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Unlike other eukaryotes, plants possess a complex family of heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) with usually more than 20 members. Among them, Hsfs A4 and A5 form a group distinguished from other Hsfs by structural features of their oligomerization domains and by a number of conserved signature sequences. We show that A4 Hsfs are potent activators of heat stress gene expression, whereas A5 Hsfs act as specific repressors of HsfA4 activity. The oligomerization domain of HsfA5 alone is necessary and sufficient to exert this effect. Due to the high specificity of the oligomerization domains, other class A Hsfs are not affected. Pull-down assay and yeast two-hybrid interaction tests demonstrate that the tendency to form HsfA4/A5 heterooligomers is stronger than the formation of homooligomers. The specificity of interaction between Hsfs A4 and A5 was confirmed by bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments. The major role of the representatives of the HsfA4/A5 group, which are not involved in the conventional heat stress response, may reside in cell type-specific functions connected with the control of cell death triggered by pathogen infection and/or reactive oxygen species.
The genome, antigens of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) are frequently found in prostatic carcinoma. However, whether this infection is causative or is an epiphenomenon is not clear. We therefore investigated the ability of HCMV to promote metastatic processes, defined by tumor cell adhesion to the endothelium, extracellular matrix proteins. Experiments were based on the human prostate tumor cell line PC3, either infected with the HCMV strain Hi (HCMVHi) or transfected with cDNA encoding the HCMV-specific immediate early protein IEA1 (UL123) or IEA2 (UL122). HCMVHi upregulated PC3 adhesion to the endothelium, to the extracellular matrix proteins collagen, laminin, fibronectin. The process was accompanied by enhancement of β1-integrin surface expression, elevated levels of integrin-linked kinase, phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase. IEA1 or IEA2 did not modulate PC3 adhesion or β1-integrin expression. Based on this in vitro model, we postulate a direct association between HCMV infection, prostate tumor transmigration, which is not dependent on IEA proteins. Integrin overexpression, combined with the modulation of integrin-dependent signalling, seems to be, at least in part, responsible for a more invasive PC3Hi tumor cell phenotype. Elevated levels of c-myc found in IEA1-transfected or IEA2-transfected PC3 cell populations might promote further carcinogenic processes through accelerated cell proliferation.
Polyploidy is common in higher eukaryotes, especially in plants, but it is generally assumed that most prokaryotes contain a single copy of a circular chromosome and are therefore monoploid. We have used two independent methods to determine the genome copy number in halophilic archaea, 1) cell lysis in agarose blocks and Southern blot analysis, and 2) Real-Time quantitative PCR. Fast growing H. salinarum cells contain on average about 25 copies of the chromosome in exponential phase, and their ploidy is downregulated to 15 copies in early stationary phase. The chromosome copy number is identical in cultures with a twofold lower growth rate, in contrast to the results reported for several other prokaryotic species. Of three additional replicons of H. salinarum, two have a low copy number that is not growth-phase regulated, while one replicon even shows a higher degree of growth phase-dependent regulation than the main replicon. The genome copy number of H. volcanii is similarly high during exponential phase (on average 18 copies/cell), and it is also downregulated (to 10 copies) as the cells enter stationary phase. The variation of genome copy numbers in the population was addressed by fluorescence microscopy and by FACS analysis. These methods allowed us to verify the growth phase-dependent regulation of ploidy in H. salinarum, and they revealed that there is a wide variation in genome copy numbers in individual cells that is much larger in exponential than in stationary phase. Our results indicate that polyploidy might be more widespread in archaea (or even prokaryotes in general) than previously assumed. Moreover, the presence of so many genome copies in a prokaryote raises questions about the evolutionary significance of this strategy.
High-throughput gene trapping is a random approach for inducing insertional mutations across the mouse genome. This approach uses gene trap vectors that simultaneously inactivate and report the expression of the trapped gene at the insertion site, and provide a DNA tag for the rapid identification of the disrupted gene. Gene trapping has been used by both public and private institutions to produce libraries of embryonic stem (ES) cells harboring mutations in single genes. Presently,~ 66% of the protein coding genes in the mouse genome have been disrupted by gene trap insertions. Among these, however, genes encoding signal peptides or transmembrane domains (secretory genes) are underrepresented because they are not susceptible to conventional trapping methods. Here, we describe a high-throughput gene trapping strategy that effectively targets secretory genes. We used this strategy to assemble a library of ES cells harboring mutations in 716 unique secretory genes, of which 61% were not trapped by conventional trapping, indicating that the two strategies are complementary. The trapped ES cell lines, which can be ordered from the International Gene Trap Consortium (http://www.genetrap.org), are freely available to the scientific community.
CXCR4 chemokine receptor mediates prostate tumor cell adhesion through alpha5 and beta3 integrins
(2006)
The mechanisms leading to prostate cancer metastasis are not understood completely. Although there is evidence that the CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR) 4 and its ligand CXCL12 may regulate tumor dissemination, their role in prostate cancer is controversial. We examined CXCR4 expression and functionality, and explored CXCL12-triggered adhesion of prostate tumor cells to human endothelium or to extracellular matrix proteins laminin, collagen, and fibronectin. Although little CXCR4 was expressed on LNCaP and DU-145 prostate tumor cells, CXCR4 was still active, enabling the cells to migrate toward a CXCL12 gradient. CXCL12 induced elevated adhesion to the endothelial cell monolayer and to immobilized fibronectin, laminin, and collagen. Anti-CXCR4 antibodies or CXCR4 knock out significantly impaired CXCL12-triggered tumor cell binding. The effects observed did not depend on CXCR4 surface expression level. Rather, CXCR4-mediated adhesion was established by alpha5 and beta3 integrin subunits and took place in the presence of reduced p38 and p38 phosphorylation. These data show that chemoattractive mechanisms are involved in adhesion processes of prostate cancer cells, and that binding of CXCL12 to its receptor leads to enhanced expression of alpha5 and beta3 integrins. The findings provide a link between chemokine receptor expression and integrin-triggered tumor dissemination.
Today the structure of photosystem II, which is the enzyme responsible for the evolution of molecular oxygen by plants, algae and cyanobacteria, is known up to a resolution of about 3.0 Å in cyanobacteria (Loll et al., 2005). Photosystem II of higher plants, which shows some differences compared to the photosystem II of cyanobacteria, is not resolved in such high detail, yet (8-10 Å) (Rhee et al., 1998; Hankamer et al., 2001a). Therefore, the molecular structure of PSII of higher plants and its adjacent antenna complexes remains in the focus of the current research. One of the major problems when working with photosystem II is its relative instability during isolation. Together with the antenna proteins and several other proteins, some of which still have an unclear function, PSII forms a huge multi-protein-complex, which tends to fall apart during classical preparation methods. In order to achieve a faster and milder method of purification for PSII, four different His-tags have been added to one of the subunits of PSII. The gene targeted in this study is called psbE and codes for the α-chain of cytochrome b559, an integral part of PSII. The gene for PsbE is encoded in the chloroplast genome. The His-tags, which were employed in this work, consist of six or ten consecutive histidine aminoacid residues, which were fused to the N-terminus of the protein, either with or without a cleavage site for the protease “Factor Xa”. The N-terminus of PsbE is located on the more accessible stromal side of the thylakoid membrane. After inserting the psbE gene in a vector plasmid, in which the recognition site for the restriction endonuclease SacI had been eliminated, the different His-tags were generated by PCR with purposefully altered primers. In a final cloning step, a gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotics spectinomycin and streptomycin, was added to the DNA construct. Subsequently, the so-called biolistic transformation method (“gene gun”) was applied to introduce this genetically engineered plasmid DNA to Nicotiana tabacum chloroplasts (Bock & Hagemann, 2000). Through the processes of homologous recombination that take place in the chloroplast, the plastid encoded wildtype psbE gene was replaced by its His-tag containing counterparts. After several rounds of regenerating plants on antibiotic-containing medium, successful transformation was confirmed through PCR methods. By self fertilisation of fully regenerated plants, seeds were produced from tobacco strains, which carried only the mutated psbE gene. Plants cultivated from these seeds showed no distinctive phenotype under the chosen growth conditions, in respect to wildtype plants. The presence of the His-tag in this F1 generation was again confirmed with PCR methods. Measurements of oxygen evolution and pulse amplitude modulated fluorescence (PAM), carried out with preparations of wildtype and transgenic tobacco strains, revealed no differences for photochemical or non-photochemical quenching between both types. However, the oxygen evolution capacity of transgenic tobacco thylakoids compared to the wildtype was significantly reduced, although the chlorophyll content in relation to the leaf area was almost identical. This hints at a reduced amount of photosystem II complexes in the thylakoid membranes of transgenic tobacco. This alteration could be related to the mutation of cytochrome b559, because, amongst other functions, this subunit was shown to be important for the assembly of photosystem II (Morais et al., 1998). If solubilised thylakoid preparations of His-tagged plant strains were applied to a Ni-NTA column, photosystem II was selectively bound to the matrix. After washing away most of the contaminations, photosystem II core complexes could be eluted with imidazole-containing buffer. Photosystem II prepared in this way, displayed a drastic reduction of the peripheral light-harvesting complexes (LHCI & LHCII) and photo-system I reaction centres. This could be demonstrated by the loss of chlorophyll b and xanthophyll bands (LHCs) in absorption spectra, a small blue-shift of the chlorophyll a Qy absorption (PSI) and the respective band patterns in polyacrylamide gel electro-phoresis. The photosystem II complexes prepared in this way can now be put to use in different structural studies, like two-dimensional or three-dimensional crystallisation and spectroscopic measurements. Another photosynthetic pigment-protein complex of interest is the fucoxanthin-chlorophyll a/c-binding protein of diatoms, because eukaryotic algae, like diatoms, are important factors of oceanic ecosystems and account for a large part of marine biomass production. In order to facilitate ultra-fast time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopy and subsequent modelling of the kinetic traces, FCPs were prepared by sucrose-gradient ultra-centrifugation and their pigment stoichiometries determined by HPLC. Combining the spectroscopic data (Papagiannakis et al., 2005) with protein sequence alignments (Eppard & Rhiel, 1998) and the structure of the homologous higher plant LHCIIb (Kühlbrandt et al., 1994), a hypothetical model for the structure of FCP could be proposed (Fig. IV.3)
Identification and characterization of TNFalpha responsive genes in human breast cancer cells
(2006)
One of the hallmarks of cancer is the escape of the transformed cells from apoptosis. Therefore, the identification of survival genes, allowing cancer cells to circumvent programmed cell death, could provide new diagnostic markers as well as targets for therapeutic intervention. A well known transcription factor regulating the balance between pro- and anti- apoptotic factors is NF-kappaB, which is strongly induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). When cells are stimulated by TNFalpha their response is biphasic with an initial NF-kappaB induction of survival genes which is overridden by the subsequent activation of initiator caspases triggering apoptosis. By combining gene trap mutagenesis with site specific recombination a strategy was developed, which enriches for genes induced by TNFalpha in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. The strategy relies on a one way gene expression switch based on Cre/loxP mediated recombination, which uncouples the expression of a marker gene from the trapped cellular promoter thereby enabling the recovery of genes that are only transiently induced by TNFalpha. The marker gene used in these experiments was a dominant negative variant of the TNFalpha-receptor associated protein FADD (dnFADD), which blocks the apoptotic branch of the TNFalpha induced signaling pathway. Initial experiments indicated that MCF-7 cells expressing high levels of dnFADD were insensitive to TNFalpha induced apoptosis and therefore suitable for the installment of a one way gene expression switch susceptible to Cre/loxP mediated recombination. A MCF-7 reporter clone harboring the recombinase dependent gene expression switch was infected with the gene trap retrovirus U3Cre, which inserts the Cre recombinase gene into a large collection of chromosomal sites. Insertion of Cre downstream of an active cellular promoter induces dnFADD expression from the gene expression switch enabling the cells to block TNFalpha triggered apoptosis. From a gene trap integration library containing approximately 2000000 unique proviral integrations, 69 unique TNFalpha inducible gene trap insertion sites were recovered in a two step selection procedure. Sequencing of the genomic regions adjacent to the insertion sites, which were obtained by inverse PCR (gene trap sequence tags, GTSTs), and data base analysis revealed that 42% of the GTSTs belonged to annotated genes, 13% to known cDNAs with open reading frames, 17% to Genscan predicted genes, 9% to ESTs, 9% to repetitive sequences and 10% to unannotated genomic sequence. Overall, 44% of the annotated genes recovered in this screen were directly or indirectly related to cancer, indicating that the gene trap strategy developed here is suitable for the identification of cancer relevant genes. Analysis of the expression patterns of the trapped and annotated genes in wild type cells revealed that 19 out of 24 genes were either up- or down- regulated by a factor of at least 1.45 by TNFalpha. A large fraction of the gene trap insertions were located upstream, in introns or in opposite orientation to annotated transcripts, indicating that the strategy efficiently recovers non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). While the biological significance of these transcripts still needs to be elucidated, they fall into two main categories. The first category includes gene trap insertions upstream of genes, which could either represent regulatory RNAs interacting with promoter elements or transcripts driven by bidirectional promoters. The second includes inverse orientation gene trap insertions in introns of annotated genes suggesting the presence of natural antisense transcripts (NATs). Interestingly, more than 50% of all antisense integrations are located downstream of transcription start sites predicted by different algorithms supporting the existence of RNAs transcribed from the corresponding genomic regions. Intronic integrations on the coding strand could be derived from cryptic splicing, alternative promoter usage or additional, so far uncharacterized transcripts. Preliminary functional analysis of two genes recovered in this screen encoding the transcription factor ZFP67 and the FLJ14451 protein revealed that FLJ14451 but not ZFP67 inhibited anchorage independent growth in soft agar, suggesting that FLJ14451 might have some tumor suppressor functions. In summary, besides identifying a putative tumor suppressor protein, the present experiments have shown that gene trapping is useful in identifying non-coding transcripts in living cells and may turn out to be the method of choice in characterizing these transcripts whose functions are still largely unknown.
High tumor interstitial fluid pressure (TIFP) is a characteristic of most solid tumors. TIFP may hamper adequate uptake of macromolecular therapeutics in tumor tissue. In addition, TIFP generates mechanical forces affecting the tumor cortex, which might influence the growth parameters of tumor cells. This seems likely as, in other tissues (namely, blood vessels or the skin), mechanical stretch is known to trigger proliferation. Therefore, we hypothesize that TIFP-induced stretch modulates proliferation-associated parameters. Solid epithelial tumors (A431 and A549) were grown in Naval Medical Research Institute nude mice, generating a TIFP of about 10 mm Hg (A431) or 5 mm Hg (A549). Tumor drainage of the central cystic area led to a rapid decline of TIFP, together with visible relaxation of the tumor cortex. It was found by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Western blot analysis that TIFP lowering yields a decreased phosphorylation of proliferation-associated p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase and tumor relaxation. In confirmation, immunohistochemical staining showed a decrease of tumor-associated proliferation marker Ki-67 after TIFP lowering. These data suggest that the mechanical stretch induced by TIFP is a positive modulator of tumor proliferation.
The mammary gland is a perfect system to study the pathways regulating organogenesis during development of an individual. The proper development of the mammary gland requires a tight coordination of expression of many genes involved in proliferation and differentiation. The aim of this work was to identify novel genes and pathways involved in the development of the mammary gland and to find possible correlations between the signaling pathways and their downstream targets that are activated during proliferation and functional differentiation of mammary epithelial cells. In this study rapamycin has been used to inhibit the mTOR protein to analyze its role during mammary gland development. Further a genomic approach was used to identify genes differently expressed during this process. The analysis of the effects caused by the inhibition of the mTOR signaling pathway by using rapamycin on mammary epithelial cells for the first time demonstrate that mTOR plays central role in the coordination of pathways governing the proliferation and differentiation of epithelial cells during mammary gland development. More detailed analysis led to the identification of Id1 and Id2 as two major downstream effectors of the mTOR signaling pathway regulating proliferation and differentiation respectively. The genomics analysis revealed several interesting genes involved in the regulation of a proliferative or secretory phenotype of normal epithelial cells in vitro. Various genes identified by microarray analysis are of high interest and to determine their role in mammary gland development. Among the identified genes some contribute to process of proliferation like Nol5 and Kpna2, whereas other genes are required for proper functional differentiation such as Nkd2 and Cited4. Importantly, the mentioned candidate genes are also interesting regarding cancer development, since deregulation of their expression might contribute to tumor formation. The findings described in this work clearly contribute to our better understanding of the mTOR signaling pathway regulating expression of the genes involved in the development of mammary gland. In addition, the presented results should allow broadening our view of the events that contribute to breast cancer development and help to design better anticancer therapies in the future.
Background Fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass is an attractive alternative for the production of bioethanol. Traditionally, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in industrial ethanol fermentations. However, S. cerevisiae is naturally not able to ferment the pentose sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose, which are present in high amounts in lignocellulosic raw materials. Results We describe the engineering of laboratory and industrial S. cerevisiae strains to co-ferment the pentose sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose. Introduction of a fungal xylose and a bacterial arabinose pathway resulted in strains able to grow on both pentose sugars. Introduction of a xylose pathway into an arabinose-fermenting laboratory strain resulted in nearly complete conversion of arabinose into arabitol due to the L-arabinose reductase activity of the xylose reductase. The industrial strain displayed lower arabitol yield and increased ethanol yield from xylose and arabinose. Conclusion Our work demonstrates simultaneous co-utilization of xylose and arabinose in recombinant strains of S. cerevisiae. In addition, the co-utilization of arabinose together with xylose significantly reduced formation of the by-product xylitol, which contributed to improved ethanol production.