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Unlike other eukaryotes, plants possess a complex family of heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) with usually more than 20 members. Among them, Hsfs A4 and A5 form a group distinguished from other Hsfs by structural features of their oligomerization domains and by a number of conserved signature sequences. We show that A4 Hsfs are potent activators of heat stress gene expression, whereas A5 Hsfs act as specific repressors of HsfA4 activity. The oligomerization domain of HsfA5 alone is necessary and sufficient to exert this effect. Due to the high specificity of the oligomerization domains, other class A Hsfs are not affected. Pull-down assay and yeast two-hybrid interaction tests demonstrate that the tendency to form HsfA4/A5 heterooligomers is stronger than the formation of homooligomers. The specificity of interaction between Hsfs A4 and A5 was confirmed by bimolecular fluorescence complementation experiments. The major role of the representatives of the HsfA4/A5 group, which are not involved in the conventional heat stress response, may reside in cell type-specific functions connected with the control of cell death triggered by pathogen infection and/or reactive oxygen species.
The genome, antigens of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) are frequently found in prostatic carcinoma. However, whether this infection is causative or is an epiphenomenon is not clear. We therefore investigated the ability of HCMV to promote metastatic processes, defined by tumor cell adhesion to the endothelium, extracellular matrix proteins. Experiments were based on the human prostate tumor cell line PC3, either infected with the HCMV strain Hi (HCMVHi) or transfected with cDNA encoding the HCMV-specific immediate early protein IEA1 (UL123) or IEA2 (UL122). HCMVHi upregulated PC3 adhesion to the endothelium, to the extracellular matrix proteins collagen, laminin, fibronectin. The process was accompanied by enhancement of β1-integrin surface expression, elevated levels of integrin-linked kinase, phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase. IEA1 or IEA2 did not modulate PC3 adhesion or β1-integrin expression. Based on this in vitro model, we postulate a direct association between HCMV infection, prostate tumor transmigration, which is not dependent on IEA proteins. Integrin overexpression, combined with the modulation of integrin-dependent signalling, seems to be, at least in part, responsible for a more invasive PC3Hi tumor cell phenotype. Elevated levels of c-myc found in IEA1-transfected or IEA2-transfected PC3 cell populations might promote further carcinogenic processes through accelerated cell proliferation.
Polyploidy is common in higher eukaryotes, especially in plants, but it is generally assumed that most prokaryotes contain a single copy of a circular chromosome and are therefore monoploid. We have used two independent methods to determine the genome copy number in halophilic archaea, 1) cell lysis in agarose blocks and Southern blot analysis, and 2) Real-Time quantitative PCR. Fast growing H. salinarum cells contain on average about 25 copies of the chromosome in exponential phase, and their ploidy is downregulated to 15 copies in early stationary phase. The chromosome copy number is identical in cultures with a twofold lower growth rate, in contrast to the results reported for several other prokaryotic species. Of three additional replicons of H. salinarum, two have a low copy number that is not growth-phase regulated, while one replicon even shows a higher degree of growth phase-dependent regulation than the main replicon. The genome copy number of H. volcanii is similarly high during exponential phase (on average 18 copies/cell), and it is also downregulated (to 10 copies) as the cells enter stationary phase. The variation of genome copy numbers in the population was addressed by fluorescence microscopy and by FACS analysis. These methods allowed us to verify the growth phase-dependent regulation of ploidy in H. salinarum, and they revealed that there is a wide variation in genome copy numbers in individual cells that is much larger in exponential than in stationary phase. Our results indicate that polyploidy might be more widespread in archaea (or even prokaryotes in general) than previously assumed. Moreover, the presence of so many genome copies in a prokaryote raises questions about the evolutionary significance of this strategy.
High-throughput gene trapping is a random approach for inducing insertional mutations across the mouse genome. This approach uses gene trap vectors that simultaneously inactivate and report the expression of the trapped gene at the insertion site, and provide a DNA tag for the rapid identification of the disrupted gene. Gene trapping has been used by both public and private institutions to produce libraries of embryonic stem (ES) cells harboring mutations in single genes. Presently,~ 66% of the protein coding genes in the mouse genome have been disrupted by gene trap insertions. Among these, however, genes encoding signal peptides or transmembrane domains (secretory genes) are underrepresented because they are not susceptible to conventional trapping methods. Here, we describe a high-throughput gene trapping strategy that effectively targets secretory genes. We used this strategy to assemble a library of ES cells harboring mutations in 716 unique secretory genes, of which 61% were not trapped by conventional trapping, indicating that the two strategies are complementary. The trapped ES cell lines, which can be ordered from the International Gene Trap Consortium (http://www.genetrap.org), are freely available to the scientific community.
CXCR4 chemokine receptor mediates prostate tumor cell adhesion through alpha5 and beta3 integrins
(2006)
The mechanisms leading to prostate cancer metastasis are not understood completely. Although there is evidence that the CXC chemokine receptor (CXCR) 4 and its ligand CXCL12 may regulate tumor dissemination, their role in prostate cancer is controversial. We examined CXCR4 expression and functionality, and explored CXCL12-triggered adhesion of prostate tumor cells to human endothelium or to extracellular matrix proteins laminin, collagen, and fibronectin. Although little CXCR4 was expressed on LNCaP and DU-145 prostate tumor cells, CXCR4 was still active, enabling the cells to migrate toward a CXCL12 gradient. CXCL12 induced elevated adhesion to the endothelial cell monolayer and to immobilized fibronectin, laminin, and collagen. Anti-CXCR4 antibodies or CXCR4 knock out significantly impaired CXCL12-triggered tumor cell binding. The effects observed did not depend on CXCR4 surface expression level. Rather, CXCR4-mediated adhesion was established by alpha5 and beta3 integrin subunits and took place in the presence of reduced p38 and p38 phosphorylation. These data show that chemoattractive mechanisms are involved in adhesion processes of prostate cancer cells, and that binding of CXCL12 to its receptor leads to enhanced expression of alpha5 and beta3 integrins. The findings provide a link between chemokine receptor expression and integrin-triggered tumor dissemination.
Today the structure of photosystem II, which is the enzyme responsible for the evolution of molecular oxygen by plants, algae and cyanobacteria, is known up to a resolution of about 3.0 Å in cyanobacteria (Loll et al., 2005). Photosystem II of higher plants, which shows some differences compared to the photosystem II of cyanobacteria, is not resolved in such high detail, yet (8-10 Å) (Rhee et al., 1998; Hankamer et al., 2001a). Therefore, the molecular structure of PSII of higher plants and its adjacent antenna complexes remains in the focus of the current research. One of the major problems when working with photosystem II is its relative instability during isolation. Together with the antenna proteins and several other proteins, some of which still have an unclear function, PSII forms a huge multi-protein-complex, which tends to fall apart during classical preparation methods. In order to achieve a faster and milder method of purification for PSII, four different His-tags have been added to one of the subunits of PSII. The gene targeted in this study is called psbE and codes for the α-chain of cytochrome b559, an integral part of PSII. The gene for PsbE is encoded in the chloroplast genome. The His-tags, which were employed in this work, consist of six or ten consecutive histidine aminoacid residues, which were fused to the N-terminus of the protein, either with or without a cleavage site for the protease “Factor Xa”. The N-terminus of PsbE is located on the more accessible stromal side of the thylakoid membrane. After inserting the psbE gene in a vector plasmid, in which the recognition site for the restriction endonuclease SacI had been eliminated, the different His-tags were generated by PCR with purposefully altered primers. In a final cloning step, a gene, which confers resistance to the antibiotics spectinomycin and streptomycin, was added to the DNA construct. Subsequently, the so-called biolistic transformation method (“gene gun”) was applied to introduce this genetically engineered plasmid DNA to Nicotiana tabacum chloroplasts (Bock & Hagemann, 2000). Through the processes of homologous recombination that take place in the chloroplast, the plastid encoded wildtype psbE gene was replaced by its His-tag containing counterparts. After several rounds of regenerating plants on antibiotic-containing medium, successful transformation was confirmed through PCR methods. By self fertilisation of fully regenerated plants, seeds were produced from tobacco strains, which carried only the mutated psbE gene. Plants cultivated from these seeds showed no distinctive phenotype under the chosen growth conditions, in respect to wildtype plants. The presence of the His-tag in this F1 generation was again confirmed with PCR methods. Measurements of oxygen evolution and pulse amplitude modulated fluorescence (PAM), carried out with preparations of wildtype and transgenic tobacco strains, revealed no differences for photochemical or non-photochemical quenching between both types. However, the oxygen evolution capacity of transgenic tobacco thylakoids compared to the wildtype was significantly reduced, although the chlorophyll content in relation to the leaf area was almost identical. This hints at a reduced amount of photosystem II complexes in the thylakoid membranes of transgenic tobacco. This alteration could be related to the mutation of cytochrome b559, because, amongst other functions, this subunit was shown to be important for the assembly of photosystem II (Morais et al., 1998). If solubilised thylakoid preparations of His-tagged plant strains were applied to a Ni-NTA column, photosystem II was selectively bound to the matrix. After washing away most of the contaminations, photosystem II core complexes could be eluted with imidazole-containing buffer. Photosystem II prepared in this way, displayed a drastic reduction of the peripheral light-harvesting complexes (LHCI & LHCII) and photo-system I reaction centres. This could be demonstrated by the loss of chlorophyll b and xanthophyll bands (LHCs) in absorption spectra, a small blue-shift of the chlorophyll a Qy absorption (PSI) and the respective band patterns in polyacrylamide gel electro-phoresis. The photosystem II complexes prepared in this way can now be put to use in different structural studies, like two-dimensional or three-dimensional crystallisation and spectroscopic measurements. Another photosynthetic pigment-protein complex of interest is the fucoxanthin-chlorophyll a/c-binding protein of diatoms, because eukaryotic algae, like diatoms, are important factors of oceanic ecosystems and account for a large part of marine biomass production. In order to facilitate ultra-fast time-resolved transient absorption spectroscopy and subsequent modelling of the kinetic traces, FCPs were prepared by sucrose-gradient ultra-centrifugation and their pigment stoichiometries determined by HPLC. Combining the spectroscopic data (Papagiannakis et al., 2005) with protein sequence alignments (Eppard & Rhiel, 1998) and the structure of the homologous higher plant LHCIIb (Kühlbrandt et al., 1994), a hypothetical model for the structure of FCP could be proposed (Fig. IV.3)
Identification and characterization of TNFalpha responsive genes in human breast cancer cells
(2006)
One of the hallmarks of cancer is the escape of the transformed cells from apoptosis. Therefore, the identification of survival genes, allowing cancer cells to circumvent programmed cell death, could provide new diagnostic markers as well as targets for therapeutic intervention. A well known transcription factor regulating the balance between pro- and anti- apoptotic factors is NF-kappaB, which is strongly induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). When cells are stimulated by TNFalpha their response is biphasic with an initial NF-kappaB induction of survival genes which is overridden by the subsequent activation of initiator caspases triggering apoptosis. By combining gene trap mutagenesis with site specific recombination a strategy was developed, which enriches for genes induced by TNFalpha in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. The strategy relies on a one way gene expression switch based on Cre/loxP mediated recombination, which uncouples the expression of a marker gene from the trapped cellular promoter thereby enabling the recovery of genes that are only transiently induced by TNFalpha. The marker gene used in these experiments was a dominant negative variant of the TNFalpha-receptor associated protein FADD (dnFADD), which blocks the apoptotic branch of the TNFalpha induced signaling pathway. Initial experiments indicated that MCF-7 cells expressing high levels of dnFADD were insensitive to TNFalpha induced apoptosis and therefore suitable for the installment of a one way gene expression switch susceptible to Cre/loxP mediated recombination. A MCF-7 reporter clone harboring the recombinase dependent gene expression switch was infected with the gene trap retrovirus U3Cre, which inserts the Cre recombinase gene into a large collection of chromosomal sites. Insertion of Cre downstream of an active cellular promoter induces dnFADD expression from the gene expression switch enabling the cells to block TNFalpha triggered apoptosis. From a gene trap integration library containing approximately 2000000 unique proviral integrations, 69 unique TNFalpha inducible gene trap insertion sites were recovered in a two step selection procedure. Sequencing of the genomic regions adjacent to the insertion sites, which were obtained by inverse PCR (gene trap sequence tags, GTSTs), and data base analysis revealed that 42% of the GTSTs belonged to annotated genes, 13% to known cDNAs with open reading frames, 17% to Genscan predicted genes, 9% to ESTs, 9% to repetitive sequences and 10% to unannotated genomic sequence. Overall, 44% of the annotated genes recovered in this screen were directly or indirectly related to cancer, indicating that the gene trap strategy developed here is suitable for the identification of cancer relevant genes. Analysis of the expression patterns of the trapped and annotated genes in wild type cells revealed that 19 out of 24 genes were either up- or down- regulated by a factor of at least 1.45 by TNFalpha. A large fraction of the gene trap insertions were located upstream, in introns or in opposite orientation to annotated transcripts, indicating that the strategy efficiently recovers non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). While the biological significance of these transcripts still needs to be elucidated, they fall into two main categories. The first category includes gene trap insertions upstream of genes, which could either represent regulatory RNAs interacting with promoter elements or transcripts driven by bidirectional promoters. The second includes inverse orientation gene trap insertions in introns of annotated genes suggesting the presence of natural antisense transcripts (NATs). Interestingly, more than 50% of all antisense integrations are located downstream of transcription start sites predicted by different algorithms supporting the existence of RNAs transcribed from the corresponding genomic regions. Intronic integrations on the coding strand could be derived from cryptic splicing, alternative promoter usage or additional, so far uncharacterized transcripts. Preliminary functional analysis of two genes recovered in this screen encoding the transcription factor ZFP67 and the FLJ14451 protein revealed that FLJ14451 but not ZFP67 inhibited anchorage independent growth in soft agar, suggesting that FLJ14451 might have some tumor suppressor functions. In summary, besides identifying a putative tumor suppressor protein, the present experiments have shown that gene trapping is useful in identifying non-coding transcripts in living cells and may turn out to be the method of choice in characterizing these transcripts whose functions are still largely unknown.
High tumor interstitial fluid pressure (TIFP) is a characteristic of most solid tumors. TIFP may hamper adequate uptake of macromolecular therapeutics in tumor tissue. In addition, TIFP generates mechanical forces affecting the tumor cortex, which might influence the growth parameters of tumor cells. This seems likely as, in other tissues (namely, blood vessels or the skin), mechanical stretch is known to trigger proliferation. Therefore, we hypothesize that TIFP-induced stretch modulates proliferation-associated parameters. Solid epithelial tumors (A431 and A549) were grown in Naval Medical Research Institute nude mice, generating a TIFP of about 10 mm Hg (A431) or 5 mm Hg (A549). Tumor drainage of the central cystic area led to a rapid decline of TIFP, together with visible relaxation of the tumor cortex. It was found by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Western blot analysis that TIFP lowering yields a decreased phosphorylation of proliferation-associated p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase and tumor relaxation. In confirmation, immunohistochemical staining showed a decrease of tumor-associated proliferation marker Ki-67 after TIFP lowering. These data suggest that the mechanical stretch induced by TIFP is a positive modulator of tumor proliferation.
The mammary gland is a perfect system to study the pathways regulating organogenesis during development of an individual. The proper development of the mammary gland requires a tight coordination of expression of many genes involved in proliferation and differentiation. The aim of this work was to identify novel genes and pathways involved in the development of the mammary gland and to find possible correlations between the signaling pathways and their downstream targets that are activated during proliferation and functional differentiation of mammary epithelial cells. In this study rapamycin has been used to inhibit the mTOR protein to analyze its role during mammary gland development. Further a genomic approach was used to identify genes differently expressed during this process. The analysis of the effects caused by the inhibition of the mTOR signaling pathway by using rapamycin on mammary epithelial cells for the first time demonstrate that mTOR plays central role in the coordination of pathways governing the proliferation and differentiation of epithelial cells during mammary gland development. More detailed analysis led to the identification of Id1 and Id2 as two major downstream effectors of the mTOR signaling pathway regulating proliferation and differentiation respectively. The genomics analysis revealed several interesting genes involved in the regulation of a proliferative or secretory phenotype of normal epithelial cells in vitro. Various genes identified by microarray analysis are of high interest and to determine their role in mammary gland development. Among the identified genes some contribute to process of proliferation like Nol5 and Kpna2, whereas other genes are required for proper functional differentiation such as Nkd2 and Cited4. Importantly, the mentioned candidate genes are also interesting regarding cancer development, since deregulation of their expression might contribute to tumor formation. The findings described in this work clearly contribute to our better understanding of the mTOR signaling pathway regulating expression of the genes involved in the development of mammary gland. In addition, the presented results should allow broadening our view of the events that contribute to breast cancer development and help to design better anticancer therapies in the future.
Background Fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass is an attractive alternative for the production of bioethanol. Traditionally, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in industrial ethanol fermentations. However, S. cerevisiae is naturally not able to ferment the pentose sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose, which are present in high amounts in lignocellulosic raw materials. Results We describe the engineering of laboratory and industrial S. cerevisiae strains to co-ferment the pentose sugars D-xylose and L-arabinose. Introduction of a fungal xylose and a bacterial arabinose pathway resulted in strains able to grow on both pentose sugars. Introduction of a xylose pathway into an arabinose-fermenting laboratory strain resulted in nearly complete conversion of arabinose into arabitol due to the L-arabinose reductase activity of the xylose reductase. The industrial strain displayed lower arabitol yield and increased ethanol yield from xylose and arabinose. Conclusion Our work demonstrates simultaneous co-utilization of xylose and arabinose in recombinant strains of S. cerevisiae. In addition, the co-utilization of arabinose together with xylose significantly reduced formation of the by-product xylitol, which contributed to improved ethanol production.
Characterisation of cytosolic prion protein-mediated putative cytotoxicity in neuronal cell lines
(2006)
Prion diseases are a complex group of fatal neurodegenerative disorders with a broad host spectrum, which are characterised by strong neuronal cell loss, spongiform vacuolation and astrocytic proliferation. The molecular mechanisms of prion-mediated neurodegeneration are not yet fully understood. Recently, it has been proposed that neuronal cell death might be triggered by cytosolic accumulation of misfolded cellular prion protein (PrPC) due to impairment of proteasomal degradation. Cytosolic PrPC could result from either retro-translocation via the endoplasmatic reticulum-associated degradation system (ERAD) or abortive translocation of PrPC into the ER. Indeed, expression of cytosolic PrP (Cy-PrP) was shown to be neurotoxic both in vivo and in vitro. However, contradicting results on cytosolic PrP-mediated neurotoxicity in cultured cells have been reported. Cytosolic PrP–mediated cytotoxicity may play a central role in the pathogenesis of prion diseases. In order to investigate the molecular mechanisms of this process, a detailed analysis of N2a cells conditionally expressing cytosolic PrP (Cy-PrP) was performed in this study. The following results were obtained: First, Cy-PrP expression is not per se sufficient to trigger cytotoxicity in N2a cells independently of proteasome inhibition. Second, Cy-PrP is degraded with kinetics resembling the degradation of cell membrane-anchored full-length PM-PrP. In this process, the 20/26S proteasome was responsible for Cy-PrP degradation while the proteolysis of matured full length PM-PrP is not affected by the proteasomal system. Third, Cy-PrP accumulates in fine foci when expressed at high levels and co-localises with the cytosolic chaperone Hsc70 in EEA-1 positive endocytic vesicles. From these data it was proposed that the chaperone Hsc70 acts as a regulator for the controlled formation of amorphous Cy-PrP aggregates and their transport to endosomal vesicles. This Hsc70-dependent mechanism may confer protection to N2a cells against toxic accumulation of Cy-PrP in the cytosol.
Die Ursache von Adipositas liegt im übermäßigen Wachstum von Fettgewebe, welches hauptsächlich aus Fettzellen, den Adipozyten, besteht. Die Zellen der stroma-vaskulären Fraktion, welche Vorläuferzellen, Makrophagen und Zellen des lokalen Gefäßnetzwerks enthält, sind außerdem an der Homöostase des Fettgewebes beteiligt. Insbesondere spielt das Gefäßsystem des Fettgewebes in Nagetieren eine wichtige Rolle im Fettgewebewachstum, da die Hemmung der Angiogenese in genetisch- und diät-induzierten fettleibigen Mäusen die Entstehung von Adipositas verhindert. Dennoch wurde das Gefäßsystem des menschlichen Fettgewebes bis heute nicht erforscht. Durch immuno-histochemische Analysen am subkutanen menschlichen Fettgewebe konnten wir zwei verschiedene Gefäßsysteme identifizieren: das vaskuläre Netzwerk des Bluts und das lymphatische vaskuläre Netzwerk. Während die Endothelzellen von beiden Gefäßsystemen die gemeinsamen Endothelzellmarker von Willebrand factor (vWf) und CD31 (PECAM, Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule) exprimierten, konnten die Endothelzellen der Blutgefäße an der Expression des Markers CD34 (Stamm/Blutgefäß-Endothel-Zell-Marker) und die Endothelzellen der Lymphgefäße an der Expression der beiden lymphatischen Marker Podoplanin und VEGFR3 (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 3) spezifisch erkannt werden. Ausschließlich für den Marker CD34-positive Zellen und in Rosetten angeordnete CD31-positive Zellen, welche als residente Makrophagen wurden auch charakterisiert. Um die beiden Gefäßsystemen des menschlichen Fettgewebes weiterhin zu erforschen, haben wir ein auf Immunoselektion basiertes Protokoll entwickelt. Es ermöglicht, Blut- (BEC) und lymphatische (LEC) Endothelzellen aber auch Makrophagen und CD34-positive Zellen spezifisch zu isolieren. Sowohl BEC als auch LEC exprimierten VEGFR1, VEGFR2, vWf und Notch4 und nehmen acetyliertes LDL auf. Darüber hinaus konnte in LEC die Expression von Genen, welche spezifisch für das Lymphgefäßsystem sind, wie Podoplanin, Reelin, VEGFR3, Desmoplakin, LYVE-1 nachgewiesen werden. Durch fluss-cytometrischen Analysen des Anzahls von BEC und LEC im Fettgewebe von Patienten mit unterschiedlichen Body Mass Indices (BMI) wurde entdeckt, dass Fettleibigkeit von einer Erweiterung des vaskulären Netzwerks des Bluts im Fettgewebe begleitet wird, jedoch nicht von einer Erweiterung des lymphatischen vaskulären Systems. Flusscytometrische Analysen belegen, dass es in der CD34-positive Stroma-Zellpopulation Zellen gibt, die den endothelialen Progenitor-Zellmarker CD133 und den primitiven Stammzellmarker ABCG2 exprimieren. Außerdem zeigten die CD34-positive Zellen eine signifikant stärkere Proliferation und Expression von Endothelzellmarkern wie CD31 und vWf, wenn dem Kulturmedium zuvor die Faktoren Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGF A) und Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 zugefügt worden waren. Wurden Mäusen mit Hinterbeinischämie CD34-positive Zellen in vivo injiziert, beteiligten sich diese Zellen an der Neovaskularisation des ischämischen Hinterbeins. Eine signifikante Zunahme des Blutflusses im ischämischen Bein, gekoppelt an einer erhöhten Kapillardichte im ischämischen Muskel und einer Integration der menschlichen Zellen in die Vaskulatur der Maus waren erkennbar. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass es unter den CD34-positive Zellen eine Population von endothelialen Progenitorzellen gibt, die -bei geeigneter Stimulation- zu Endothelzellen differenzieren. Parallel dazu wurden die lokalen Faktoren untersucht, die potentiell an der Wachstumskontrolle, der Migration und der Organisation der ruhenden, aus dem Fettgewebe stammenden, BEC und LEC beteiligt waren. Sekrete der Adipozyten, jedoch nicht der CD34-positive Zellen, induzierten eine signifikante BEC- und LEC-Proliferation. Außerdem induzierte die Kombination von Leptin und VEGF A oder des basic Fibroblast Growth Factor eine signifikante Zunahme der BrdU-Inkorporation in BEC während Adiponectin, VEGF C und VEGF D bereits alleine konzentrationsabhängig die Proliferation von LEC induzierten. Leptin, und nicht Adiponectin, führte zu signifikant höherer BEC-Migration und Röhrenformung, während Adiponectin, und nicht Leptin, die LEC-Migration und -Organisation förderte. Dabei führte Leptin in BEC und Adiponectin in LEC zeitabhängig zu einer signifikanten Zunahme der Phosphorylierung der Kinase Akt. Diese Ergebnisse belegen, dass die beiden aus Adipozyten stammenden Adipokine Leptin und Adiponectin eine tragende Rolle in der Umverteilung von BEC bzw. LEC spielen. Im Rahmen der Adipositas steigt die Plasmakonzentration von Leptin an während die Plasmakonzentration von Adiponectin sinkt. Unsere Ergebnisse deuten daraufhin, dass Leptin als lokaler pro-angiogenetischer Faktor identifizieren und Adiponectin als neuer lymphangiogenetischer Faktor im menschlichen Fettgewebe beschreiben konnte. Demnach könnten Veränderungen, in der Adipositas, der Adipokinfreisetzung durch Adipozyten am Umbau des vaskulären Netzwerks des Bluts und am ausbleibenden Wachstum des lymphatischen vaskulären Systems innerhalb des Fettgewebes beteiligt sein. Schließlich belegen die vorliegenden Ergebnisse das Vorhandensein einer Progenitor-Zell-Population in der Stroma-Fraktion des menschlichen Fettgewebes. Diese Progenitor-Zellen sind in der Lage sich an der Neovaskularisation ischämischen Gewebes zu beteiligen. Diese Population könnte im Hinblick auf zelltherapeutische Strategien eine interessante Alternative zu Stammzellen aus dem Knochenmark darstellen.
Riboswitches reflect a novel concept in gene regulation that is particularly suited for technological adaptation. Therefore, we characterized thermodynamically the ligand binding properties of a synthetic, tetracycline (tc)-binding RNA aptamer, which regulates gene expression in a dose-dependent manner when inserted into the untranslated region of an mRNA. In vitro, one molecule of tc is bound by one molecule of partially pre-structured and conformationally homogeneous apo-RNA. The dissociation constant of 770 pM, as determined by fluorimetry, is the lowest reported so far for a small molecule-binding RNA aptamer. Additional calorimetric analysis of RNA point mutants and tc derivatives identifies functional groups crucial for the interaction and including their respective enthalpic and entropic contributions we can propose detailed structural and functional roles for certain groups. The conclusions are consistent with mutational analyses in vivo and support the hypothesis that tc-binding reinforces the structure of the RNA aptamer, preventing the scanning ribosome from melting it efficiently.
Background Reliable taxonomic identification at the species level is the basis for many biological disciplines. In order to distinguish species, it is necessary that taxonomic characters allow for the separation of individuals into recognisable, homogeneous groups that differ from other such groups in a consistent way. We compared here the suitability and efficacy of traditionally used shell morphology and DNA-based methods to distinguish among species of the freshwater snail genus Radix (Basommatophora, Pulmonata). Results Morphometric analysis showed that shell shape was unsuitable to define homogeneous, recognisable entities, because the variation was continuous. On the other hand, the Molecularly defined Operational Taxonomic Units (MOTU), inferred from mitochondrial COI sequence variation, proved to be congruent with biological species, inferred from geographic distribution patterns, congruence with nuclear markers and crossing experiments. Moreover, it could be shown that the phenotypically plastic shell variation is mostly determined by the environmental conditions experienced. Conclusion Contrary to DNA-taxonomy, shell morphology was not suitable for delimiting and recognising species in Radix. As the situation encountered here seems to be widespread in invertebrates, we propose DNA-taxonomy as a reliable, comparable, and objective means for species identification in biological research.
Background: Growth rate is central to the development of cells in all organisms. However, little is known about the impact of changing growth rates. We used continuous cultures to control growth rate and studied the transcriptional program of the model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae, with generation times varying between 2 and 35 hours.
Results: A total of 5930 transcripts were identified at the different growth rates studied. Consensus clustering of these revealed that half of all yeast genes are affected by the specific growth rate, and that the changes are similar to those found when cells are exposed to different types of stress (>80% overlap). Genes with decreased transcript levels in response to faster growth are largely of unknown function (>50%) whereas genes with increased transcript levels are involved in macromolecular biosynthesis such as those that encode ribosomal proteins. This group also covers most targets of the transcriptional activator RAP1, which is also known to be involved in replication. A positive correlation between the location of replication origins and the location of growth-regulated genes suggests a role for replication in growth rate regulation.
Conclusion: Our data show that the cellular growth rate has great influence on transcriptional regulation. This, in turn, implies that one should be cautious when comparing mutants with different growth rates. Our findings also indicate that much of the regulation is coordinated via the chromosomal location of the affected genes, which may be valuable information for the control of heterologous gene expression in metabolic engineering.
Die Verarbeitung von Informationen im zentralen Nervensystem beruht auf dem Zusammenspiel von erregender und hemmender Neurotransmission. Die Übertragung von Signalen zwischen Neuronen erfolgt chemisch über die Ausschüttung von Neurotransmittern an spezialisierten Kontaktstellen, den Synapsen. Glyzin und gamma-Aminobuttersäure (GABA) sind die bedeutendsten inhibitorischen Neurotransmitter im zentralen Nervensystem von Säugern, welche Rezeptoren vom Glyzin- (GlyR) und GABAA-Typ (GABAAR) aktivieren. Diese ligandengesteuerten Ionenkanäle sind in postsynaptischen Membranen angereichert und mit intrazellulären Proteinen assoziiert. Die Rekrutierung der Rezeptoren in postsynaptischen Domänen ist ein an das zytoplasmatisch lokalisierte Protein Gephyrin gekoppelter Prozess. So bindet Gephyrin spezifisch an die intrazelluläre Domäne der beta-Untereinheit des GlyR (GlyR beta) und bildet für die Verankerung des Rezeptors ein gerüstartiges Netzwerk unterhalb der synaptischen Membran. Die gezielte Inaktivierung des Gephyrin-Gens führt in Mäusen zu einem postnatal letalen Phänotyp und zu dem Verlust der synaptischen Anreicherung des GlyR und bestimmter GABAA-Rezeptoren auf zellulärer Ebene. Gephyrin ist ein 93 kDa großes Protein, das nicht nur im zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS), sondern auch in anderen Organen wie Leber und Niere exprimiert wird, in denen es an der Synthese des Molybdän-Kofaktors von Oxido-Reduktasen beteiligt ist. Das Gephyrin-Protein wird durch 30 Exons codiert, von denen zehn als sogenannte Kassetten alternativ gespleißt werden können. Die bestuntersuchte Spleißvariante besitzt 736 Aminosäuren und ist in eine N- und eine C-terminale Domäne (Aminosäuren 1-181 bzw. 318-736) sowie eine zentrale Linker-Domäne unterteilt. Die N- und die C-terminalen Bereiche von Gephyrin sind den Proteinen MogA und MoeA aus E. coli homolog und werden daher auch als G-Domäne (N-terminal) bzw. E-Domäne (C-terminal) bezeichnet. In kristallographischen Untersuchungen wurde gezeigt, dass die G- und E-Domänen zur Tri- bzw. Dimerisierung befähigt sind. Diese speziellen Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der beiden Gephyrindomänen bilden wahrscheinlich die Grundlage für die Entstehung von Gephyrin-Clustern sowie eines hexagonalen Gephyrin-Gerüstes. Dieses Gerüst stellt den Verknüpfungspunkt zwischen Rezeptoren und dem Zytoskelett dar und ermöglicht somit die effiziente Clusterbildung und die zielgerichtete Anordnung einer großen Anzahl inhibitorischer Rezeptoren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollten die Rolle dieser beiden Domänen bei der Bildung membranassoziierter Gephyrinaggregate und die molekularen Mechanismen der Clusterbildung des Gephyrinmoleküls untersucht werden. Zu diesem Zweck wurden durch zielgerichtete Mutagenese unterschiedliche Gephyrin-Mutanten hergestellt, um die Fähigkeit der Oligomerisierung der G- und E-Domäne gezielt zu modifizieren. Dadurch sollte die Bedeutung der Oligomerisierung hinsichtlich der Aggregat- bzw. Clusterbildung untersucht werden. Außerdem sollten die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Gephyrin und anderen Proteinen und deren Einfluss auf die synaptische Lokalisation analysiert werden. Für diese Untersuchungen wurden auf der Basis von Röntgenstruktur-Daten spezifische Aminosäurereste an den bei der Oligomerisierung beteiligten Kontaktstellen ausgetauscht. In der G-Domäne wurden zu diesem Zweck vier separate Aminosäuren des Trimer-Interface durch Arginin ersetzt (GephRRRR). Analog hierzu wurden in der EDomäne einzelne Aminosäuren durch Arginin bzw. Glutamat substituiert (GephRER), um dadurch eine Dimersierung zu verhindern. Für die Kassette C5’ wird angenommen, dass deren Vorhandensein die Interaktion zwischen Gephyrin und GlyR beeinträchtigt, wodurch GlyR aus GABAergenen Synapsen ausgeschlossen wird. Daher wurde der Einfluss dieser Gephyrin-Spleißvariante (GephC5’), die zu einer Peptidinsertion innerhalb der G-Domäne führt, und einer Gephyrin-Mutante (Gephmut), die den Verlust der Wechselwirkung mit dem GlyR bedingt, auf die Aggregatbildung von Gephyrinoligomeren untersucht. Bei dem Konstrukt Gephmut wurden, basierend auf Daten von Röntgenstrukturuntersuchungen, neun Aminosäuren (713-721) am Cterminalen Ende der E-Domäne durch den homologen Bereich des bakteriellen MoeA Proteins aus E. coli ersetzt. Zunächst wurden die einzelnen isolierten Domänen mittels Gelfiltration hinsichtlich ihres Oligomerisierungsverhaltens untersucht. Die Mutationen wurden hierzu in verkürzte Proteine eingeführt, bei denen nur die G- bzw. die E-Domäne exprimiert wurden. Diese Konstrukte wurden daher als GRRRR, GC5’ bzw. ERER und Emut bezeichnet. Bei diesen zeigte sich, dass die G-Domäne des Gephyrin-Wildtyps zu trimeren Proteinkomplexen oligomerisiert. Im Gegensatz hierzu war die Mutante GRRRR nicht in der Lage, Trimere zu bilden. Das Einfügen der C5’-Kassette führte ebenfalls zu einer Störung der Trimerisierung. Gelfiltrationsexperimente mit der E-Domäne ergaben, dass die mutierte Domäne ERER, im Gegensatz zum Wildtyp-Konstrukt, keine Dimere ausbildet. Bisherige Studien haben jedoch gezeigt, dass das Emut Polypeptid zur Dimerisierung befähigt ist. Das Oligomerisierungsverhalten des kompletten Gephyrin-Proteins wurde mittels blauer nativer Gelelektrophorese (BN-PAGE) analysiert. Für die hier beschriebenen Untersuchungen mit BN-PAGE wurde rekombinantes Gephyrin in Xenopus laevis Oozyten heterolog exprimiert. Die Analyse ergab, dass Wildtyp Gephyrin nativ als Hexamer vorliegt, welches durch ansteigende Konzentrationen des Detergenzes Natriumdodecylsulfat (SDS) in Trimere, Dimere und Monomere zerfällt. Sowohl GephRRRR und GephC5’ liegen nativ fast ausschließlich als Dimere vor, während GephRER nur trimere Aggregate formt. Die entsprechende Doppelmutante mit Mutationen in Gund E-Domäne war wie erwartet nur noch als Monomer existent. Die als Kontrolle eingesetzte Glyzinrezeptor-Bindungsmutante Gephmut bildete, ebenso wie der Wildtyp, Hexamere aus. Daraus folgt, dass die Oligomere der G- bzw E-Domäne Zwischenprodukte der Hexamerbildung darstellen. Die Analyse der Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der Mutanten wurde nachfolgend in humanen embryonalen Nierenzellen (HEK 293T) untersucht. Nach heterologer Expression von Wildtyp Gephyrin in HEK 293T-Zellen formen sich große, charakteristische Gephyrinaggregate. Die Oligomerisierungs-Mutanten GephRRRR, GephRER und GephC5’ aggregierten jedoch nicht, sondern waren diffus im Zytoplasma verteilt. Die wiederum als Kontrolle eingesetzte Bindungsmutante Gephmut hingegen wies eine normale Aggregation auf. Diese Ergebnisse bestätigen die grundlegende Rolle der Oligomerisierung von G- und E- Domänen für die Aggregatbildung von Gephyrin. Mittels GST-Pulldown und Kolokalisationsanalysen in HEK Zellen wurde die Wechselwirkung der Gephyrinmutanten mit der GlyR beta, dem Motorkomplexprotein Dynein light chain-1 (Dlc-1) und dem Guanin-Nukleotid-Austauschfaktor Collybistin (Cb) untersucht. Beide Ansätze weisen darauf hin, dass die Trimerisierung der G-Domäne an der Interaktion von Gephyrin mit Dlc-1 und die Dimerisierung der E-Domäne bei der Bindung an GlyR beta und Cb beteiligt ist. Die Mutante Gephmut zeigte in beiden Fällen einen totalen Verlust der Bindungsfähigkeit sowohl an das GlyR beta Bindungsmotiv als auch an Cb. Der Einbau der C5’ Kassette in Gephyrin scheint jedoch nicht dessen Bindung an den GlyR zu beeinflussen. Für die Analyse der Clusterbildung und des zielgerichteten Transports in Neuronen wurden Wildtyp und mutiertes Gephyrin in hippocampalen und spinalen Primärkulturen der Ratte exprimiert. Zur Überprüfung einer synaptischen Lokalisation wurde Gephyrin gemeinsam mit dem vesikulären inhibitorischen Aminosäure-Transporter (VIAAT), einem präsynaptischen Marker-Protein, detektiert. In beiden Kulturen wies Gephyrin eine punktartige Verteilung in den Neuriten auf und wurde gezielt an Synapsen angereichert. Im Kontrast dazu zeigten alle Oligomerisierungsmutanten, GephRRRR, GephC5’ und GephRER keine Ausbildung von Clustern sondern eine diffuse Verteilung im Zellkörper und in Dendriten. Das Konstrukt Gephmut wies jedoch Clusterbildung und eine punktförmige Verteilung auf. Diese Daten belegen, dass die Oligomerisierung der G- wie auch der E-Domänen für die Clusterbildung und synaptische Lokalisation von Gephyrin unerlässlich ist. Die Wechselwirkung mit dem GlyR und/oder Collybistin ist ebenfalls für die Anreicherung in der Synapse erforderlich, nicht jedoch für die Bildung der Gephyrin-Cluster. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse belegen die Rolle der spezifischen Oligomerisierungseigenschaften der G- und E-Domäne für die Ausbildung des hexagonalen Gephyringerüstes und dessen grundlegende Bedeutung für die spezifische Anreicherung von Gephyrin an inhibitorischen Synapsen in Neuronen.
Shrew-1 wurde bei der Suche invasivitätsassoziierter Gene mittels eines DDRT-PCR-Ansatzes aus invasiven Zellen isoliert. Wie computergestützte Analysen der Sequenz ergaben, wies das bis dahin unbekannte Protein keinerlei Ähnlichkeiten mit bereits bekannten Proteinen auf und homologe Proteine wurden bisher nur in Vertebraten gefunden. Expressionsanalysen mit einem GFP-markierten shrew-1 zeigten, dass es an der basolateralen Plasmamembran lokalisiert, wo es mit dem E-Cadherin vermittelten Adhäsions-Komplex kolokalisiert. Eine Integration in diesen Komplex geschieht höchstwahrscheinlich durch direkte Interaktion mit β-Catenin. Ein weiteres Molekül das als potenzieller Interaktionspartner von shrew-1 identifiziert wurde und das in der Literatur oft als Tumorsuppressor diskutiert wird, ist Caveolin-1. Ferner konnten Überexpressionexperimente bereits zeigen, dass shrew-1 die Invasivität von HT1080-Zellen erhöhen kann. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, zum einen mit Hilfe des Hefe-Split-Ubiquitin-Systems eine Interaktion von shrew-1 und Caveolin-1 zu bestätigen und zum anderen neue Interaktionspartner zu identifizieren, die helfen könnten, die Rolle von shrew-1 in invasiven Vorgängen zu erklären. Um eine mögliche Verbindung von shrew-1 und einem neuen Interaktionspartner in Bezug auf die Zellinvasivität zu untersuchen, sollten sowohl shrew-1 als auch der potenzielle Interaktionspartner mittels RNAi ausgeschaltet werden. Mit Hilfe des Split-Ubiquitin-Systems war es möglich, die Interaktion zwischen shrew-1 und caveolin-1 zu bestätigen und zu zeigen, dass diese durch die zytoplasmatische Domäne von shrew-1 vermittelt wird. Weiterhin konnte CD147 als neuer Interaktionpartner identifiziert werden. Eine Interaktion beider Proteine konnte ferner mit Hilfe des Bimolekularen-Fluoreszens-Komplementations-Systems (BIFC), des Fluoreszens-Resonanz-Energie-Transfers (FRET) und Coimmunoprezipitationen bestätigt werden. Die Interaktion von shrew-1 und CD147 scheint allerdings abhängig vom zellulären Kontext zu sein, wie die FRET-Analysen vermuten lassen. So konnte nämlich mit diesen Analysen eine starke Interaktion in MCF7-Zellen gezeigt werden, wohingegen die Interaktion in MDCK-Zellen schwächer war. Einer der auffälligsten Unterschiede dieser beiden Zelllinien im Bezug auf diese Interaktion könnte sein, dass MCF7-Zellen im Gegensatz zu MDCK-Zellen kein Caveolin-1 exprimieren. Caveolin-1 konnte seinerseits als Interaktionspartner von shrew-1 mit Hilfe des Hefe-Split-Ubiquitin-Systems bestätigt werden und andererseits wurde von einer anderen Arbeitsgruppe eine Interaktion von CD147 mit Caveolin-1 publiziert. Um dies näher zu untersuchen, wurde Caveolin-1 in MCF7-Zellen exprimiert und die FRET-Analysen in diesen wiederholt. Wie vermutet kam es zu einer Reduktion der Interaktion in Caveolin-1 exprimierenden MCF7-Zellen. CD147 ist neben vielen anderen Funktionen auch maßgeblich an der Regulation von Matrix-Metalloproteinasen beteiligt und kann somit die Invasivität von Zellen beeinflussen. Um einen Einfluß von shrew-1 und CD147 auf die Invasivität zu untersuchen, wurden beide Proteine mittels RNAi in HeLa-Zellen ausgeschaltet. Nachdem ein negativer Einfluss dieses Ansatzes auf das Proliferationsverhalten der Zellen ausgeschlossen werden konnte, wurde ein möglicher Effekt auf die Invasivität der Zellen untersucht. Durch die Analyse in Matrigel-Invasionsassays konnte gezeigt werden, dass das unabhängige Ausschalten beider Proteine die Invasivität der Zellen auf 35-55% im Vergleich zu Kontrollzellen reduziert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit untermauern die Annahme, dass shrew-1 eine Rolle bei invasiven Vorgängen spielt und weisen darauf hin, dass dies möglicherweise durch eine Interaktion mit CD147 geschieht. Die Interaktion mit CD147 und damit eine mögliche Funktion von shrew-1 bei invasiven Vorgängen scheinen dabei abhängig vom zellulären Kontext zu sein.
Tens of thousands of man-made chemicals are in regular use and discharged into the environment. Many of them are known to interfere with the hormonal systems in humans and wildlife. Given the complexity of endocrine systems, there are many ways in which endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can affect the body’s signaling system, and this makes unraveling the mechanisms of action of these chemicals difficult. A major concern is that some of these EDCs appear to be biologically active at extremely low concentrations. There is growing evidence to indicate that the guiding principle of traditional toxicology that “the dose makes the poison” may not always be the case because some EDCs do not induce the classical dose–response relationships. The European Union project COMPRENDO (Comparative Research on Endocrine Disrupters—Phylogenetic Approach and Common Principles focussing on Androgenic/Antiandrogenic Compounds) therefore aims to develop an understanding of potential health problems posed by androgenic and antiandrogenic compounds (AACs) to wildlife and humans by focusing on the commonalities and differences in responses to AACs across the animal kingdom (from invertebrates to vertebrates).
Active neurogenesis continuously takes place in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian brain. The dentate gyrus of the adult rodent hippocampus contains an astrocytelike cell population that is regarded as residual radial glia. These cells reside with their cell bodies in the subgranular layer (SGL). Radial processes traverse the granule cell layer (GCL) and form bushy ramifications in the inner molecular layer (IML). The residual radial glial cells apparently represent neuronal progenitor cells that can give rise to functionally integrated granule cells. To date the cellular and molecular events driving a subpopulation of these cells into neurogenesis as well as the cellular transition states are poorly understood. The present study shows, that in the mouse dentate gyrus, this cell type selectively expresses surfacelocated ATPhydrolyzing activity and is immunopositive for nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2). NTPDase2 is an ectoenzyme and hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside triphosphates such as ATP or UTP to their respective nucleoside diphosphates. The enzyme becomes expressed in the hippocampus during late embryogenesis from E17 onwards, and is thus not involved in early brain development. Its embryonicpattern of expression mirrors dentate migration of neuroblasts and the formation of the primary and finally the tertiary dentate matrix. NTPDase2 is also expressed by a transient population of cortical radial glia from late embryonic development until postnatal day 5. NTPDase2 can be employed as a novel markerfor defining cellular transition states along the neurogenic pathway. It is associated with subpopulations of GFAP and nestinpositive cells. These intermediate filaments are typically expressed by the progenitor cells of the dentate gyrus. In addition there is a considerable overlap with doublecortinand PSANCAM positive cells. The expression of the microtubuleassociated protein doublecortin and of PSANCAM which are expressed by migrating neuroblasts is indicative of a transition of progenitors to a neural phenotype or an immature form of granule cell. NTPDase2 is no longer associated with young neurons and with maturegranule cells, as indicated by the lack of doubleimmunostaining for III tubulin and NeuN, respectively. Furthermore, β S100positive astrocytes do not express NTPDase2 validating that NTPDase2 is also not associated with later stages of gliogenesis. Experiments with the Sphase marker bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) demonstrate that NTPDase2positive cell proliferate. Postmitotic BrdU-labeled cells preferentially acquire an NTPDase2positive phenotype. Many of these cells were also positive for GFAP. The contribution of BrdUlabeled cells positive for NTPDase2 increased with time from 2 h to 72 h, validating a strong association of NTPDase2 with proliferating cells of the dentate gyrus. The colocalization studies with various markers and the results of the experiments suggestthat NTPDase2 is associated with cell types of varying maturation states but not with mature neurons or astrocytes. Studies on the formation of neurospheres from the dentate gyrus validate previous data suggesting that the hippocampal progenitors have little capacity for self renewal in vitro. In situ hybridization results indicate the presence of one of the metabotropic purinergic receptor subtypes (the P2Y1 receptor) within the adult neurogenic regions, the dentate gyrus and the lateral walls of the lateral ventricles. A patchclamp analysis demonstrates the presence of functional ionotropic nucleotide receptor (P2X receptors) in progenitor cells expressing nestin promotordriven GFP. They suggest that the signaling pathway via extracellular nucleotides and nucleotide receptors may play a role in the control of adult hippocampal neurogenesis.
In addition to the importance of many Dioscorea species (yams) as starchy staple food, some representatives are known and still used as a source for the steroidal sapogenin diosgenin, which, besides phytosterols derived from tall-oil, is an important precursor for partial synthesis of steroids for pharmaceutical research and applications. While in edible yams the diosgenin content should be as low as possible, a high yield of the compound is preferable for cultivars which are grown for the extraction of sterols. In the past, miscalculations and insufficiently precise techniques for quantification of diosgenin prevailed. Therefore we set out to re-evaluate the steroid content of a world collection of Dioscorea species, using leaves as sample material. We optimized diosgenin quantification techniques and fingerprinted the whole collection with the DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF) technique. Total diosgenin contents ranged from 0.04 to 0.93% of dry weight within the collection. Several Dioscorea cultivars can be characterized via their DAF fingerprint patterns.