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Atmospheric new particle formation is a general phenomenon observed over coniferous forests. So far nucleation is described as a function of gaseous sulfuric acid concentration only, which is unable to explain the observed seasonality of nucleation events at different measurement sites. Here we introduce a new nucleation parameter including ozone and water vapor concentrations as well as UV-B radiation as a proxy for OH radical formation. Applying this new parameter to field studies conducted at Finnish and German measurement sites it is found capable to predict the occurrence of nucleation events and their seasonal and annual variation indicating a significant role of organics. Extrapolation to possible future conditions of ozone, water vapor and organic concentrations leads to a significant potential increase in nucleation event number.
Atmospheric new particle formation is a general phenomenon observed over coniferous forests. So far nucleation is either parameterised as a function of gaseous sulphuric acid concentration only, which is unable to explain the observed seasonality of nucleation events at different measurement sites, or as a function of sulphuric acid and organic molecules. Here we introduce different nucleation parameters based on the interaction of sulphuric acid and terpene oxidation products and elucidate the individual importance. They include basic trace gas and meteorological measurements such as ozone and water vapour concentrations, temperature (for terpene emission) and UV B radiation as a proxy for OH radical formation. We apply these new parameters to field studies conducted at conducted at Finnish and German measurement sites and compare these to nucleation observations on a daily and annual scale. General agreement was found, although the specific compounds responsible for the nucleation process remain speculative. This can be interpreted as follows: During cooler seasons the emission of biogenic terpenes and the OH availability limits the new particle formation while towards warmer seasons the ratio of ozone and water vapour concentration seems to dominate the general behaviour. Therefore, organics seem to support ambient nucleation besides sulphuric acid or an OH-related compound. Using these nucleation parameters to extrapolate the current conditions to prognosed future concentrations of ozone, water vapour and organic concentrations leads to a significant potential increase in the nucleation event number.
A new, two-channel instrument for simultaneous NO3 and N2O5 monitoring was used to make the first comprehensive set of nocturnal NOx measurements (NO, NO2, NO3 and N2O5) at the Taunus Observatory, a rural mountain site (Kleiner Feldberg) in South-western Germany. In May 2008, NO3 and N2O5 mixing ratios were well above the instrumental detection limit (a few ppt) on all nights of the campaign and were characterised by large variability. The concentrations of NO3, N2O5 and NO2 were consistent with the equilibrium constant, K2, defining the rates of formation and thermal dissociation of N2O5. A steady-state lifetime analysis is consistent with the loss of nocturnal NOx being dominated by the reaction of NO3 with volatile organic compounds in this forested region, with N2O5 uptake to aerosols of secondary importance. Analysis of a limited dataset obtained at high relative humidity indicated that the loss of N2O5 by reaction with water vapour is less efficient (>factor 3) than derived using laboratory kinetic data. The fraction of NOx present as NO3 and N2O5 reached ~20% on some nights, with night-time losses of NOx competing with daytime losses.
Fractional release factors of long-lived halogenated organic compounds in the tropical stratosphere
(2010)
Fractional release factors (FRFs) of organic trace gases are time-independent quantities that influence the calculation of Global Warming Potentials and Ozone Depletion Potentials. We present the first set of vertically resolved FRFs for 15 long-lived halocarbons in the tropical stratosphere up to 34 km altitude. They were calculated from measurements on air samples collected on board balloons and a high altitude aircraft. We compare the derived dependencies of FRFs on the mean stratospheric transit times (the so-called mean ages of air) with similarly derived FRFs originating from measurements at higher latitudes and find significant differences. Moreover a comparison with averaged FRFs currently used by the World Meteorological Organisation revealed the limitations of these measures due to their observed vertical and latitudinal variability. The presented data set could be used to improve future ozone level and climate projections.
We synthesised observations of total particle number (CN) concentration from 36 sites around the world. We found that annual mean CN concentrations are typically 300–2000 cm -3 in the marine boundary layer and free troposphere (FT) and 1000–10 000 cm -3 in the continental boundary layer (BL). Many sites exhibit pronounced seasonality with summer time concentrations a factor of 2–10 greater than wintertime concentrations. We used these CN observations to evaluate primary and secondary sources of particle number in a global aerosol microphysics model. We found that emissions of primary particles can reasonably reproduce the spatial pattern of observed CN concentration (R2=0.46) but fail to explain the observed seasonal cycle (R2=0.1). The modeled CN concentration in the FT was biased low (normalised mean bias, NMB=& -88%) unless a secondary source of particles was included, for example from binary homogeneous nucleation of sulfuric acid and water (NMB= -25%). Simulated CN concentrations in the continental BL were also biased low (NMB= -74%) unless the number emission of anthropogenic primary particles was increased or a mechanism that results in particle formation in the BL was included. We ran a number of simulations where we included an empirical BL nucleation mechanism either using the activation-type mechanism (nucleation rate, J, proportional to gas-phase sulfuric acid concentration to the power one) or kinetic-type mechanism (J proportional to sulfuric acid to the power two) with a range of nucleation coefficients. We found that the seasonal CN cycle observed at continental BL sites was better simulated by BL particle formation (R2=0.3) than by increasing the number emission from primary anthropogenic sources (R2=0.18). The nucleation constants that resulted in best overall match between model and observed CN concentrations were consistent with values derived in previous studies from detailed case studies at individual sites. In our model, kinetic and activation-type nucleation parameterizations gave similar agreement with observed monthly mean CN concentrations.
River flow regimes, including long-term average flows, seasonality, low flows, high flows and other types of flow variability, play an important role for freshwater ecosystems. Thus, climate change affects freshwater ecosystems not only by increased temperatures but also by altered river flow regimes. However, with one exception, transferable quantitative relations between flow alterations and ecological responses have not yet been derived. While discharge decreases are generally considered to be detrimental for ecosystems, the effect of future discharge increases is unclear. As a first step towards a global-scale analysis of climate change impacts on freshwater ecosystems, we quantified the impact of climate change on five ecologically relevant river flow indicators, using the global water model WaterGAP 2.1g to simulate monthly time series of river discharge with a spatial resolution of 0.5 degrees. Four climate change scenarios based on two global climate models and two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios were evaluated. We compared the impact of climate change by the 2050s to the impact of water withdrawals and dams on natural flow regimes that had occurred by 2002. Climate change was computed to alter seasonal flow regimes significantly (i.e. by more than 10%) on 90% of the global land area (excluding Greenland and Antarctica), as compared to only one quarter of the land area that had suffered from significant seasonal flow regime alterations due to dams and water withdrawals. Due to climate change, the timing of the maximum mean monthly river discharge will be shifted by at least one month on one third on the global land area, more often towards earlier months (mainly due to earlier snowmelt). Dams and withdrawals had caused comparable shifts on less than 5% of the land area only. Long-term average annual river discharge is predicted to significantly increase on one half of the land area, and to significantly decrease on one quarter. Dams and withdrawals had led to significant decreases on one sixth of the land area, and nowhere to increases. Thus, by the 2050s, climate change may have impacted ecologically relevant river flow characteristics more strongly than dams and water withdrawals have up to now. The only exception refers to the decrease of the statistical low flow Q90, with significant decreases both by past water withdrawals and future climate change on one quarter of the land area. However, dam impacts are likely underestimated by our study. Considering long-term average river discharge, only a few regions, including Spain, Italy, Iraq, Southern India, Western China, the Australian Murray Darling Basin and the High Plains Aquifer in the USA, all of them with extensive irrigation, are expected to be less affected by climate change than by past anthropogenic flow alterations. In some of these regions, climate change will exacerbate the discharge reductions, while in others climate change provides opportunities for reducing past reductions. Emissions scenario B2 leads to only slightly reduced alterations of river flow regimes as compared to scenario A2 even though emissions are much smaller. The differences in alterations resulting from the two applied climate models are larger than those resulting from the two emissions scenarios. Based on general knowledge about ecosystem responses to flow alterations and data related to flow alterations by dams and water withdrawals, we expect that the computed climate change induced river flow alterations will impact freshwater ecosystems more strongly than past anthropogenic alterations.
This paper investigates the potential impact of secondary information on rainfall mapping applying Ordinary Kriging. Secondary information tested is a natural area indicator, which is a combination of topographic features and weather conditions. Cross validation shows that secondary information only marginally improves the final mapping, indicating that a one-day accumulation time is possibly too short.
Development of a Bioaerosol single particle detector (BIO IN) for the Fast Ice Nucleus CHamber FINCH
(2010)
In this work we present the setup and first tests of our new BIO IN detector. This detector was constructed to classify atmospheric ice nuclei (IN) for their biological content. It is designed to be coupled to the Fast Ice Nucleus CHamber FINCH. If one particle acts as an ice nucleus, it will be at least partly covered with ice at the end of the development section of the FINCH chamber. The device combines an auto-fluorescence detector and a circular depolarization detector for simultaneous detection of biological material and discrimination between water droplets, ice crystals and non activated large aerosol particles. The excitation of biological material with UV light and analysis of auto-fluorescence is a common principle used for flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, spectroscopy and imaging. The detection of auto-fluorescence of airborne single particles demands some more experimental effort. However, expensive commercial sensors are available for special purposes, e.g. size distribution measurements. But these sensors will not fit the specifications needed for the FINCH IN counter (e.g. high sample flow of up 10 LPM). The newly developed -low cost- BIO IN sensor uses a single high-power UV LED for the electronic excitation instead of much more expensive UV lasers. Other key advantages of the new sensor are the low weight, compact size, and the little effect on the aerosol sample, which allows it to be coupled with other instruments for further analysis. The instrument will be flown on one of the first missions of the new German research aircraft "HALO" (High Altitude and LOng range).
Processes occurring in the tropical upper troposphere (UT), the Tropical Transition Layer (TTL), and the lower stratosphere (LS) are of importance for the global climate, for stratospheric dynamics and air chemistry, and for their influence on the global distribution of water vapour, trace gases and aerosols. In this contribution we present aerosol and trace gas (in-situ) measurements from the tropical UT/LS over Southern Brazil, Northern Australia, and West Africa. The instruments were operated on board of the Russian high altitude research aircraft M-55 "Geophysica" and the DLR Falcon-20 during the campaigns TROCCINOX (Araçatuba, Brazil, February 2005), SCOUT-O3 (Darwin, Australia, December 2005), and SCOUT-AMMA (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, August 2006). The data cover submicron particle number densities and volatility from the COndensation PArticle counting System (COPAS), as well as relevant trace gases like N2O, ozone, and CO. We use these trace gas measurements to place the aerosol data into a broader atmospheric context. Also a juxtaposition of the submicron particle data with previous measurements over Costa Rica and other tropical locations between 1999 and 2007 (NASA DC-8 and NASA WB-57F) is provided. The submicron particle number densities, as a function of altitude, were found to be remarkably constant in the tropical UT/LS altitude band for the two decades after 1987. Thus, a parameterisation suitable for models can be extracted from these measurements. Compared to the average levels in the period between 1987 and 2007 a slight increase of particle abundances was found for 2005/2006 at altitudes with potential temperatures, theta, above 430 K. The origins of this increase are unknown except for increases measured during SCOUT-AMMA. Here the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano in the Caribbean caused elevated particle mixing ratios. The vertical profiles from Northern hemispheric mid-latitudes between 1999 and 2006 also are compact enough to derive a parameterisation. The tropical profiles all show a broad maximum of particle mixing ratios (between theta ~ 340 K and 390 K) which extends from below the TTL to above the thermal tropopause. Thus these particles are a "reservoir" for vertical transport into the stratosphere. The ratio of non-volatile particle number density to total particle number density was also measured by COPAS. The vertical profiles of this ratio have a maximum of 50% above 370 K over Australia and West Africa and a pronounced minimum directly below. Without detailed chemical composition measurements a reason for the increase of non-volatile particle fractions cannot yet be given. However, half of the particles from the tropical "reservoir" contain compounds other than sulphuric acid and water. Correlations of the measured aerosol mixing ratios with N2O and ozone exhibit compact relationships for the tropical data from SCOUT-AMMA, TROCCINOX, and SCOUT-O3. Correlations with CO are more scattered probably because of the connection to different pollution source regions. We provide additional data from the long distance transfer flights to the campaign sites in Brazil, Australia, and West-Africa. These were executed during a time window of 17 months within a period of relative volcanic quiescence. Thus the data represent a "snapshot picture" documenting the status of a significant part of the global UT/LS fine aerosol at low concentration levels 15 years after the last major (i.e., the 1991 Mount Pinatubo) eruption. The corresponding latitudinal distributions of the measured particle number densities are presented in this paper to provide data of the UT/LS background aerosol for modelling purposes.
Pollen-based climate reconstructions were performed on two high-resolution pollen marines cores from the Alboran and Aegean Seas in order to unravel the climatic variability in the coastal settings of the Mediterranean region between 15 000 and 4000 years BP (the Lateglacial, and early to mid-Holocene). The quantitative climate reconstructions for the Alboran and Aegean Sea records focus mainly on the reconstruction of the seasonality changes (temperatures and precipitation), a crucial parameter in the Mediterranean region. This study is based on a multi-method approach comprising 3 methods: the Modern Analogues Technique (MAT), the recent Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling/Generalized Additive Model method (NMDS/GAM) and Partial Least Squares regression (PLS). The climate signal inferred from this comparative approach confirms that cold and dry conditions prevailed in the Mediterranean region during the Oldest and Younger Dryas periods, while temperate conditions prevailed during the Bølling/Allerød and the Holocene. Our records suggest a West/East gradient of decreasing precipitation across the Mediterranean region during the cooler Late-glacial and early Holocene periods, similar to present-day conditions. Winter precipitation was highest during warm intervals and lowest during cooling phases. Several short-lived cool intervals (i.e. Older Dryas, another oscillation after this one (GI-1c2), Gerzensee/Preboreal Oscillations, 8.2 ka event, Bond events) connected to the North Atlantic climate system are documented in the Alboran and Aegean Sea records indicating that the climate oscillations associated with the successive steps of the deglaciation in the North Atlantic area occurred in both the western and eastern Mediterranean regions. This observation confirms the presence of strong climatic linkages between the North Atlantic and Mediterranean regions.
Abrupt climate changes of the last deglaciation detected in a Western Mediterranean forest record
(2010)
Abrupt changes in Western Mediterranean climate during the last deglaciation (20 to 6 cal ka BP) are detected in marine core MD95-2043 (Alboran Sea) through the investigation of high-resolution pollen data and pollen-based climate reconstructions by the modern analogue technique (MAT) for annual precipitation (Pann) and mean temperatures of the coldest and warmest months (MTCO and MTWA). Changes in temperate Mediterranean forest development and composition and MAT reconstructions indicate major climatic shifts with parallel temperature and precipitation changes at the onsets of Heinrich stadial 1 (equivalent to the Oldest Dryas), the Bölling-Allerød (BA), and the Younger Dryas (YD). Multi-centennial-scale oscillations in forest development occurred throughout the BA, YD, and early Holocene. Shifts in vegetation composition and (Pann reconstructions indicate that forest declines occurred during dry, and generally cool, episodes centred at 14.0, 13.3, 12.9, 11.8, 10.7, 10.1, 9.2, 8.3 and 7.4 cal ka BP. The forest record also suggests multiple, low-amplitude Preboreal (PB) climate oscillations, and a marked increase in moisture availability for forest development at the end of the PB at 10.6 cal ka BP. Dry atmospheric conditions in the Western Mediterranean occurred in phase with Lateglacial events of high-latitude cooling including GI-1d (Older Dryas), GI-1b (Intra-Allerød Cold Period) and GS-1 (YD), and during Holocene events associated with high-latitude cooling, meltwater pulses and N. Atlantic ice-rafting. A possible climatic mechanism for the recurrence of dry intervals and an opposed regional precipitation pattern with respect to Western-central Europe relates to the dynamics of the westerlies and the prevalence of atmospheric blocking highs. Comparison of radiocarbon and ice-core ages for well-defined climatic transitions in the forest record suggests possible enhancement of marine reservoir ages in the Alboran Sea by 200 years (surface water age 600 years) during the Lateglacial.
This paper shows the equivalence of applicative similarity and contextual approximation, and hence also of bisimilarity and contextual equivalence, in the deterministic call-by-need lambda calculus with letrec. Bisimilarity simplifies equivalence proofs in the calculus and opens a way for more convenient correctness proofs for program transformations. Although this property may be a natural one to expect, to the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first one providing a proof. The proof technique is to transfer the contextual approximation into Abramsky's lazy lambda calculus by a fully abstract and surjective translation. This also shows that the natural embedding of Abramsky's lazy lambda calculus into the call-by-need lambda calculus with letrec is an isomorphism between the respective term-models.We show that the equivalence property proven in this paper transfers to a call-by-need letrec calculus developed by Ariola and Felleisen.
This note shows that in non-deterministic extended lambda calculi with letrec, the tool of applicative (bi)simulation is in general not usable for contextual equivalence, by giving a counterexample adapted from data flow analysis. It also shown that there is a flaw in a lemma and a theorem concerning finite simulation in a conference paper by the first two authors.
A logical framework consisting of a polymorphic call-by-value functional language and a first-order logic on the values is presented, which is a reconstruction of the logic of the verification system VeriFun. The reconstruction uses contextual semantics to define the logical value of equations. It equates undefinedness and non-termination, which is a standard semantical approach. The main results of this paper are: Meta-theorems about the globality of several classes of theorems in the logic, and proofs of global correctness of transformations and deduction rules. The deduction rules of VeriFun are globally correct if rules depending on termination are appropriately formulated. The reconstruction also gives hints on generalizations of the VeriFun framework: reasoning on nonterminating expressions and functions, mutual recursive functions and abstractions in the data values, and formulas with arbitrary quantifier prefix could be allowed.
The Opisthobranchia comprise highly specialized marine gastropods and have therefore been subject to diverse investigations covering various biological disciplines. However, a robust phylogeny of these gastropods is still lacking and several subclades have only been rarely studied. Furthermore, crucial aspects for the evolution of Opisthobranchia have not been comparatively analysed. Therefore, the aim of the present thesis is to gain new insights into the phylogeny of the Opisthobranchia with special focus on certain critical groups (Pleurobranchomorpha, Acteonoidea) and to assess several crucial features of the evolution of the investigated clades. The combination of four different gene markers (18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, 16S rDNA and CO1) and modern molecular systematic analysis tools were used to construct phylogenetic hypotheses focussing on Opisthobranchia as a whole as well as Pleurobranchomorpha and Acteonoidea in more detail. Intriguing new aspects of phylogeny and evolution of Opisthobranchia were revealed. First of all, monophyly of Opisthobranchia is definitely rejected based on the present data, while monophyly of Euthyneura (comprising Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata) is supported. Monophyly of opisthobranch subclades is confirmed for Nudipleura (as well as its constituting groups Nudibranchia and Pleurobranchomorpha), Umbraculida, Pteropoda (as well as subclades Thecosomata and Gymnosomata) and Acochlidiacea, for Cephalaspidea (if Runcinacea is regarded as a separate clade) and for Sacoglossa (if Cylindrobulla is accepted as an Oxynoacea). Aplysiomorpha are rendered paraphyletic due to the position of Akera bullata, but this result needs further investigation and should be considered with caution. The Nudipleura are found as the first single offshoot of the Euthyneura implying an early evolutionary separation of the last common ancestor of this clade. The remaining taxa form two main clades, one comprising the opisthobranch subgroups Umbraculida, Cephalaspidea, Aplysiomorpha and Pteropoda, while the other contains the pulmonate taxa and the opisthobranch Sacoglossa and Acochlidiacea. The interrelationships within these clades remain largely unresolved due to low statistical support values. However, a possible sister group relationship of Acochlidiacea and Eupulmonata receives statistical support. Opisthobranchia display various highly specific adaptations to diverse food sources. However, evolution of these specialized traits has never been assessed at an analytical level. The current thesis reconstructs the evolution of dietary preferences with novel methodologies based on the newly proposed phylogenetic hypothesis. Reconstruction of dietary evolution revealed herbivory as the ancestral condition in Euthyneura implying that carnivory evolved at least five times independently in the diverse lineages. The first comprehensive molecular phylogenetic hypothesis of the Pleurobranchomorpha could not reveal monophyly of the two main subclades Pleurobranchaeidae and Pleurobranchidae. This is due to the position of a single taxon (Euselenops luniceps) which is assigned to the Pleurobranchaeidae based on morphology but clusters within Pleurobranchidae in the current hypothesis. Furthermore, the tribe Berthellini and the genus Berthella are rendered paraphyletic by the current analyses. The results of molecular systematic analyses were used to reconstruct historical biogeography of Pleurobranchomorpha. Four different methodological approaches were applied yielding ambiguous results for Pleurobranchomorpha. However, the Pleurobranchidae comprising about 80% of the extant Pleurobranchomorpha most probably derived from an Antarctic origin. Dating of the phylogenetic tree via molecular clock methods yielded divergence of Pleurobranchidae into the Antarctic Tomthompsonia antarctica and the remaining species in Early Oligocene. Afterwards the latter underwent rapid radiation during Oligocene and Early Miocene. This divergence event coincides with two major geological events in the Antarctic region. On the one hand, the onset of glaciation and on the other hand the opening of the Drake Passage with concurrent formation of an Antarctic circumpolar current (ACC). I suppose that these sudden and dramatic changes in climate and palaeogeography probably accounted for migration of the last common ancestor of Pleurobranchidae (besides Tomthompsonia) into warmer regions via the Drake Passage to the Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific and via the South Tasman Rise to the Indo-West Pacific. Furthermore, the ACC may have triggered larval dispersal to the Eastern Atlantic. The phylogenetic position of Acteonoidea has been a matter of debate for decades and they have long been considered as basal opisthobranchs. Results of the present thesis rather support placement in “Lower Heterobranchia” as sister group of Rissoelloidea. The current division of Acteonoidea into three families has never been investigated by means of phylogenetic methods. Thus, this thesis provides the first comprehensive investigation of this clade challenging present division into three families. The results rather support division into two main clades with the monogeneric Bullinidae clustering within Aplustridae doubting its separate status. Additionally, Rictaxis punctocaelatus which has been assigned to Acteonidae clusters basal to Aplustridae rendering Acteonidae paraphyletic. Since information on morphology of R. punctocaelatus was lacking until now, I conducted the first detailed investigation on morphology and histology of this species in order to reassess the unexpected molecular systematic placement. Character tracing analyses revealed similarities with both acteonoidean families implying an intermediate position of this species which might be assigned to a separate family in the future. Furthermore, the common features of Acteonidae and Rictaxis (massive shell, small foot, anterior mantle cavity opening, and absence of oral gland) are possibly plesiomorphic for the whole Acteonoidea. In summary, the results of the present thesis provide valuable novel insights into the phylogeny and evolution of the Opisthobranchia by employing state-of-the-art approaches of molecular systematics and evolutionary reconstruction. Thus, diverse hypotheses on opisthobranch phylogeny and evolution were either supported or rejected as well as novel hypotheses proposed which offer the basis for further research on these extraordinary gastropods.
Dendritic cells are the sentinels between the innate and the adaptive immunity. They are professionals that capture invading pathogens, recognize specific microbial structures and induce naïve T lymphocytes to polarize into a specific T cell subset. To initiate the T cell polarization DCs secrete cytokines which are induced upon Toll-like receptor activation by microbial structures. The recognition of these structures and the discrimination between non-self and self structures by TLRs is fine tuned, but under defined circumstances deregulation of immune responses appears. Consequently, this can result in immune disorders such as autoimmunity, chronic inflammatory diseases or cancer. In this thesis the investigations are focused on the regulation of the IL-12 family members IL-12p70 and IL-23 in DCs. The objective was to investigate three different endogenous and exogenous factors that regulate IL-12p70 or IL-23. In the first part Selenium, an essential trace element and important factor in several metabolic pathways including the cellular redox status and reactive oxygen species (ROS) dependent signaling was applied as supplement in immature Langerhans cell culture. Because Selenium also plays a role in the immune system the TLR-induced IL-23 production of the DCs upon Selenium treatment was analyzed. In the immature Langerhans cell line XS-52 the strongest inducer of IL-23 was TLR4 ligand LPS. Furthermore increased levels of TLR4-induced IL-23 in cells treated with Selenium were detected in a concentration dependent manner. Whereas the IL-23 subunit p40 was upregulated upon Selenium treatment the second subunit p19 was completely unaffected. This effect was detected on mRNA and protein level. In addition, as expected, IFN-gamma inhibited the TLR4-induced IL-23 secretion of both, Selenium treated and untreated cells. In the second part of this thesis p47phox, an organizing protein of the NADPH oxidase was analyzed regarding its potential to regulate IL-12p70 and/or IL-23 secreted by different DC subtypes. Since it was demonstrated that p47phox deficiency is associated with enhanced autoimmunity and chronic inflammation we wanted to prove whether it has a function in addition to that within the NADPH oxidase. We found some hints that p47phox may be interact with proteins of the TLR signaling pathway and thus we hypothesized that p47phox may have a function for the regulation of TLR-mediated cytokine production in DCs. In several experiments with DCs from the spleen of different p47phox deficient mice we detected an increased production of TLR9-induced IL-12p70 compared to wild type cells. In contrast TLR4 stimulation with LPS displayed no significant differences between p47phox deficient and wild type cells. In spleen cells IL-23 was not detected. Confirming the results of this new negative feedback by p47phox on IL-12p70 rats, with a single nucleotide polymorphism in the p47phox gene, were investigated. Interestingly this polymorphism is located in the phosphorylation site of IRAK4, an important kinase in the TLR pathway. In rats with a methionine residue at this position in the p47phox protein enhanced IL-12p70 level were found, compared to the rats with threonine, which can be phosphorylated by IRAK4. All analyzed mice and rats have defects in the NADPH oxidase function due to a non functional p47phox protein which results in a defective ROS production. To determine whether the observed negative feedback mechanism is connected to the lack of ROS production experiments with gp91phox deficient mice, which also have a defective NADPH oxidase function, were performed. In several experiments the enhanced IL-12p70 production in cells from p47phox deficient mice could be confirmed, but no differences between gp91phox deficient and wild type mice have been observed. In further studies was found that the inhibition of the NADPH oxidase function did not alter the negative feedback on TLR9-induced IL-12p70 secretion by p47phox. Interestingly upon treatment with the inhibitor a feedback mechanism in wild type cells also after TLR4 stimulation was observed. Hence, blocking a ROS-dependent TLR4 pathway by the inhibitor uncovered the LPS induced ROS-independent pathway of the TLR4 signaling. These findings strongly approve a NADPH oxidase/ROS-independent function of p47phox in DCs. Because splenic DCs do not secrete IL-23, in vitro differentiated DCs from the bone marrow were investigated regarding the negative feedback mechanism. In DCs from p47phox deficient mice, differentiated with GM-CSF, the upregulation of IL-12p70 was confirmed, whereas Flt3-L cultured DCs did not display the negative feedback. In contrast to IL-12p70 no difference for the IL-23 production between wild type and p47phox deficient cells has been detected. Thus, we concluded that IL-23 production is not regulated by p47phox. IL-12p70 is the major cytokine in the Th1 polarization whereas IL-23 is important for the maintenance and survival of Th17 cells. To prove whether the regulation of IL-12p70 influences the T cell response immunization experiments closely resembling the classical DTH-like protocols were performed. Groups of p47phox deficient and wild type mice received either PBS, OVA alone or mixed with TLR9 ligand CpG2216 in IFA s.c. to activate and polarize naïve T cells towards Th1 or Th17 cells. After ten days isolated lymph node cells were incubated in an ELISA spot assay with or without OVA and the frequency of IFN-gamma and IL-17 producing T cells was quantified. In vitro recall of OVA immunization of wild type and p47phox deficient mice resulted in an increased IFN-gamma and IL-17 frequency in the p47phox deficient cells. The combination with CpG2216 as adjuvant and inducer of the 3rd signal enhanced the frequency of IFN-gamma and IL-17 producing T cells in wild type mice significantly. However, in p47phox deficient cells the IFN-gamma and IL-17 response, being already detectable without in vitro OVA re-stimulation, was strongly augmented upon OVA restimulation. These findings confirmed our in vitro data for IL-12p70. Hence, the data supports our hypothesis that the p47phox dependent regulation of IL-12p70 and the consequences for the T cell response is an important mechanism to prevent uncontrolled immune responses. In the last part of this thesis the immunomodulatory property of vitamin D3 on the IL-12p70 production of DCs was examined. Since it was shown that VD3 influences the differentiation and maturation of monocytes and DCs, splenic DCs from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were investigated regarding their IL-12p70 production after VD3 treatment. Spleen cells, stimulated with LPS or CpG2216, exhibited a decreased IL-12p70 production when treated with VD3 before stimulation phase. In contrast treatment with VD3 only during TLR stimulation had no influence on the IL-12p70 production. Since it was demonstrated that VD3 stimulates the expression of p47phox mRNA cells from p47phox deficient mice were also treated with VD3. In initial experiments only a slight inhibition of IL-12p70 has been detected in p47phox deficient cells compared to the wild type. In summary the thesis displays three different possibilities to influence the TLR-induced cytokine secretion of DCs, although with different intensities and specificities.
One of the current trends in international law scholarship is the question of which influences specific legal cultures have on the understanding of international law. This contribution will trace the conditions of a German perspective and analyse the debate against the background of positive law. We will try to assess what the debate adds to the general theory of international law, how it fits into demands of legitimacy of international governance, and whether it contributes to a sensible reconstruction of current law. Furthermore, we try to develop our own perspective that matches the system of international law and is plausible in terms of international legal theory. For that purpose, we will first take It is probably in this context that the contention has to be understood that the ongoing debate on the constitutionalisation of public international law is particularly European, if not German. Whether or not this is the case is difficult to investigate with a lawyer’s tools. However, the idea that international law is the constitution of mankind has found many adherents in German legal writings. This contribution will trace the conditions of a German perspective and analyse the debate against the background of positive law. We will try to assess what the debate adds to the general theory of international law, how it fits into demands of legitimacy of international governance, and whether it contributes to a sensible reconstruction of current law. Furthermore, we try to develop our own perspective that matches the system of international law and is plausible in terms of international legal theory. For that purpose, we will first take up the debate and find its place in the landscape of international legal theory. In this context, we try to shed light on the central concepts used or presupposed when constitutionalisation is discussed by German-speaking scholars (see below, section B). Furthermore, we will discuss structures in positive law which are used as arguments in the debate (section C). Finally, we will try to give an account of constitutionalisation in terms of both sources doctrine and legal theory (section D), before drawing conclusions from the discussion (section E).
Poster presentation at 5th German Conference on Cheminformatics: 23. CIC-Workshop Goslar, Germany. 8-10 November 2009 Protein kinases are important targets for drug development. The almost identical protein folding of kinases and the common co-substrate ATP leads to the problem of inhibitor selectivity. Type II inhibitors, targeting the inactive conformation of kinases, occupy a hydrophobic pocket with less conserved surrounding amino acids. Human polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) represents a promising target for approaches to identify new therapeutic agents. Plk1 belongs to a family of highly conserved serine/threonine kinases, and is a key player in mitosis, where it modulates the spindle checkpoint at metaphase/anaphase transition. Plk1 is over-expressed in all today analyzed human tumors of different origin and serves as a negative prognostic marker in cancer patients. The newly identified inhibitor, SBE13, a vanillin derivative, targets Plk1 in its inactive conformation. This leads to selectivity within the Plk family and towards Aurora A. This selectivity can be explained by docking studies of SBE13 into the binding pocket of homology models of Plk1, Plk2 and Plk3 in their inactive conformation. SBE13 showed anti-proliferative effects in cancer cell lines of different origins with EC50 values between 5 microM and 39 microM and induced apoptosis. Increasing concentrations of SBE13 result in increasing amounts of cells in G2/M phase 13 hours after double thymidin block of HeLa cells. The kinase activity of Plk1 was inhibited with an IC50 of 200 pM. Taken together, we could show that carefully designed structure-based virtual screening is well-suited to identify selective type II kinase inhibitors targeting Plk1 as potential anti-cancer therapeutics.
The comparison of persons is pervasive in social judgement and human decision making and yet its neural substrate is poorly explored. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging we investigated the brain activities of participants comparing other persons with each other (other vs. other comparison - OOC) and with themselves (self vs. other comparison - SOC) as regards psychological (intelligence) and physical (height) characteristics. We found that the comparison of these two person characteristics differ in their neural activation patterns in the OOC as well as in the SOC with higher activity increases for intelligence than height comparison in several areas in medial frontal and orbitofrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex suggesting that their activation scales with the demand on person comparison. The person comparison network strikingly overlaps the one commonly described for the classic theory of mind tasks. We interpret this overlap as indicating perspective taking common to person comparison and theory of mind. Furthermore, we suggest that the neural differences between the SOC and the OOC especially in the dorsal part of the medial frontal cortex rely on the different degree of the self involved in the two types of comparisons. The results additionally suggest that the decision directions of self-relevant comparisons, especially in the intelligence comparison of the SOC, resulted in differences in the activation of the medial frontal cortex, which also relies on differences in the reward anticipation and self-relatedness of these decisions.
Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 : impact on Frankfurt in due consideration of health care and public health
(2010)
Background: In April 2009 a novel influenza A H1N1/2009 virus was identified in Mexico and in the United States which quickly spread around the world. Most of the countries established infection surveillance systems in order to track the number of (laboratory-confirmed) H1N1 cases, hospitalizations and deaths. Methods: The impact of the emergence of the novel pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus on Frankfurt was statistically evaluated by the Health Protection Authority, City of Frankfurt am Main. Vaccination rates of the health care workers (HCWs) of the University Hospital Frankfurt were measured by the Occupational Health Service. Results: Although the virulence of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 seems to be comparable with seasonal influenza, a major patient load and wave of hospital admissions occurred in the summer of 2009. Even though the 2009 vaccination rate of the University Hospital Frankfurt (seasonal influenza [40.5%], swine flu [36.3%]) is better than the average annual uptake of influenza vaccine in the German health care system (approximately 22% for seasonal and 15% for swine flu), vaccination levels remain insufficient. However, physicians were significantly (p < 0.001) more likely to have been vaccinated against swine flu and seasonal influenza than nurses. Conclusions: The outbreak of the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 in April 2009 provided a major challenge to health services around the world. Nosocomial transmission of H1N1/2009 has been documented. Present experience should be used to improve pandemic preparedness plans and vaccination programs ought to target as many HCWs as possible.
Due to an increasing awareness of the potential hazardousness of air pollutants, new laws, rules and guidelines have recently been implemented globally. In this respect, numerous studies have addressed traffic-related exposure to particulate matter using stationary technology so far. By contrast, only few studies used the advanced technology of mobile exposure analysis. The Mobile Air Quality Study (MAQS) addresses the issue of air pollutant exposure by combining advanced high-granularity spatial-temporal analysis with vehicle-mounted, person-mounted and roadside sensors. The MAQS-platform will be used by international collaborators in order 1) to assess air pollutant exposure in relation to road structure, 2) to assess air pollutant exposure in relation to traffic density, 3) to assess air pollutant exposure in relation to weather conditions, 4) to compare exposure within vehicles between front and back seat (children) positions, and 5) to evaluate "traffic zone"- exposure in relation to non-"traffic zone"-exposure. Primarily, the MAQS-platform will focus on particulate matter. With the establishment of advanced mobile analysis tools, it is planed to extend the analysis to other pollutants including including NO2, SO2, nanoparticles, and ozone.
Background: Hemorrhagic shock/resuscitation is associated with aberrant neutrophil activation and organ failure. This experimental porcine study was done to evaluate the effects of Fas-directed extracorporeal immune therapy with a leukocyte inhibition module (LIM) on hemodynamics, neutrophil tissue infiltration, and tissue damage after hemorrhagic shock/resuscitation. Methods: In a prospective controlled double-armed animal trial 24 Munich Mini Pigs (30.3 +/- 3.3 kg) were rapidly haemorrhaged to reach a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 35 +/- 5 mmHg, maintained hypotensive for 45 minutes, and then were resuscitated with Ringer's solution to baseline MAP. With beginning of resuscitation 12 pigs underwent extracorporeal immune therapy for 3 hours (LIM group) and 12 pigs were resuscitated according to standard medical care (SMC). Haemodynamics, haematologic, metabolic, and organ specific damage parameters were monitored. Neutrophil infiltration was analyzed histologically after 48 and 72 hours. Lipid peroxidation, and apoptosis were specifically determined in lung, bowel, and liver. Results: In the LIM group, neutrophil counts were reduced versus SMC during extracorporeal immune therapy. After 72 hours, the haemodynamic parameters MAP and cardiac output (CO) were significantly better in the LIM group. Histological analyses showed reduction of shock-related neutrophil tissue infiltration in the LIM group, especially in the lungs. Lower amounts of apoptotic cells and lipid peroxidation were found in organs after LIM treatment. Conclusions: Transient Fas-directed extracorporeal immune therapy may protect from posthemorrhagic neutrophil tissue infiltration and tissue damage.
Objective: To summarise the benefits and harms of treatments for women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Data sources: Embase, Medline, AMED, BIOSIS, CCMed, CDMS, CDSR, CENTRAL, CINAHL, DARE, HTA, NHS EED, Heclinet, SciSearch, several publishers’ databases, and reference lists of relevant secondary literature up to October 2009. Review methods: Included studies were randomised controlled trials of specific treatment for gestational diabetes compared with usual care or "intensified" compared with "less intensified" specific treatment. Results: Five randomised controlled trials matched the inclusion criteria for specific versus usual treatment. All studies used a two step approach with a 50 g glucose challenge test or screening for risk factors, or both, and a subsequent 75 g or 100 g oral glucose tolerance test. Meta-analyses did not show significant differences for most single end points judged to be of direct clinical importance. In women specifically treated for gestational diabetes, shoulder dystocia was significantly less common (odds ratio 0.40, 95% confidence interval 0.21 to 0.75), and one randomised controlled trial reported a significant reduction of pre-eclampsia (2.5 v 5.5%, P=0.02). For the surrogate end point of large for gestational age infants, the odds ratio was 0.48 (0.38 to 0.62). In the 13 randomised controlled trials of different intensities of specific treatments, meta-analysis showed a significant reduction of shoulder dystocia in women with more intensive treatment (0.31, 0.14 to 0.70). Conclusions: Treatment for gestational diabetes, consisting of treatment to lower blood glucose concentration alone or with special obstetric care, seems to lower the risk for some perinatal complications. Decisions regarding treatment should take into account that the evidence of benefit is derived from trials for which women were selected with a two step strategy (glucose challenge test/screening for risk factors and oral glucose tolerance test).
Feral cats (Felis catus), introduced into Australia with European settlers in the 19th century, colonized the entire Australian continent in less than 100 years, including the Australian arid zone which covers more than 70% of the continent. Feral cats are responsible for the decline and extinction of a number of native species and the failure of a number of reintroduction attempts, especially in the arid zone. Many ecological studies on feral cats have been conducted on home range size and movement patterns in different environments, abundance and diet, with the aim of gaining a better understanding about their successful invasion of the Australian continent. There are no physiological studies on the feral cat to date. However, there is evidence that there is a strong interrelation between physiology and abiotic factors such as climate. Thus, distribution, habitat, and dispersal of species can not fully be understood without background knowledge of physiology. This PhD aims to contribute to a better understanding of three physiological parameters: metabolism, body mass and body temperature patterns. These parameters may possibly identify physiological adaptation to different climate zones, seasonal conditions and island isolation.
An interior delta in the lower course of the Ntem River near the sub-prefecture Ma’an was identified after interpretation of satellite images, topographical maps of SW Cameroon and geological as well as hydrological references and a reconnaissance fieldtrip to the study area. Here neotectonic processes have initiated the establishment of a ‘sediment trap’ (step fault), which in combination with environmental changes strongly generated the fluvial morphology. It transitionally led to temporary lacustrine and palustrine conditions in parts of this river section. Inside the interior delta an anastomosing multi-branched river system has developed, which contains ‘stillwater locations', periodically inundated sections, islands and rapids. Following geomorphological, physiogeographical and sedimentological research approaches, the alluvial plain has been prospected and studied extensively. 91 hand-corings, including three NE–SW transects, were carried out on river benches, levees, cut-off and periodical branches, islands as well as terraces throughout the entire alluvial plain and have unveiled multi-layered, sandy to clayey alluvia reaching up to 440 cm depth. At many locations, fossil organic horizons and palaeosurfaces were discovered, containing valuable palaeoenvironmental proxy data. At these sites, through additional detailed stratigraphical analysis (close-meshed hand-coring and exposure digging) a comprehensive insight into the stratification (lamination) of the alluvia could be gained, clarifying processes and conditions that prevailed in the catchment area during the period of their deposition. 32 Radiocarbon data of macro-rests (leafs, wood), charcoal and organic sediment sampled from these horizons provided ages between 48.230 ± 6.411 and 217 ± 46 years BP (not calibrated). This constitutes the importance of the alluvia as an additional, innovative palaeoarchive for proxy data contributing to the reconstruction of palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate in western Equatorial Africa. The further examination of the alluvia will not only provide additional information on the dynamics of vegetation, climate and hydrology (esp. fluvial morphology) in SW Cameroon since the ‘First Millennium BC Crisis’ (around 3.000 years BP), the main focus of the DFG-research project, but also on conditions prevailing since the Late Pleistocene, during the Last Glacial Maximum (~18.000 years BP), the Younger Dryas impact (~11.000 years BP) and the ‘Humid African Period’ (~9.000–6.000 years BP). Delta13C-values (–31,4 to –26,4‰) evidence that at the particular drilling sites rain forest has prevailed during the corresponding time period (rain forest refuge theory). The sampled macrorests all indicate rain forest dominated ecosystems, which were able to persist in fluvial habitats, even during arid periods.
Until now, the NW Indian Ocean was sparsely covered with coral proxy records, and records from the Maldives Archipelago do not exist. The first such coral proxy record from the central Maldives is presented in this study. It originates from a massive Porites lutea (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) colony that was sampled March 2007 in the lagoon of Rasdhoo Atoll (4°N/ 73°W), which is located in the central Maldives. The record spans a period of 90 yrs and reaches back to 1917 AD with monthly to bimonthly resolution. This study investigates temporal variations of the skeletal stable oxygen (delta18O) and carbon (delta13C) isotopes, the strontium-to-calcium (Sr/Ca), and the annual extension-rates, and their relationship to historical climate variations 1917-2007. Annual extension-rates show an increase over the 20th century, and are correlated with instrumental sea surface temperatures (SST). The interannual variation of the extension-rates within 2.5-4 years is driven by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The amount of skeletal extension during the summer months is triggered by variations in the strength of the SW monsoon. Interannual and decadal variability in monsoon current activity (18-19 yrs) and rainfall over India are an expression of the summer monsoon strength. This is the reason why a statistical link between coral extension-rates and precipitation over India can be established. This implies that annual extension-rates in corals can be used as a new proxy for Indian monsoon variability on decadal resolution. The delta18O record exhibits the 20th century warming trend that is influenced by the effect of monsoon-induced cooling. delta18O also reveals interannual ENSO triggered variability, which is due to ENSO-forced variations in SST and sea surface salinity (SSS). A decadal variation at 12-14 yrs cannot be linked to SST variations in the NW Indian Ocean, but with decadal variations of SSS. They could be caused by ENSO- forced variations of the monsoon currents during the mature phase of ENSO teleconnections in the Indian Ocean in boreal winter. The Sr/Ca record does not indicate a significant warming, in spite of the observed SST rise at the sampling site. Changes in seawater Sr/Ca cannot be excluded. Nevertheless, interannual ENSO forcing is still evident. Evidence for the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is found during 1917-1955. Afterwards, the Sr/Ca data indicate the disappearance of PDO forcing. By the combination of Sr/Ca and delta18O it is possible to detect ~80% of historical El Niño and La Niña events at the sample site. This study confirms the notion that interannual to multi-decadal climate fluctuations in the Pacific play a crucial role for climate variability in the Indian Ocean.
Through the use of information about the biological target structure, the optimization of potential drugs can be improved. In this work I have developed a procedure that uses the quantitative change in the chemical perturbations (CSP) in the protein from NMR experiments for driving protein-ligand docking. The approach is based on a hybrid scoring function (QCSPScore) which combines traditional DrugScore potentials, which describe the interaction between protein and ligand, with Kendall’s rank correlation coefficient, which evaluates docking poses in terms of their agreement with experimental CSP. Prediction of the CSP for a specific ligand pose is done efficiently with an empirical model, taking into account only ring current effects. QCSPScore has been implemented in the AutoDock software package. Compared to previous methods, this approach shows that the use of rank correlation coefficient is robust to outliers. In addition, the prediction of native-like complex geometries improved because the CSP are already being used during the docking process, and not only in a post-filtering setting for generated docking poses. Since the experimental information is guaranteed to be quantitatively used, CSP effectively contribute to align the ligand in the binding pocket. The first step in the development of QCSPScore was the analysis of 70 protein-ligand complexes for which reference CSP were computed. The success rate in the docking increased from 71% without involvement of CSP to 100% if CSP were considered at the highest weighting scheme. In a second step QCSPScore was used in re-docking three test cases, for which reference experimental CSP data was available. Without CSP, i.e. in the use of conventional DrugScore potentials, none of the three test cases could be successfully re-docked. The integration of CSP with the same weighting factor as described above resulted in all three cases successfully re-docked. For two of the three complexes, native-like solutions were only produced if CSP were considered.Conformational changes in the binding pockets of up to 2 Å RMSD did not affect the success of the docking. QCSPScore will be particularly interesting in difficult protein-ligand complexes. They are in particular those cases in which the shape of the binding pocket does not provide sufficient steric restraints such as in flat protein-protein interfaces and in the virtual screening of small chemical fragments.
This thesis presents a 5.9 Å map of yeast FAS obtained by cryo-electron microscopy using single particle analysis (SPA). The EM-map has been analyzed both by quantitative and qualitative analysis to aid in understanding of the structure and dynamics of yeast FAS. This study approaches the factors limiting the resolution in EM (>20 Å) and further discusses the possibilities of achieving higher-resolutions (<10 Å) in cryo-EM by single particle analysis. Here, SPA is highlighted as a powerful tool for understanding the structure and dynamics of macro-molecular complexes at near native conditions. Though SPA has been used over the last four decades, the low-resolution range (20-30 Å) of the method has limited its use in structural biology. Over the last decade, sub nanometer resolution (<10 Å) structures solved by SPA have been reported --both in studies involving symmetric particles, such as GroEL (D7) and asymmetric particles, such as ribosomes (C1). Recently, near-atomic resolution in the range of 3.8-4.2 Å has been achieved in cases of highly symmetric icosahedral viral capsid structures as well. The yeast FAS structure (D3) presented here is one of two low symmetry structures submitted to the EM-database in a resolution range of 5-6 Å; the other being GroEL (D7). Fatty acid synthase (FAS) is the key enzyme for the biosynthesis of fatty acids in living organisms. There are two types of FAS, namely the type II FAS system in prokaryotes, consisting of a set of individual enzymes, and type I FAS found in eukaryotes as a multienzyme complex. Yeast fatty acid synthase (FAS) is a 2.6 MDa barrel-shaped multienzyme complex, which carries out cyclic synthesis of fatty acids. By electron cryomicroscopy of single particles we obtained a 3D map of yeast FAS at 5.9 Å resolution. Compared to the crystal structures of fungal FAS, the EM map reveals major differences and new features that indicate a considerably different arrangement of the complex in solution, as well as a high degree of variance inside the barrel. Distinct density regions in the reaction chambers next to each of the catalytic domains fit well with the substratebinding acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain. In each case, this resulted in the expected distance of ~18 Å from the ACP substrate binding site to the active site of the catalytic domains. The multiple, partially occupied positions of the ACP within the reaction chamber provide direct insight into the proposed substrate-shuttling mechanism of fatty acid synthesis in this large cellular machine.
In this thesis, we study the properties of excitations in the systems of interacting fermions. These excitations can be bosonic such as collective modes which we handle in the first part of this thesis or fermionic like quasi particles and quasi holes. One of the important points, to investigate the excitations is their damping which corresponds to their life-time in the system. This thesis consists of two parts, where in both parts, we use the field-theoretical methods to examine the problem.
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a hematopoietic cell disorder characterized by a block in differentiation and increased proliferation and survival of malignant blasts. Expansion of the malignant cell clone effects the normal production of blood cells and – if left untreated – leads to death. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play an important role in the pathogenesis of AML, as they are either often mutated or overexpressed. In normal hematopoiesis, RTK signal termination is tightly controlled, and involves ubiquitination, internalization, endocytosis and degradation. Cbl proteins are E3 ligases and have been shown to ubiquitinate several activated RTKs, including Flt3 and Kit, targeting them for degradation. Recently, several Cbl mutations have been identified: Cbl-R420Q was identified in an AML patient and Cbl-70Z was identified in a mouse lymphoma model. In this thesis work, the role of these Cbl mutants in Kit signaling and in a mouse transplantation model was studied. Cbl mutants (Cbl-R420Q, Cbl-70Z) have the ability to transform the myeloid 32D cell line in cooperation with Kit WT. Cbl mutants along with Kit promoted interleukin-3 (IL3)-independent proliferation and enhanced the cell survival of 32D cells. In contrast, expression of the Cbl mutants alone did not confer IL3-independent growth. Stem cell factor (SCF, the Kit ligand) dependent growth was enhanced in the presence of Cbl mutants and Cbl mutants promoted colonogenic growth in the presence of Kit. Furthermore, Cbl mutants inhibited the ubiquitination of the activated Kit receptor. In addition, Cbl mutants inhibited the endocytosis of the activated Kit receptor. Retroviral expression of Cbl mutants in transplanted bone marrow induced a generalized mastocytosis, a myeloproliferative disease and, in rare care cases, myeloid leukemia. Splenomegaly was observed in the presence of Cbl mutants. Furthermore, mast cells with variable range of infiltration were noticed in all the vital organs (spleen, liver, bone marrow, lung, kidney, heart) of Cbl (mutant) transplanted mice. Almost all recipients of bone marrow cells transduced with Cbl mutants developed a lethal hematologic disorder with a mean latency of 341 days in the Cbl-R420Q group and 395 days in the Cbl-70Z group. This is the first published report on a hematological disease with Cbl mutants in a mouse model. Co-immunoprecipitation studies indicated that Cbl-70Z binds to Kit, even in the absence of Kit ligand. Cbl-R420Q also bound to Kit in the absence of SCF, albeit to a lesser extent. Association of Cbl mutants to Kit was enhanced in the presence of SCF. Signaling studies demonstrated the constitutive activation of Akt and Erk in the presence of Cbl mutants and Kit. In addition, Cbl mutants enhanced the SCF-dependent Kit, Akt and Erk activation. Cbl-70Z, in association with kinase-dead Kit (Kit-KD) or kinase-dead Flt3 (Flt3-KD), conferred IL3-independent growth and survival to the myeloid 32D cell line. Cbl-R420Q provided only a slight growth advantage in the presence of Kit-KD. As demonstrated by pharmacological inhibition studies, Akt activation was necessary for the transformation mediated by Cbl-70Z and Kit-KD / Flt3-KD. Cbl mutants enhanced the Src family kinases (SFKs) activity. The pharmacological inhibition of SFK activity inhibited the proliferation and colonogenic growth. Interaction was found between Cbl-70Z, SFKs and Kit-KD. The SFK member Fyn was identified to bind to Cbl. In addition, kinase activity of SFKs was necessary for binding to Cbl, since SFKs inhibition by PP-2 abolished the binding between the complex-binding partners. Dasatinib and PP-2, both SFK inhibitors, inhibited the Cbl and Akt phosphorylation indicating that Fyn acts upstream of Akt. Inhibition of Kit with imatinib reduced the proliferation of cells overexpressing Kit WT and Cbl-70Z much stronger compared with cells expressing Kit-KD and Cbl-70Z, but much less than the dual KIT/SFK inhibitor dasatinib. This indicated that Kit kinase activity was required but not essential. The data presented in this thesis work implies that both RTK and SFK inhibition may have to be targeted, in order to effectively prevent transformation. In summary, the present thesis work indicates an important role of Cbl, Kit and SFKs in myeloid transformation and deregulated signal transduction.
Background: Phototrophy of the extremely halophilic archaeon Halobacterium salinarum was explored for decades. The research was mainly focused on the expression of bacteriorhodopsin and its functional properties. In contrast, less is known about genome wide transcriptional changes and their impact on the physiological adaptation to phototrophy. The tool of choice to record transcriptional profiles is the DNA microarray technique. However, the technique is still rarely used for transcriptome analysis in archaea. Methodology/Principal Findings: We developed a whole-genome DNA microarray based on our sequence data of the Hbt. salinarum strain R1 genome. The potential of our tool is exemplified by the comparison of cells growing under aerobic and phototrophic conditions, respectively. We processed the raw fluorescence data by several stringent filtering steps and a subsequent MAANOVA analysis. The study revealed a lot of transcriptional differences between the two cell states. We found that the transcriptional changes were relatively weak, though significant. Finally, the DNA microarray data were independently verified by a real-time PCR analysis. Conclusion/Significance: This is the first DNA microarray analysis of Hbt. salinarum cells that were actually grown under phototrophic conditions. By comparing the transcriptomics data with current knowledge we could show that our DNA microarray tool is well applicable for transcriptome analysis in the extremely halophilic archaeon Hbt. salinarum. The reliability of our tool is based on both the high-quality array of DNA probes and the stringent data handling including MAANOVA analysis. Among the regulated genes more than 50% had unknown functions. This underlines the fact that haloarchaeal phototrophy is still far away from being completely understood. Hence, the data recorded in this study will be subject to future systems biology analysis.
Recently a first genome-wide analysis of translational regulation using prokaryotic species had been performed which revealed that regulation of translational efficiency plays an important role in haloarchaea. In fact, the fractions of genes under differential growth phase-dependent translational control in the two species Halobacterium salinarum and Haloferax volcanii were as high as in eukaryotes. However, nothing is known about the mechanisms of translational regulation in archaea. Therefore, two genes exhibiting opposing directions of regulation were selected to unravel the importance of untranslated regions (UTRs) for differential translational control in vivo. Differential translational regulation in exponentially growing versus stationary phase cells was studied by comparing translational efficiencies using a reporter gene system. Translational regulation was not observed when 5'-UTRs or 3'-UTRs alone were fused to the reporter gene. However, their simultaneous presence was sufficient to transfer differential translational control from the native transcript to the reporter transcript. This was true for both directions of translational control. Translational regulation was completely abolished when stem loops in the 5'-UTR were changed by mutagenesis. An “UTR-swap” experiment demonstrated that the direction of translational regulation is encoded in the 3'-UTR, not in the 5'-UTR. While much is known about 5'-UTR-dependent translational control in bacteria, the reported findings provide the first examples that both 5'- and 3'-UTRs are essential and sufficient to drive differential translational regulation in a prokaryote and therefore have to functionally interact in vivo. The current results indicate that 3'-UTR-dependent translational control had already evolved before capping and polyadenylation of transcripts were invented, which are essential for circularization of transcripts in eukaryotes.
Background: Previously, we showed that glioma pathogenesis related protein (GliPR) is induced in CEM T cells upon HIV-1 infection in vitro. To examine whether GliPR plays a role as HIV dependency factor (HDF), we tested the effect of GliPR suppression by siRNA on HIV-1 replication. Results: Induction of GliPR expression by HIV-1 was confirmed in P4-CCR5 cells. When GliPR was suppressed by siRNA, HIV-1 replication was significantly reduced as measured by HIV-1 transcript levels, HIV-1 p24 protein levels, and HIV-1 LTR-driven reporter gene expression, suggesting that GliPR is a cellular co-factor of HIV-1. Microarray analysis of uninfected HeLa cells following knockdown of GliPR revealed, among a multitude of gene expression alterations, a down-regulation of syndecan-1, syndecan-2, protein kinase C alpha (PRKCA), the catalytic subunit beta of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PRKACB), nuclear receptor co-activator 3 (NCOA3), and cell surface protein CD59 (protectin), all genes having relevance for HIV-1 pathology. Conclusions: The up-regulation of GliPR by HIV-1 and the early significant inhibition of HIV-1 replication mediated by knockdown of GliPR reveal GliPR as an important HIV-1 dependency factor (HDF), which may be exploited for HIV-1 inhibition.
A generic drug product (World Health Organization (WHO) terminology: multisource product) is usually marketed and manufactured after the expiry date of the innovator’s patent. Generic drugs are less expensive than the innovator products because generic manufacturers do not have to amortize the investment costs of research, development, marketing, and promotion. Multisource products must contain the same active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) as the original formulation and have to be shown to be interchangeable with the original formulation. Multisource products have to be shown bioequivalent to the innovator counterpart with respect to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Multisource products are therefore identical in dose, strength, route of administration, safety, efficacy, and intended use. Bioequivalence can be demonstrated by in vitro dissolution, pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic or clinical studies. Since 2000, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allows the approval of certain multisource products solely on the basis of in vitro studies, i.e. by waiving in vivo studies in humans (“Biowaiver”), based on the Biopharmaceutics Classification Scheme (BCS). The BCS characterizes APIs by their solubility and permeability in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The different BCS Classes I-IV (Class I: high solubility, high permeability; Class II: low solubility, high permeability; Class III: high solubility, low permeability and Class IV: low solubility, low permeability) result from all possible combinations of high and low solubility with high and low permeability. Since the adoption of the BCS by the FDA in 1995, the BCS criteria have been under continuous development. In 2006, the WHO has released the most recent bioequivalence guidance including relaxed criteria for bioequivalence studies based on modified BCS criteria. According to this guidance, APIs belonging to the BCS classes I – and under defined conditions - II and III – are eligible for a biowaiver-based approval. The principal objective of this work was to characterize the first-line anti tuberculosis APIs, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, ethambutol dihydrochloride and rifampicin, according to their physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic and pharmacological properties and to classify them according to the BCS. Ethambutol dihydrochloride and isoniazid were classified as borderline BCS class I/III APIs. Pyrazinamide was classified as a BCS class III and rifampicin as a BCS class II API. Based on the BCS classification and the additional criteria defined in the WHO bioequivalence guidance, the possibility of biowaiver-based approval for immediate release (immediate release) solid oral dosage forms containing the first-line antituberculosis drugs was evaluated. A biowaiver-based approval with defined constraints was recommended for immediate release solid oral dosage forms containing isoniazid (interaction with reducing sugars), pyrazinamide and ethambutol dihydrochloride (relative narrow therapeutic index). Rifampicin was classified as a BCS class II API, and it was concluded that rifampicin containing solid oral immediate release drug products as well as Scale-Up and Post-Approval Changes (SUPAC) changes should not be approved by a biowaiver on the following basis: (i) its solubility and dissolution are highly variable due to polymorphism and instability, (ii) concomitant intake of food and antacids reduces its absorption and bioavailability, (iii) no in vitro predictive dissolution test has been found which correlates to in vivo absorption and (iv) several publications reporting cases of non-bioequivalent and bioinequivalent rifampicin products have been located in the literature. Thus, it is recommended that bioequivalence of rifampicin containing solid oral immediate release drug products should be established by in vivo pharmacokinetic studies in humans. This risk-benefit benefit assessment of a biowaiver-based approval was presented as a poster at the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) 2005 and subsequently published as “Biowaiver Monographs” in the Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Based on the assessment of the dissolution properties of the antituberculosis drugs for a biowaiver approval, quality control dissolution methodologies for the International Pharmacopoeia (Pharm. Int.) were developed, presented at the WHO expert meeting and adopted in the Pharm. Int. (http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/pharmprep/OMS_TRS_948.pdf). Additionally, preliminary biowaiver recommendations were also developed for four firstline antimalarial drugs listed on the WHO Essential Medicines List (EML): Quinine, as both the hydrochloride and sulphate, and proguanil hydrochloride were classified as borderline BCS class I/III APIs. Since quinine is a narrow therapeutic index drug and many cases of non-bioequivalence have been reported in the literature, a biowaiverbased approval was not recommended. For solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing proguanil a biowaiver-based approval was recommended under the condition that they dissolve very rapidly. Primaquine phosphate was classified as a BCS class I API. Therefore, a biowaiver-based approval was recommended for immediate release solid oral dosage forms containing primaquine phosphate. Mefloquine hydrochloride was classified as a basic, BCS class IV/II API, making it ineligible for the biowaiver. Additionally, reports of non-bioequivalence and a narrow therapeutic index were found in the scientific literature. Consequently, bioequivalence of solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing mefloquine hydrochloride should be established by in vivo pharmacokinetic studies. The results for quinine hydrochloride and sulphate, proguanil hydrochloride, primaquine diphosphate and mefloquine hydrochloride were presented as a poster at the Pharmaceutical Sciences World Congress (PSWC) 2007 and published as a WHO Collaborating Center Report in June 2006. The aim of this project was to collect, evaluate, generate and publish relevant information for a biowaiver-based approval of essential medicines in order to provide a summary to local regulatory authorities. This information complements the selected list of essential medicines by providing information about the biopharmaceutical properties and pharmaceutical quality of solid oral immediate release dosage forms containing these APIs. The aim of the biowaiver project, inspired by the WHO and brought in life by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP), is to enable access to essential medicines in standardized quality at an affordable price. In this work, a significant contribution to this aim in the form of four biowaiver monographs for the antituberculosis drugs and several reports on the antimalarials has been achieved.
The NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) is a large membrane bound protein complex coupling the redox reaction of NADH oxidation and quinone reduction to vectorial proton translocation across bioenergetic membranes. The mechanism of proton pumping is still unknown; it seems however that the reduction of quinone induces conformational changes which drive proton uptake from one side and release at the other side of the membrane. In this study the proposed quinone and inhibitor binding pocket located at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits was explored by a large number of point mutations introduced into complex I from the strictly aerobic yeast Yarrowia lipolytica. Point mutations were systematically chosen based on the crystal structure of the hydrophilic domain of complex I from Thermus thermophilus. In total, the properties of 94 mutants at 39 positions which completely cover the lining of the large putative quinone and inhibitor binding cavity are described and discussed here. A structure/function analysis allowed the identification of functional domains within the large putative quinone binding cavity. A possible quinone access path ranging from the N-terminal beta-sheet of the 49-kDa subunit into the pocket to tyrosine 144 could be defined, since all exchanges introduced here, caused an almost complete loss of complex I activity. A region located deeper in the proposed quinone binding pocket is apparently not important for complex I activity. In contrast, all exchanges of tyrosine 144, even the very conservative mutant Y144F, essentially abolished dNADH:DBQ oxidoreductase activity of complex I. However, with higher concentrations of Q1 or Q2 the dNADH:Q oxidoreductase activity was largely restored in the mutants with the more conservative exchanges. Proton pumping experiments showed that this activity was also coupled to proton translocation, indicating that these quinones were reduced at the physiological site. However, the apparent Km values for Q1 or Q2 were drastically increased, clearly demonstrating that tyrosine 144 is central for quinone binding and reduction. These results further prove that the enzymatically relevant quinone binding site of complex I is located at the interface of the 49-kDa and PSST subunits. The quinone binding pocket is thought to comprise the binding sites for a plethora of specific complex I inhibitors that are usually grouped into three classes. The large array of mutants targeting the quinone binding cavity was examined with a representative of each inhibitor class. Many mutants conferring resistance were identified which, depending on the inhibitor tested, clustered in well defined and partially overlapping regions of the large putative quinone and inhibitor binding cavity. Mutants with effects on type A (DQA) and type B (rotenone) inhibitors were found in a subdomain corresponding to the former [NiFe] site in homologous hydrogenases, whereby the type A inhibitor DQA seems to bind deeper in this domain. Mutants with effects on the type C inhibitor (C12E8) were found in a narrow crevice. Exchanging more exposed residues at the border of these well defined domains affected all three inhibitor types. Therefore, the results as a whole provide further support for the concept that different inhibitor classes bind to different but partially overlapping binding sites within a single large quinone binding pocket. In addition, they also indicate the approximate location of the binding sites within the structure of the large quinone and inhibitor binding cavity at the interface of the 49 kDa and the PSST subunit. It has been proposed earlier that the highly conserved HRGXE-motif in the 49-kDa subunit forms a part of the quinone binding site of complex I. Mutagenesis of the HRGXE-motif, revealed that these residues are rather critical for complex I assembly and seem to have an important structural role. The question why iron-sulfur cluster N1a is not detectable by EPR in many models organisms is not solved yet. Introducing polar and positively charged amino acid residues close to this cluster in order to increase its midpoint potential did not result in the appearance of the cluster N1a EPR signal in mitochondrial membranes from the mutants. Clearly, further research will be necessary to gain insights to the function of this iron-sulfur cluster in complex I. In an additional project, a new and simple in vivo screen for complex I deficiency in Y. lipolytica was developed and optimized. This assay probes for defects in complex I assembly and stability, oxidoreductase activity and also proton pumping activity by complex I. Most importantly, this assay is applicable to all Y. lipolytica strains and could be used to identify loss-of-function mutants, gain-of-functions mutants (i.e. resistance towards complex I inhibitors) and revertants due to mutations in both nuclear and mitochondrially encoded genes of complex I subunits.
The light-harvesting complex of photosystem II (LHC-II) is the major antenna complex in plant photosynthesis. It accounts for roughly 30% of the total protein in plant chloroplasts, which makes it arguably the most abundant membrane protein on Earth, and binds about half of plant chlorophyll (Chl). The complex assembles as a trimer in the thylakoid membrane and binds a total of 54 pigment molecules, including 24 Chl a, 18 Chl b, 6 lutein (Lut), 3 neoxanthin (Neo) and 3 violaxanthin (Vio). LHC-II has five key roles in plant photosynthesis. It: (1) harvests sunlight and transmits excitation energy to the reaction centres of photosystems II and I, (2) regulates the amount of excitation energy reaching each of the two photosystems, (3) has a structural role in the architecture of the photosynthetic supercomplexes, (4) contributes to the tight appression of thylakoid membranes in chloroplast grana, and (5) protects the photosynthetic apparatus from photo damage by non photochemical quenching (NPQ). A major fraction of NPQ is accounted for its energy-dependent component qE. Despite being critical for plant survival and having been studied for decades, the exact details of how excess absorbed light energy is dissipated under qE conditions remain enigmatic. Today it is accepted that qE is regulated by the magnitude of the pH gradient (ΔpH) across the thylakoid membrane. It is also well documented that the drop in pH in the thylakoid lumen during high-light conditions activates the enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE), which converts the carotenoid Vio into zeaxanthin (Zea) as part of the xanthophyll cycle. Additionally, studies with Arabidopsis mutants revealed that the photosystem II subunit PsbS is necessary for qE. How these physiological responses switch LHC-II from the active, energy transmitting to the quenched, energy-dissipating state, in which the solar energy is not transmitted to the photosystems but instead dissipated as heat, remains unclear and is the subject of this thesis. From the results obtained during this doctoral work, five main conclusions can be drawn concerning the mechanism of qE: 1. Substitution of Vio by Zea in LHC-II is not sufficient for efficient dissipation of excess excitation energy. 2. Aggregation quenching of LHC-II does not require Vio, Neo nor a specific Chl pair. 3. With one exception, the pigment structure in LHC-II is rigid. 4. The two X-ray structures of LHC-II show the same energy transmitting state of the complex. 5. Crystalline LHC-II resembles the complex in the thylakoid membrane. Models of the aggregation quenching mechanism in vitro and the qE mechanism in vivo are presented as a corollary of this doctoral work. LHC-II aggregation quenching in vitro is attributed to the formation of energy sinks on the periphery of LHC-II through random interaction with other trimers, free pigments or impurities. A similar but unrelated process is proposed to occur in the thylakoid membrane, by which excess excitation energy is dissipated upon specific interaction between LHC-II and a PsbS monomer carrying Zea. At the end of this thesis, an innovative experimental model for the analysis of all key aspects of qE is proposed in order to finally solve the qE enigma, one of the last unresolved problems in photosynthesis research.
Opting out of the great inflation: German monetary policy after the break down of Bretton Woods
(2009)
During the turbulent 1970s and 1980s the Bundesbank established an outstanding reputation in the world of central banking. Germany achieved a high degree of domestic stability and provided safe haven for investors in times of turmoil in the international financial system. Eventually the Bundesbank provided the role model for the European Central Bank. Hence, we examine an episode of lasting importance in European monetary history. The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the Bundesbank monetary policy strategy contributed to this success. We analyze the strategy as it was conceived, communicated and refined by the Bundesbank itself. We propose a theoretical framework (following Söderström, 2005) where monetary targeting is interpreted, first and foremost, as a commitment device. In our setting, a monetary target helps anchoring inflation and inflation expectations. We derive an interest rate rule and show empirically that it approximates the way the Bundesbank conducted monetary policy over the period 1975-1998. We compare the Bundesbank´s monetary policy rule with those of the FED and of the Bank of England. We find that the Bundesbank´s policy reaction function was characterized by strong persistence of policy rates as well as a strong response to deviations of inflation from target and to the activity growth gap. In contrast, the response to the level of the output gap was not significant. In our empirical analysis we use real-time data, as available to policy-makers at the time. JEL Classification: E31, E32, E41, E52, E58
The mammary gland of mice serves as a model system for studying differentiation in an adult animal. With the beginning of pregnancy the mammary epithelial cells undergo functional differentiation to produce milk for nourishment of the young. The transcription factor STAT5 mediates the cytokine-induced induction of the milk proteins during pregnancy and lactation in response to the lactogenic hormone prolactin. In addition to transcription factors that mediate transcription of their target genes by recruitment of the general transcription machinery to the DNA-regulator regions, specific post-translational modifications on the N-terminal tails of histones also influence expression. These histone modifications can affect chromatin structure, which is a main control barrier to transcription, by directly altering accessibility of the chromatin and by providing binding surfaces for protein complexes that can further modulate chromatin structure and regulate transcription. In this work N-terminal histone modification marks that associate with open, permissive and repressed chromatin where investigated in different regions of two milk protein genes during mammary gland development. Using the chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays increased acetylation of histone H3 and H4 at the 5’ region, promoter and transcribed regions of β-casein and whey acidic protein (WAP) gene were observed during pregnancy and lactation when these genes are expressed. The presence of these histone marks, which are associated with a relaxed chromatin structure, correlates with the recruitment of STAT5A and STAT5B to the promoter containing regulatory regions as well as the detection of the phosphorylated RNA polymerase II in the transcribed gene region. Both di- and tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 4, that mark permissive and active chromatin respectively, were enriched in tissue from pregnant and lactating mice. In comparison tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 27, a mark associated with repressed chromatin, could be observed during all stages of mammary gland tissue investigated, but appears slightly elevated in the tissue from virgin mice when β-casein and WAP are not expressed. Together these results illustrate that the expression of the two milk proteins genes at distinct stages of mammary gland differentiation correlate with specific changes in histone modifications. In mammary gland tissue STAT5A is important for the mammary gland epithelial cell differentiation and survival during lactation. Yet many genomic target regions that STAT5A actually bind and which are involved in regulation of gene expression during lactation still remain unknown. Therefore, the second part of this thesis was focused on the identification of novel STAT5-binding sites that are differentiation specifically bound by STAT5A in mammary gland tissue during lactation. In summary, the results demonstrate that the ChIP cloning method was employed successfully for the cloning of a STAT5A library and the identification of new STAT5 targets in mammary gland tissue from lactating mice. Nine of the newly identified STAT5-binding targets were verified to differentiation specifically bind STAT5A and STAT5B in vivo during pregnancy and lactation. Even though the selection of the tested clones was biased towards STAT5-binding sites near or at known genes and for multiple STAT5 binding sites, only one out of the nine validated STAT5-binding regions is located in a traditional defined proximal promoter. Except for two STAT5-binding regions, which are located at least 10 kb from the next annotated known gene, six are located in the intronic regions of annotated mRNA or EST transcripts. Three, out of four verified STAT5-binding regions tested in reporter gene assays for functionality, display the ability to drive reporter gene activity in a STAT5 dependent manner. This transcriptional activity is due to the STAT5-binding sites within the cloned regions as determined by mutational analysis. Of special interest is a STAT5-binding region that contains one STAT5 and three STAT-like sites within a 339 bp region that is evolutionary conserved by approximately 80% between the mouse and human genome. This STAT5-binding region lies about 62 kb 5 prime of the nuclear factor I/B gene. The expression of the NFI/B mRNA transcript correlates with the in vivo association of STAT5A to the conserved region during the mammary gland differentiation. Together, these results suggest that this STAT5-binding might be a cis-regulatory region that potentially mediates STAT5 induced NFI/B gene expression in mice during lactation.
The search for a modification of hadron properties inside nuclear matter at normal and/or high temperature and density is one of the more interesting issues of modern nuclear physics. Dilepton experiments, by providing interesting results, give insight into the properties of strong interaction and the nature of hadron mass generation. One of these research tools is the HADES spectrometer. HADES is a high acceptance dilepton spectrometer installed at the heavy-ion synchrotron (SIS) at GSI, Darmstadt. The main physics motivation of HADES is the measurement of e+e- pairs in the invariant-mass range up to 1 GeV/c2 in pion- and proton-induced reactions, as well as in heavy-ion collisions. The goal is to investigate the properties of the vector mesons rho, omega and of other hadrons reconstructed from e+e- decay pairs. Dileptons are penetrating probes allowing to study the in-medium properties of hadrons. However, the measurement of such dilepton pairs is difficult because of a very large background from other processes in which leptons are created. This thesis presents the analysis of the data provided by the first physic run done with the HADES spectrometer. For the first time e+e- pairs produced in C+C collisions at an incident energy of 2 GeV per nucleon have been collected with sufficient statistics. This experiment is of particular importance since it allows to address the puzzling pair excess measured by the former DLS experiment at 1.04 AGeV. The thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter presents the physics case which is addressed in the work. In the second chapter the HADES spectrometer is introduced with the characteristic of specific detectors which are part of the spectrometer. Chapter three focusses on the issue of charged-particle identification. The fourth chapter discusses the reconstruction of the di-electron spectra in C+C collisions. In this part of the thesis a comparison with theoretical models is included as well. The conclusion and final remarks are given in chapter five.
All living organisms exhibit daily fluctuations in biochemical, physiological and behavioural parameters driven by endogenous oscillators, residing in the organism itself. In mammals, the core circadian oscillator is located in the paired suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus. Circadian rhythm generation in the SCN depends upon the expression of clock genes interacting in positive and negative transcriptional/translational feedback loops. The SCN governs the timing of peripheral circadian oscillators by neuronal pathways and by neuroendocrine mechanisms. An important neuroendocrine hand of the core circadian oscillator is melatonin, which is produced in and secreted from the pineal gland night by night. The adenohypophysis represents a peripheral circadian oscillator and the secretion of one of its hormones, prolactin, is known to be regulated by melatonin. The aim of the present study was to analyze a putative influence of melatonin on the activity state and diurnal variations of identified cell types in the hypophysis. Particular attention was paid to lactotroph, gonadotroph and pars intermedia cells. Experiments were performed with young male mice of different strains: melatonin-proficient C3H, melatonin-deficient C57BL, melatonin-proficient C3H with targeted deletions of the Mel1a receptor (MelaaBB), Mel1b receptor (MelAAbb) or both receptors (Melaabb). Cells producing prolactin (PRL), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) were immunocytochemically identified and the presence of phosphorylated CREB protein (pCREB) and clock gene protein PER1 was demonstrated by double immunolabeling at different time points during the light/dark cycle in melatonin deficient, melatonin proficient and melatonin receptor knockout mice. Melatonin influence on Prl mRNA levels was investigated by means of in situ hybridization. At night the percentage of lactotroph cells showing a positive nuclear pCREB- and PER1-immunoreaction is significantly smaller in C57BL than in C3H mice. In both mouse strains, the percentage of pCREB –immunoreactive cells is minimal in the early morning and gradually increases to reach a maximum in the late night. PER1 levels show a parallel temporal variation in C3H, but in C57BL, they are drastically reduced in the early afternoon. The percentage of FSH-immunoreactive cells showing pCREB immunoreaction was significantly lower in the melatonin-deficient C57Bl mice than in the melatonin-proficient C3H mice during the second part of the day and during the night. In each strain, the percentage of FSH-immunoreactive cells was lowest at the early morning and gradually increases until the maximum at late night. In wild type (MelAABB) and MelAAbb mice the percentage of lactotroph cells with nuclear pCREB immunoreactions varied significantly over 24 h period, whereas in MelaaBB and Melaabb mice no significant differences were found between the five time points analyzed. The number of Prl mRNA expressing cells was significantly higher in MelaaBB and MelAAbb than in their wild type (MelAABB) littermates. pCREB levels in the pars intermedia did not show rhythmic variation in wild type or Melaabb animals, but wild type mice had higher pCREB levels than Melaabb. The observation that, during darkness, the percentage of lactotroph cells with nuclear pCREB immunoreaction is significantly higher in C3H than in C57BL mice suggests the existence of a distinct cell population that is under the control of melatonin-dependent intrapituitary signaling. Results with melatonin receptor knockout mice indicate that Mel1a and Mel1b melatonin receptors are involved in the control of the activity state of lactotroph cells, but to a differing degree. Analysis of cells expressing Prl mRNA showed that inhibitory action on the Prl expression is mostly mediated through the Mel1a receptor. The significant difference between pCREB immunoreaction in gonadotroph cells of C3H and C57BL mice might suggest that, like lactotrophes, FSH cells represent a heterogeneous population and only a subpopulation is under control of melatonin signaling. The present study is first to show that melatonin signaling also affects pCREB levels in pars intermedia of mice.
The heat stress (hs) response is universal to all organisms. As the cell senses increase in temperature, heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are activated to upregulate the expression of a number of genes encoding heat stress proteins (Hsp) which act as molecular chaperones to protect cells against heat damages. In higher plants, the phenomenon seems to be unusually complex both at the level of Hsfs and Hsps (e.g., 21 Hsf encoding genes in Arabidopsis and at least 17 in tomato). Upon prolonged hs, another characteristic property of plant cells is the assembly of large cytosolic aggregates called heat stress granules (HSG), which are composed of Hsps, HsfA2, RNA and RNA-binding proteins. The present work was aimed to understand plant hs response using tomato as a model system. To study the function of tomato Hsfs in their native system, we generated transgenic tomato lines altered in expression of HsfA1, HsfA2, and HsfB1. Tomato plants with 10-fold overexpression of HsfA1 (OE plants) were characterised by integration of a single HsfA1 expression cassette, whereas the plants harbouring a tandem inverted repeat (IR) of the cassette showed cosuppression of HsfA1 (CS plants). The lack of HsfA1 expression in CS plants results from posttranscriptional gene silencing connected with the formation of small interfering RNA (siRNA). Under normal growth conditions, major developmental features were similar for wild-type (WT), OE and CS plants. However, in contrast to the former two, CS plants and fruits were extremely sensitive to elevated temperature because hs-induced synthesis of major chaperones and Hsfs was strongly reduced or lacking. Despite the complexity of the plant Hsf family, the function of tomato HsfA1 is unique as master regulator of induced thermotolerance. On the other hand, maintenance of essential chaperones in CS plants during seed development suggests involvement of other Hsfs and/or transcription factor(s). HsfB1 and HsfA2 transgenic tomato plants, unaffected in thermotolerance, further supported the function of HsfA1 as the major factor regulating hs-inducible genes. Hs87 independent phenotypes of plants with altered expression of HsfB1 indicates developmental role of this Hsf. Using transient reporter assays with mesophyll protoplasts from WT tomato, we demonstrated that plasmids encoding Hsfs A1, A2 and A3 were well expressed which could function as activators for reporter gene expression. However, in protoplasts derived from CS plants, plasmids encoding HsfA2 and HsfA3 were normally expressed but even higher amounts of HsfA1 expression plasmids were completely silenced. Therefore, silencing of HsfA1 in CS plants was also reproduced in its mesophyll protoplasts. Lacking thermotolerance in CS protoplasts could be restored after transformation with expression plasmids encoding functionally equivalent HsfA2 or HsfA3 resulting in (i) expression of chaperones, (ii) survival of the cells at otherwise lethal temperature, (iii) thermoprotection of firefly luciferase, and (iv) assembly of heat stress granules (HSGs). The strong silencing caused by an IR in CS plants opened the possibility of a broad use of RNAi for gene knock-down also in the transient system of mesophyll protoplasts. Using this technology, we attempted to dissect essential components of thermotolerance and HSG assembly. We demonstrated the previously reported function of chaperones such as Hsp70 and Hsp101, and could discriminate the in vivo chaperone functions of different isoforms of Hsp20 and Hsp70 proteins. Hsp17-CI, Hsp70 (hs-inducible isoforms), and Hsp101 are absolutely essential chaperones for thermotolerance in plants. Furthermore, the results also show that despite Hsp17-CI and -CII being major components of HSG complexes, they are dispensable for assembly of these complexes. Based on these results, it is proposed that in the transient protoplast system an approach with gene-specific IRs can be used to discriminate functions of closely related isoforms among protein-families and to dissect complex protein networks.
Production of neutral strange hadrons with high transverse momentum in Pb+Pb collisions at 158 A GeV
(2006)
The motivation for studying ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions is to search for signatures of a transition from hadronic matter to a partonic phase, the Quark-Gluon plasma. The bulk of the particles produced in these collisions possesses transverse momenta of pT < 2 GeV/c and evidence for the production of a Quark-Gluon plasma at SPS energies has been found in the properties of particles from this pT range. The rare particles seen in the higher pT domain can complete the picture of the produced matter. Examples for such high pT signatures include the properties of the baryon/meson ratios and the elliptic flow in the region 2 < pT < 4 GeV/c observed at RHIC. They can be explained by quark coalescence models. This phase space range can also be accessed for analysis at the highest SPS beam energy of 158 A GeV. A study of the pT dependence of baryon/meson ratios here can help to answer the question which hadron production mechanisms are relevant in this energy range. In the NA49 large acceptance hadron spectrometer, K0S and Lambda are identified via the V 0 topology of their decay into charged hadrons and the determination of their invariant mass. The reach in pT of this method is only limited by the statistics of the available data. An important part of the analysis presented in this thesis is to select potential V 0 candidates by adequate cuts. Optimisation for the high pT domain requires careful cuts in order to retain the signal there. A challenge implicated by this approach is the large combinatorial background left over by the loose cuts. A reliable signal extraction method was found that can deal with this possible difficulty and provide raw spectra.The fraction of particles that cannot be detected because of the geometrical acceptance of the detector and analysis inefficiencies was determined in simulations. Correction factors are extracted from this simulation for each phase space bin and applied to the raw spectra. The spectra corrected in this way reach pT = 3.6 GeV/c (for K0 S) and pT = 3.8 GeV/c (Lambda), respectively. The whole analysis method has been checked to be self-consistent and was compared to existing data on kaon and ... production, that is only available in the lower pT range. While the Lambda spectra agree with an earlier analysis [44], a disagreement remains between the results for K0 S presented here and charged kaon data published in [42]. The Lambda/K0 S ratio calculated from the corrected spectra qualitatively agrees with the results for the higher collision energy at RHIC [8]. A saturation of the ratio for pT >= 2 GeV/c clearly indicates that the hydrodynamical picture is not valid in the higher range any more. Unfortunately, no calculations from coalescence models are available for the SPS energy range so far.
This thesis is devoted to the study of Micro Structured Electrode (MSE) sustained discharges. Innovative approaches in this work are i) the implementation of MSE arrays for high-pressure plasma generation and ii) the use of diode laser atomic absorption spectroscopy for investigating sub-millimetric discharges. By means of MSE arrays the discharge gap is scaled down to the sub-millimetric range and accordingly the working pressure could be increased up to atmospheric. It should be underlined that besides the ease of use, since expensive vacuum equipment is not required, high-pressure discharges offer also a high density of active species. A MSE consists of holes, regularly distributed in a composite sheet made of two metal layers separated by an insulator. The electrodes and insulator thickness and the diameter of the holes are in the 100 micrometer range. Based on these microstructures stable non-filamentary DC discharges are generated in noble gases and gas mixtures at pressures up to 1000 mbar. The MSE sustained discharge can be considered as a normal glow discharge whereby the excitation and ionization efficiency is increased by the specific electrode configuration (hollow cathode geometry). Large area high-pressure plasma can be achieved by parallel operation of a large number of microdischarges. Parallel operation of up to 200 microdischarges without individual ballast was proven for pressures up to 300 mbar. Furthermore, arrays of resistively decoupled microdischarges were operated up to atmospheric pressure. Spectral investigations have revealed the presence of highly energetic electrons (20 eV), a large density of atoms in metastable states (1013 cm-3) and a high electron density (1015 cm-3). Although the plasma confined inside the hole of the MSE may reach gas temperatures up to 1000 K, the ambient gas temperature immediately above the microstructure exceeds only slightly the room temperature. The reactivity of the MSE sustained discharge was demonstrated in respect to waste gas decomposition and surface treatment. The MSE arrays are providing a non-equilibrium high-pressure plasma, which is very promising for surface processing, plasma chemistry and generation of UV radiation.
A novel mechanism of H0 and strangelet production in hadronic interactions within the Gribov-Regge approach is presented. In contrast to traditional distillation approaches, here the production of multiple (strange) quark bags does not require large baryon densities or a QGP. The production cross section increases with center of mass energy. Rapidity and transverse momentum distributions of the H 0 are predicted for pp collisions at E_lab = 160 AGeV (SPS) and \sqrt s = 200 AGeV (RHIC). The predicted total H 0 multiplicities are of order of the Omega-baryon yield and can be accessed by the NA49 and the STAR experiments.
The recently proposed baryon-strangeness correlation (C_BS) is studied with a string-hadronic transport model (UrQMD) for various energies from E_lab=4 AGeV to \sqrt s=200 AGeV. It is shown that rescattering among secondaries can not mimic the predicted correlation pattern expected for a Quark-Gluon-Plasma. However, we find a strong increase of the C_BS correlation function with decreasing collision energy both for pp and Au+Au/Pb+Pb reactions. For Au+Au reactions at the top RHIC energy (\sqrt s=200 AGeV), the C_BS correlation is constant for all centralities and compatible with the pp result. With increasing width of the rapidity window, C_BS follows roughly the shape of the baryon rapidity distribution. We suggest to study the energy and centrality dependence of C_BS which allow to gain information on the onset of the deconfinement transition in temperature and volume.
Midrapidity open charm spectra from direct reconstruction of D0(D0-bar)-->K± pi ± in d+Au collisions and indirect electron-positron measurements via charm semileptonic decays in p+p and d+Au collisions at sqrt[sNN]=200 GeV are reported. The D0(D0-bar) spectrum covers a transverse momentum (pT) range of 0.1<pT<3 GeV/c, whereas the electron spectra cover a range of 1<pT<4 GeV/c. The electron spectra show approximate binary collision scaling between p+p and d+Au collisions. From these two independent analyses, the differential cross section per nucleon-nucleon binary interaction at midrapidity for open charm production from d+Au collisions at BNL RHIC is d sigma NNcc-bar/dy=0.30±0.04(stat)±0.09(syst) mb. The results are compared to theoretical calculations. Implications for charmonium results in A+A collisions are discussed.
The short-lived K(892)* resonance provides an efficient tool to probe properties of the hot and dense medium produced in relativistic heavy-ion collisions. We report measurements of K* in sqrt[sNN]=200GeV Au+Au and p+p collisions reconstructed via its hadronic decay channels K(892)*0-->K pi and K(892)*±-->K0S pi ± using the STAR detector at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The K*0 mass has been studied as a function of pT in minimum bias p+p and central Au+Au collisions. The K*pT spectra for minimum bias p+p interactions and for Au+Au collisions in different centralities are presented. The K*/K yield ratios for all centralities in Au+Au collisions are found to be significantly lower than the ratio in minimum bias p+p collisions, indicating the importance of hadronic interactions between chemical and kinetic freeze-outs. A significant nonzero K*0 elliptic flow (v2) is observed in Au+Au collisions and is compared to the K0S and Lambda v2. The nuclear modification factor of K* at intermediate pT is similar to that of K0S but different from Lambda . This establishes a baryon-meson effect over a mass effect in the particle production at intermediate pT (2<pT <= 4GeV/c).
We report on the rapidity and centrality dependence of proton and antiproton transverse mass distributions from 197Au + 197Au collisions at sqrt[sNN ]=130 GeV as measured by the STAR experiment at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC). Our results are from the rapidity and transverse momentum range of |y| <0.5 and 0.35< pt <1.00 GeV/c . For both protons and antiprotons, transverse mass distributions become more convex from peripheral to central collisions demonstrating characteristics of collective expansion. The measured rapidity distributions and the mean transverse momenta versus rapidity are flat within |y| <0.5 . Comparisons of our data with results from model calculations indicate that in order to obtain a consistent picture of the proton (antiproton) yields and transverse mass distributions the possibility of prehadronic collective expansion may have to be taken into account.
We report results on rho (770)0--> pi + pi - production at midrapidity in p+p and peripheral Au+Au collisions at sqrt[sNN]=200 GeV. This is the first direct measurement of rho (770)0--> pi + pi - in heavy-ion collisions. The measured rho 0 peak in the invariant mass distribution is shifted by ~40 MeV/c2 in minimum bias p+p interactions and ~70 MeV/c2 in peripheral Au+Au collisions. The rho 0 mass shift is dependent on transverse momentum and multiplicity. The modification of the rho 0 meson mass, width, and shape due to phase space and dynamical effects are discussed.
We present the results of charged particle fluctuations measurements in Au+Au collisions at sqrt[sNN ]=130 GeV using the STAR detector. Dynamical fluctuations measurements are presented for inclusive charged particle multiplicities as well as for identified charged pions, kaons, and protons. The net charge dynamical fluctuations are found to be large and negative providing clear evidence that positive and negative charged particle production is correlated within the pseudorapidity range investigated. Correlations are smaller than expected based on model-dependent predictions for a resonance gas or a quark-gluon gas which undergoes fast hadronization and freeze-out. Qualitative agreement is found with comparable scaled p+p measurements and a heavy ion jet interaction generation model calculation based on independent particle collisions, although a small deviation from the 1/N scaling dependence expected from this model is observed.
Elliptic flow holds much promise for studying the early-time thermalization attained in ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions. Flow measurements also provide a means of distinguishing between hydrodynamic models and calculations which approach the low density (dilute gas) limit. Among the effects that can complicate the interpretation of elliptic flow measurements are azimuthal correlations that are unrelated to the reaction plane (nonflow correlations). Using data for Au + Au collisions at sqrt[sNN]=130 GeV from the STAR time projection chamber, it is found that four-particle correlation analyses can reliably separate flow and nonflow correlation signals. The latter account for on average about 15% of the observed second-harmonic azimuthal correlation, with the largest relative contribution for the most peripheral and the most central collisions. The results are also corrected for the effect of flow variations within centrality bins. This effect is negligible for all but the most central bin, where the correction to the elliptic flow is about a factor of 2. A simple new method for two-particle flow analysis based on scalar products is described. An analysis based on the distribution of the magnitude of the flow vector is also described.
The first measurements of light antinucleus production in Au+Au collisions at the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider are reported. The observed production rates for d-bar and 3He-bar are much larger than in lower energy nucleus-nucleus collisions. A coalescence model analysis of the yields indicates that there is little or no increase in the antinucleon freeze-out volume compared to collisions at CERN SPS energy. These analyses also indicate that the 3He-bar freeze-out volume is smaller than the d-bar freeze-out volume.
The transverse momentum and rapidity distributions of negative hadrons and participant protons have been measured for central 32S+ 32S collisions at plab=200 GeV/c per nucleon. The proton mean rapidity shift < Delta y>~1.6 and mean transverse momentum <pT>~0.6 GeV/c are much higher than in pp or peripheral AA collisions and indicate an increase in the nuclear stopping power. All pT spectra exhibit similar source temperatures. Including previous results for K0s Lambda , and Lambda -bar, we account for all important contributions to particle production.
The NA35 experiment has collected a high statistics set of momentum analyzed negative hadrons near and forward of midrapidity for central collisions of 200A GeV/c 32S+S, Cu, Ag, and Au. Using momentum space correlations to study the size of the source of particle production, the transverse source radii are found to decrease by ~40% at midrapidity and ~20% at forward rapidity while the longitudinal radius RL is found to decrease by ~50% as pT increases over the interval 50<pT<600 MeV/c. Calculations using a microscopic phase space approach (relativistic quantum molecular dynamics) reproduce the observed trends of the data. PACS: 25.75.+r
Pion and strangeness puzzles
(1996)
Data on the mean multiplicity of strange hadrons produced in minimum bias proton--proton and central nucleus--nucleus collisions at momenta between 2.8 and 400 GeV/c per nucleon have been compiled. The multiplicities for nucleon--nucleon interactions were constructed. The ratios of strange particle multiplicity to participant nucleon as well as to pion multiplicity are larger for central nucleus--nucleus collisions than for nucleon--nucleon interactions at all studied energies. The data at AGS energies suggest that the latter ratio saturates with increasing masses of the colliding nuclei. The strangeness to pion multiplicity ratio observed in nucleon--nucleon interactions increases with collision energy in the whole energy range studied. A qualitatively different behaviour is observed for central nucleus--nucleus collisions: the ratio rapidly increases when going from Dubna to AGS energies and changes little between AGS and SPS energies. This change in the behaviour can be related to the increase in the entropy production observed in central nucleus-nucleus collisions at the same energy range. The results are interpreted within a statistical approach. They are consistent with the hypothesis that the Quark Gluon Plasma is created at SPS energies, the critical collision energy being between AGS and SPS energies.
The main results obtained within the energy scan program at the CERN SPS are presented. The anomalies in energy dependence of hadron production indicate that the onset of deconfinement phase transition is located at about 30 A GeV. For the first time we seem to have clear evidence for the existence of a deconfined state of matter in nature. PACS numbers: 24.85.+p
We present the measured correlation functions for pi+ pi-, pi- pi- and pi+ pi+ pairs in central S+Ag collisions at 200 GeV per nucleon. The Gamov function, which has been traditionally used to correct the correlation functions of charged pions for the Coulomb interaction, is found to be inconsistent with all measured correlation functions. Certain problems which have been dominating the systematic uncertainty of the correlation analysis are related to this inconsistency. It is demonstrated that a new Coulomb correction method, based exclusively on the measured correlation function for pi+ pi- pairs, may solve the problem.
Using the NA49 main TPC, the central production of hyperons has been measured in CERN SPS Pb - Pb collisions at 158 GeV c-1. The preliminary ratio, studied at 2.0 < y < 2.6 and 1 < pT < 3 GeV c-1, equals ~ (13 ± 4)% (systematic error only). It is compatible, within errors, with the previously obtained ratios for central S + S [1], S + W [2], and S + Au [3] collisions. The fit to the transverse momentum distribution resulted in an inverse slope parameter T of 297 MeV. At this level of statistics we do not see any noticeable enhancement of hyperon production with the increased volume (and, possibly, degree of equilibration) of the system from S + S to Pb + Pb. This result is unexpected and counterintuitive, and should be further investigated. If confirmed, it will have a significant impact on our understanding of mechanisms leading to the enhanced strangeness production in heavy-ion collisions.
The data on average hadron multiplicities in central A+A collisions measured at CERN SPS are analysed with the ideal hadron gas model. It is shown that the full chemical equilibrium version of the model fails to describe the experimental results. The agreement of the data with the off-equilibrium version allowing for partial strangeness saturation is significantly better. The freeze-out temperature of about 180 MeV seems to be independent of the system size (from S+S to Pb+Pb) and in agreement with that extracted in e+e-, pp and p{\bar p} collisions. The strangeness suppression is discussed at both hadron and valence quark level. It is found that the hadronic strangeness saturation factor gamma_S increases from about 0.45 for pp interactions to about 0.7 for central A+A collisions with no significant change from S+S to Pb+Pb collisions. The quark strangeness suppression factor lambda_S is found to be about 0.2 for elementary collisions and about 0.4 for heavy ion collisions independently of collision energy and type of colliding system
The transverse momentum and rapidity distributions of net protons and negatively charged hadrons have been measured for minimum bias proton-nucleus and deuteron-gold interactions, as well as central oxygen-gold and sulphur-nucleus collisions at 200 GeV per nucleon. The rapidity density of net protons at midrapidity in central nucleus-nucleus collisions increases both with target mass for sulphur projectiles and with the projectile mass for a gold target. The shape of the rapidity distributions of net protons forward of midrapidity for d+Au and central S+Au collisions is similar. The average rapidity loss is larger than 2 units of rapidity for reactions with the gold target. The transverse momentum spectra of net protons for all reactions can be described by a thermal distribution with temperatures' between 145 +- 11 MeV (p+S interactions) and 244 +- 43 MeV (central S+Au collisions). The multiplicity of negatively charged hadrons increases with the mass of the colliding system. The shape of the transverse momentum spectra of negatively charged hadrons changes from minimum bias p+p and p+S interactions to p+Au and central nucleus-nucleus collisions. The mean transverse momentum is almost constant in the vicinity of midrapidity and shows little variation with the target and projectile masses. The average number of produced negatively charged hadrons per participant baryon increases slightly from p+p, p+A to central S+S,Ag collisions.
Two-particle correlation functions of negative hadrons over wide phase space, and transverse mass spectra of negative hadrons and deuterons near mid-rapidity have been measured in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 GeV per nucleon by the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS. A novel Coulomb correction procedure for the negative two-particle correlations is employed making use of the measured oppositely charged particle correlation. Within an expanding source scenario these results are used to extract the dynamic characteristics of the hadronic source, resolving the ambiguities between the temperature and transverse expansion velocity of the source, that are unavoidable when single and two particle spectra are analysed separately. The source shape, the total duration of the source expansion, the duration of particle emission, the freeze-out temperature and the longitudinal and transverse expansion velocities are deduced.
A statistical model of the early stage of central nucleus--nucleus (A+A) collisions is developed. We suggest a description of the confined state with several free parameters fitted to a compilation of A+A data at the AGS. For the deconfined state a simple Bag model equation of state is assumed. The model leads to the conclusion that a Quark Gluon Plasma is created in central nucleus--nucleus collisions at the SPS. This result is in quantitative agreement with existing SPS data on pion and strangeness production and gives a natural explanation for their scaling behaviour. The localization and the properties of the transition region are discussed. It is shown that the deconfinement transition can be detected by observation of the characteristic energy dependence of pion and strangeness multiplicities, and by an increase of the event--by--event fluctuations. An attempt to understand the data on J/psi production in Pb+Pb collisions at the SPS within the same approach is presented.
Elliptic flow from nuclear collisions is a hadronic observable sensitive to the early stages of system evolution. We report first results on elliptic flow of charged particles at midrapidity in Au+Au collisions at sqrt(s_NN)=130 GeV using the STAR TPC at RHIC. The elliptic flow signal, v_2, averaged over transverse momentum, reaches values of about 6% for relatively peripheral collisions and decreases for the more central collisions. This can be interpreted as the observation of a higher degree of thermalization than at lower collision energies. Pseudorapidity and transverse momentum dependence of elliptic flow are also presented.
We present the first measurement of fluctuations from event to event in the production of strange particles in collisions of heavy nuclei. The ratio of charged kaons to charged pions is determined for individual central Pb+Pb collisions. After accounting for the fluctuations due to detector resolution and finite number statistics we derive an upper limit on genuine non-statistical fluctuations, perhaps related to a first or second order QCD phase transition. Such fluctuations are shown to be very small.
The transverse mass spectra of Omega, J/psi and psi' in Pb+Pb collisions at 158 AGeV are studied within a hydrodynamical model of the quark gluon plasma expansion and hadronization. The model reproduces the existing data with the common hadronization parameters: temperature T=T_H = 170 MeV and average collective transverse velocity v_T = 0.2.
The transverse mass spectra of J/psi and psi' mesons and Omega hyperons produced in central Au+Au collisions at RHIC energies are discussed within a statistical model used successfully for the interpretation of the SPS results. The comparison of the presented model with the future RHIC data should serve as a further crucial test of the hypothesis of statistical production of charmonia at hadronization. Finally, in case of validity, the approach should allow to estimate the mean transverse flow velocity at the quark gluon plasma hadronization.
Experiment NA49 at the Cern SPS uses a large acceptance detector for a systematic study of particle yields and correlations in nucleus-nucleus, nucleon-nucleus and nucleon-nucleon collisions. Preliminary results for Pb+Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 A*GeV beam energy are shown and compared to measurements at lower and higher energies.
Directed and elliptic flow of charged pions and protons in Pb + Pb collisions at 40 and 158 A GeV
(2003)
Directed and elliptic flow measurements for charged pions and protons are reported as a function of transverse momentum, rapidity, and centrality for 40 and 158A GeV Pb + Pb collisions as recorded by the NA49 detector. Both the standard method of correlating particles with an event plane, and the cumulant method of studying multiparticle correlations are used. In the standard method the directed flow is corrected for conservation of momentum. In the cumulant method elliptic flow is reconstructed from genuine 4, 6, and 8-particle correlations, showing the first unequivocal evidence for collective motion in A+A collisions at SPS energies.
New results from the energy scan programme of NA49, in particular kaon production at 30 AGeV and phi production at 40 and 80 AGeV are presented. The K+/pi+ ratio shows a pronounced maximum at 30 AGeV; the kaon slope parameters are constant at SPS energies. Both findings support the scenario of a phase transition at about 30 AGeV beam energy. The phi/pi ratio increases smoothly with beam energy, showing an energy dependence similar to K-/pi-. The measured particle yields can be reproduced by a hadron gas model, with chemical freeze-out parameters on a smooth curve in the T-muB plane. The transverse spectra can be understood as resulting from a rapidly expanding, locally equilibrated source. No evidence for an earlier kinetic decoupling of heavy hyperons is found.
The large acceptance and high momentum resolution as well as the significant particle identification capabilities of the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS allow for a broad study of fluctuations and correlations in hadronic interactions. In the first part recent results on event-by-event charge and p_t fluctuations are presented. Charge fluctuations in central Pb+Pb reactions are investigated at three different beam energies (40, 80, and 158 AGeV), while for the p_t fluctuations the focus is put on the system size dependence at 158 AGeV. In the second part recent results on Bose Einstein correlations of h-h- pairs in minimum bias Pb+Pb reactions at 40 and 158 AGeV, as well as of K+K+ and K-K- pairs in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 AGeV are shown. Additionally, other types of two particle correlations, namely pi p, Lambda p, and Lambda Lambda correlations, have been measured by the NA49 experiment. Finally, results on the energy and system size dependence of deuteron coalescence are discussed.
Rapidity distributions for $\Lambda$ and $\bar{\Lambda}$ hyperons in central Pb-Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 A$\cdot$GeV and for ${\rm K}_{s}^{0}$ mesons at 158 A$\cdot$GeV are presented. The lambda multiplicities are studied as a function of collision energy together with AGS and RHIC measurements and compared to model predictions. A different energy dependence of the $\Lambda/\pi$ and $\bar{\Lambda}/\pi$ is observed. The $\bar{\Lambda}/\Lambda$ ratio shows a steep increase with collision energy. Evidence for a $\bar{\Lambda}/\bar{\rm p}$ ratio greater than 1 is found at 40 A$\cdot$GeV.
Bose-Einstein correlations of charged kaons were measured near mid-rapidity in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 A GeV by the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS. Source radii were extracted using the Yano-Koonin-Podgoretsky and Bertsch-Pratt parameterizations. The results are compared to published pion data. The measured m_perp dependence for kaons and pions is consistent with collective transverse expansion of the source and a freeze-out time of about 9.5 fm.
We study the behaviour of the effective temperature for K+ in several energy domains. For this purpose, we apply the recently developed SPheRIO code for hydrodynamics in 3+1 dimensions, using both Landau-type compact initial conditions and spatially more spread ones. We show that initial conditions given in small volume, like Landau-type ones, are unable to reproduce the effective temperature together with other data (multiplicities and rapidity distributions). These quantities can be reproduced altogether only when using a large initial volume with an appropriate velocity distribution.
We suggest that the fluctuations of strange hadron multiplicity could be sensitive to the equation of state and microscopic structure of strongly interacting matter created at the early stage of high energy nucleus-nucleus collisions. They may serve as an important tool in the study of the deconfinement phase transition. We predict, within the statistical model of the early stage, that the ratio of properly filtered fluctuations of strange to non-strange hadron multiplicities should have a non-monotonic energy dependence with a minimum in the mixed phase region.
The data on mT spectra of K0S K+ and K- mesons produced in all inelastic p + p and p + pbar interactions in the energy range sqrt(s)NN=4.7-1800GeV are compiled and analyzed. The spectra are parameterized by a single exponential function, dN/(m_T*dm_T)=C exp(-m_T/T), and the inverse slope parameter T is the main object of study. The T parameter is found to be similar for K0S, K+ and K- mesons. It increases monotonically with collision energy from T~30MeV at sqrt(s)NN=4.7GeV to T~220MeV at sqrt(s)NN=1800GeV. The T parameter measured in p+p and p+pbar interactions is significantly lower than the corresponding parameter obtained for central Pb+Pb collisions at all studied energies. Also the shape of the energy dependence of T is different for central Pb+Pb collisions and p+p(pbar) interactions.
Observation of an exotic S = -2, Q = -2 baryon resonance in proton-proton collisions at the CERN SPS
(2003)
Results of resonance searches in the Xi- pi-, Xi- pi+, antiXi+ pi- and antiXi+ pi+ invariant mass spectra in proton-proton collisions at sqrt s=17.2 GeV are presented. Evidence is shown for the existence of a narrow Xi- pi- baryon resonance with mass of 1.862+/-0.002 GeV/c^2 and width below the detector resolution of about 0.018 GeV/c^2. The significance is estimated to be 4.0 sigma. This state is a candidate for the hypothetical exotic Xi_(3/2)^-- baryon with S = -2, I = 3/2 and a quark content of (d s d s ubar). At the same mass a peak is observed in the Xi- pi+ spectrum which is a candidate for the Xi_(3/2)^0 member of this isospin quartet with a quark content of (d s u s dbar). The corresponding antibaryon spectra also show enhancements at the same invariant mass.
Fluctuations of charged particle number are studied in the canonical ensemble. In the infinite volume limit the fluctuations in the canonical ensemble are different from the fluctuations in the grand canonical one. Thus, the well-known equivalence of both ensembles for the average quantities does not extend for the fluctuations. In view of a possible relevance of the results for the analysis of fluctuations in nuclear collisions at high energies, a role of the limited kinematical acceptance is studied.
A non-monotonic energy dependence of the K + / pi + ratio with a sharp maximum close to 30 A GeV is observed in central Pb+Pb collisions. Within a statistical model of the early stage, this is interpreted as a sign of the phase transition to a QGP, which causes a sharp change in the energy dependence of the strangeness to entropy ratio. This observation naturally motivates us to study the production of multistrange hyperons (Xi, Omega) as a function of the beam energy. Furthermore it was suggested that the kinematic freeze-out of Omega takes place directly at QGP hadronization. If this is indeed the case, the transverse momentum spectra of the Omega directly reflect the transverse expansion velocity of a hadronizing QGP. In this report we show preliminary NA49 results on Omega - and Omega + production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40 and 158 A GeV and compare them to measurements of Xi - and Xi + production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 30, 40, 80 and 158 A GeV.
Report from NA49
(2004)
The most recent data of NA49 on hadron production in nuclear collisions at CERN SPS energies are presented. Anomalies in the energy dependence of pion and kaon production in central Pb+Pb collisions are observed. They suggest that the onset of deconfinement is located at about 30 AGeV. Large multiplicity and transverse momentum fluctuations are measured for collisions of intermediate mass systems at 158 AGeV. The need for a new experimental programme at the CERN SPS is underlined.
The transverse mass mt distributions for deuterons and protons are measured in Pb+Pb reactions near midrapidity and in the range 0<mt–m<1.0 (1.5) GeV/c2 for minimum bias collisions at 158A GeV and for central collisions at 40 and 80 A GeV beam energies. The rapidity density dn/dy, inverse slope parameter T and mean transverse mass <mt> derived from mt distributions as well as the coalescence parameter B2 are studied as a function of the incident energy and the collision centrality. The deuteron mt spectra are significantly harder than those of protons, especially in central collisions. The coalescence factor B2 shows three systematic trends. First, it decreases strongly with increasing centrality reflecting an enlargement of the deuteron coalescence volume in central Pb+Pb collisions. Second, it increases with mt. Finally, B2 shows an increase with decreasing incident beam energy even within the SPS energy range. The results are discussed and compared to the predictions of models that include the collective expansion of the source created in Pb+Pb collisions.
Event-by-event fluctuations of particle ratios in central Pb + Pb collisions at 20 to 158 AGeV
(2004)
In the vicinity of the QCD phase transition, critical fluctuations have been predicted to lead to non-statistical fluctuations of particle ratios, depending on the nature of the phase transition. Recent results of the NA49 energy scan program show a sharp maximum of the ratio of K+ to Pi+ yields in central Pb+Pb collisions at beam energies of 20-30 AGeV. This observation has been interpreted as an indication of a phase transition at low SPS energies. We present first results on event-by-event fluctuations of the kaon to pion and proton to pion ratios at beam energies close to this maximum.
Results are presented on event-by-event electric charge fluctuations in central Pb+Pb collisions at 20, 30, 40, 80 and 158 AGeV. The observed fluctuations are close to those expected for a gas of pions correlated by global charge conservation only. These fluctuations are considerably larger than those calculated for an ideal gas of deconfined quarks and gluons. The present measurements do not necessarily exclude reduced fluctuations from a quark-gluon plasma because these might be masked by contributions from resonance decays.
System-size dependence of strangeness production in nucleus-nucleus collisions at √sNN = 17.3 GeV
(2005)
Emission of pi, K, phi and Lambda was measured in near-central C+C and Si+Si collisions at 158 AGeV beam energy. Together with earlier data for p+p, S+S and Pb+Pb, the system-size dependence of relative strangeness production in nucleus-nucleus collisions is obtained. Its fast rise and the saturation observed at about 60 participating nucleons can be understood as onset of the formation of coherent partonic subsystems of increasing size. PACS numbers: 25.75.-q
Results are presented on Omega production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40 and 158 AGeV beam energy. Given are transverse-mass spectra, rapidity distributions, and total yields for the sum Omega+Antiomega at 40 AGeV and for Omega and Antiomega separately at 158 AGeV. The yields are strongly under-predicted by the string-hadronic UrQMD model and are in better agreement with predictions from a hadron gas models. PACS numbers: 25.75.Dw
System size and centrality dependence of the balance function in A + A collisions at √sNN = 17.2 GeV
(2004)
Electric charge correlations were studied for p+p, C+C, Si+Si and centrality selected Pb+Pb collisions at sqrt s_NN = 17.2$ GeV with the NA49 large acceptance detector at the CERN-SPS. In particular, long range pseudo-rapidity correlations of oppositely charged particles were measured using the Balance Function method. The width of the Balance Function decreases with increasing system size and centrality of the reactions. This decrease could be related to an increasing delay of hadronization in central Pb+Pb collisions.
System size dependence of multiplicity fluctuations of charged particles produced in nuclear collisions at 158 A GeV was studied in the NA49 CERN experiment. Results indicate a non-monotonic dependence of the scaled variance of the multiplicity distribution with a maximum for semi-peripheral Pb+Pb interactions with number of projectile participants of about 35. This effect is not observed in a string-hadronic model of nuclear collision HIJING.
The hadronic final state of central Pb+Pb collisions at 20, 30, 40, 80, and 158 AGeV has been measured by the CERN NA49 collaboration. The mean transverse mass of pions and kaons at midrapidity stays nearly constant in this energy range, whereas at lower energies, at the AGS, a steep increase with beam energy was measured. Compared to p+p collisions as well as to model calculations, anomalies in the energy dependence of pion and kaon production at lower SPS energies are observed. These findings can be explained, assuming that the energy density reached in central A+A collisions at lower SPS energies is sufficient to transform the hot and dense nuclear matter into a deconfined phase.
Results are presented from a search for the decays D0 -> K min pi plus and D0 bar -> K plus pi min in a sample of 3.8x10^6 central Pb-Pb events collected with a beam energy of 158A GeV by NA49 at the CERN SPS. No signal is observed. An upper limit on D0 production is derived and compared to predictions from several models.
Low energy beam transport (LEBT) for a future heavy ion driven inertial fusion (HIDIF [1]) facility is a crucial point using a Bi+ beam of 40 mA at 156 keV. High space charge forces (generalised perveance K=3.6*10-3) restrict the use of electrostatic focussing systems. On the other hand magnetic lenses using space charge compensation suffer from the low particle velocity. Additionally the emittance requirements are very high in order to avoid particle losses in the linac and at ring injection [2]. urthermore source noise and rise time of space charge compensation [3] might enhance particle losses and emittance. Gabor lenses [4] using a continuous space charge cloud for focussing could be a serious alternative to conventional LEBT systems. They combine strong cylinder symmetric focussing with partly space charge compensation and low emittance growth due to lower non linear fields. A high tolerance against source noise and current fluctuations and reduced investment costs are other possible advantages. The proof of principle has already been shown [5, 6]. To broaden the experiences an experimental program was started. Therefrom the first experimental results using a double Gabor lens (DGPL, see fig. 1 ) LEBT system for transporting an high perveance Xe+ beam will be presented and the results of numerical simulations will be shown.
Rapidity distributions for Lambda and anti-Lambda hyperons in central Pb-Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 AGeV and for K 0 s mesons at 158 AGeV are presented. The lambda multiplicities are studied as a function of collision energy together with AGS and RHIC measurements and compared to model predictions. A different energy dependence of the Lambda/pi and anti-Lambda/pi is observed. The anti-Lambda/Lambda ratio shows a steep increase with collision energy. Evidence for a anti-Lambda/anti-p ratio greater than 1 is found at 40 AGeV.
Cold target recoil ion momentum spectroscopy (COLTRIM) has been employed to image the momentum distributions of continuum electrons liberated in the impact of slow He2+ on He and H2. The distributions were measured for fully determined motion of the nuclei that is as a function of the impact parameter and in a well de ned scattering plane The single ionization (SI) of H2 leading to H2+ recoil ions in nondissociative states (He2+ + H+ -> He2+ + H+ + e-) and the transfer ionization (TI) of H2 leading to H2 dissociation into two free protons (He2+ H2 -> He+ + H+ + H+ + e-) were investigated. Similar measurements have been carried out for He target, the corresponding atomic two electron system, i.e. the single ionization (SI) (He2+ + He -> He+ + He2+ e- and the transfer ionization (TI) (He2+ + He -> He+ + He2+ + e-). These measurements have been exploited to understand the results obtained for H target. In comparing the continuum electron momentum distributions for H2 with that for He, a high degree of similarity is observed. In the case of transfer ionization of H2, the electron momentum distributions generated for parallel and perpendicular molecular orientations revealed no orientation dependence. The in scattering plane electron momentum distributions for the transfer ionization of H2 by He2+ and for the transfer ionization of He by He2e showed that the salient feature of these distributions for both collisions systems consists in the appearance of two groups of electrons with difeerent structures. In addition to the group of the saddle electrons forming two jets separated by a valley along the projectile axis we nd a new group of electrons moving with a velocity higher than the projectile velocity These new fast forward electrons result from a narrow range of impact parameters and appear as image saddle in the projectile frame. In contrast to the transfer ionization of He, the fast forward electrons group disappears in the in scattering plane electron momentum distribution generated for the single ionization of He. Instead of this group another new group of electrons appear These electrons exhibit an amount of backscattering These backward elec trons appear as image saddle in the target frame The structures that the saddle electrons show are owing to the quasi molecular nature of the collision process For the TI of H2, the TI of He and the SI of He, a pi-orbital shape of the electron momentum distribution is observed This indicates the importance of the rotational coupling 2-p-theta -> 2p-pi in the initial promotion of the ground state followed by further promotions to the continuum The backward electrons as well as the fast forward electrons are not discussed in the theoretical literature at all. However, a number of obvious indications of the existence of the backward and fast forward electrons could be seen in the experimental works of Abdallah et al. as well as in the theoretical calculations of Sidky et al One might speculate that electrons which are promoted on the saddle for some time during the collision could finally swing around the He+ ion in the way out of the collision, i.e. either around the projectile in the forward direction as in the TI case forming the fast forward electrons or around the recoil ion in the backward direction as in the SI case forming the backward electrons. This might be a result of the strong gradient, and hence the large acceleration of the screened He+ potential.