations. As an exceptionally strong effect, we detected >300-fold reductions of phosphoThr1928 in MAP1B, a microtubule-associated protein, and a similar reduction of phosphoSer3781 in ANK2, an interactor of microtubules. MAP1B depletion is known to trigger perturbations of microtubular mitochondria trafficking, neurite extension, and synaptic function, so it was noteworthy that relevantly decreased phosphorylation was also detected for other microtubule and microfilament factors, namely MAP2S1801, MARK1S394, MAP1AT1794, KIF1AS1537, 4.1NS541, 4.1GS86, and ADD2S528. While the MAP1B heavy chain supports regeneration and growth cones, its light chain assists DAPK1-mediated autophagy. Interestingly, relevant phosphorylation decreases of DAPK2S299, VPS13DS2429, and VPS13CS2480 in the DM brain affected regulators of autophagy, which are implicated in PD. Overall, significant downregulations were enriched for PFAM C2 domains, other kinases, and synaptic transmission factors upon automated bioinformatics, while upregulations were not enriched for selective motifs or pathways. Validation experiments confirmed the change of LC3 processing as reflection of excessive autophagy in DM brain, and dependence of ANK2/MAP1B expression on PINK1 levels. Our new data provide independent confirmation in a mouse model with combined PARK1/PARK4/PARK6 pathology that MAP1B/ANK2 phosphorylation events are implicated in Parkinsonian neurodegeneration. These findings expand on previous observations in Drosophila melanogaster that the MAP1B ortholog futsch in the presynapse is a primary target of the PARK8 protein LRRK2, and on a report that MAP1B is a component of the pathological Lewy body aggregates in PD patient brains. Similarly, ANK2 gene locus variants are associated with the risk of PD, ANK2 interacts with PINK1/Parkin-target proteins such as MIRO1 or ATP1A2, and ANK2-derived peptides are potent inhibitors of autophagy.