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Directed and elliptic flow of charged pions and protons in Pb + Pb collisions at 40 and 158 A GeV
(2003)
Directed and elliptic flow measurements for charged pions and protons are reported as a function of transverse momentum, rapidity, and centrality for 40 and 158A GeV Pb + Pb collisions as recorded by the NA49 detector. Both the standard method of correlating particles with an event plane, and the cumulant method of studying multiparticle correlations are used. In the standard method the directed flow is corrected for conservation of momentum. In the cumulant method elliptic flow is reconstructed from genuine 4, 6, and 8-particle correlations, showing the first unequivocal evidence for collective motion in A+A collisions at SPS energies.
New results from the energy scan programme of NA49, in particular kaon production at 30 AGeV and phi production at 40 and 80 AGeV are presented. The K+/pi+ ratio shows a pronounced maximum at 30 AGeV; the kaon slope parameters are constant at SPS energies. Both findings support the scenario of a phase transition at about 30 AGeV beam energy. The phi/pi ratio increases smoothly with beam energy, showing an energy dependence similar to K-/pi-. The measured particle yields can be reproduced by a hadron gas model, with chemical freeze-out parameters on a smooth curve in the T-muB plane. The transverse spectra can be understood as resulting from a rapidly expanding, locally equilibrated source. No evidence for an earlier kinetic decoupling of heavy hyperons is found.
Strange particle production in A+A interactions at 158 AGeV is studied by the CERN experiment NA49 as a function of system size and collision geometry. Yields of charged kaons, phi and Lambda are measured and compared to those of pions in central C+C, Si+Si and centrality-selected Pb+Pb reactions. An overall increase of relative strangeness production with the size of the system is observed which does not scale with the number of participants. Arguing that rescattering of secondaries plays a minor role in small systems the observed strangeness enhancement can be related to the space-time density of the primary nucleon-nucleon collisions.
The large acceptance and high momentum resolution as well as the significant particle identification capabilities of the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS allow for a broad study of fluctuations and correlations in hadronic interactions. In the first part recent results on event-by-event charge and p_t fluctuations are presented. Charge fluctuations in central Pb+Pb reactions are investigated at three different beam energies (40, 80, and 158 AGeV), while for the p_t fluctuations the focus is put on the system size dependence at 158 AGeV. In the second part recent results on Bose Einstein correlations of h-h- pairs in minimum bias Pb+Pb reactions at 40 and 158 AGeV, as well as of K+K+ and K-K- pairs in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 AGeV are shown. Additionally, other types of two particle correlations, namely pi p, Lambda p, and Lambda Lambda correlations, have been measured by the NA49 experiment. Finally, results on the energy and system size dependence of deuteron coalescence are discussed.
Rapidity distributions for $\Lambda$ and $\bar{\Lambda}$ hyperons in central Pb-Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 A$\cdot$GeV and for ${\rm K}_{s}^{0}$ mesons at 158 A$\cdot$GeV are presented. The lambda multiplicities are studied as a function of collision energy together with AGS and RHIC measurements and compared to model predictions. A different energy dependence of the $\Lambda/\pi$ and $\bar{\Lambda}/\pi$ is observed. The $\bar{\Lambda}/\Lambda$ ratio shows a steep increase with collision energy. Evidence for a $\bar{\Lambda}/\bar{\rm p}$ ratio greater than 1 is found at 40 A$\cdot$GeV.
To preserve the required beam quality in an e+/e- collider it is necessary to have a very precise beam position control at each accelerating cavity. An elegant method to avoid additional length and beam disturbance is the usage of signals from existing HOM-dampers. The magnitude of the displacement is derived from the amplitude of a dipole mode whereas the sign follows from the phase comparison of a dipole and a monopole HOM. To check the performance of the system, a measurement setup has been built with an antenna which can be moved with micrometer resolution to simulate the beam. Furthermore we have developed a signal processing to determine the absolute beam displacement. Measurements on the HOM-damper cell can be done in the frequency domain using a network analyser. Final measurements with the nonlinear time dependent signal processing circuit has to be done with very short electric pulses simulating electron bunches. Thus, we have designed a sub nanosecond pulse generator using a clipping line and the step recovery effect of a diode. The measurement can be done with a resolution of about 10 micrometers. Measurements and numerical calculations concerning the monitor design and the pulse generator are presented.
We present a detailed study of chemical freeze-out in nucleus-nucleus collisions at beam energies of 11.6, 30, 40, 80 and 158A GeV. By analyzing hadronic multiplicities within the statistical hadronization approach, we have studied the strangeness production as a function of centre of mass energy and of the parameters of the source. We have tested and compared different versions of the statistical model, with special emphasis on possible explanations of the observed strangeness hadronic phase space under-saturation. We show that, in this energy range, the use of hadron yields at midrapidity instead of in full phase space artificially enhances strangeness production and could lead to incorrect conclusions as far as the occurrence of full chemical equilibrium is concerned. In addition to the basic model with an extra strange quark non-equilibrium parameter, we have tested three more schemes: a two-component model superimposing hadrons coming out of single nucleon-nucleon interactions to those emerging from large fireballs at equilibrium, a model with local strangeness neutrality and a model with strange and light quark non-equilibrium parameters. The behaviour of the source parameters as a function of colliding system and collision energy is studied. The description of strangeness production entails a non-monotonic energy dependence of strangeness saturation parameter gamma_S with a maximum around 30A GeV. We also present predictions of the production rates of still unmeasured hadrons including the newly discovered Theta^+(1540) pentaquark baryon.
Bose-Einstein correlations of charged kaons were measured near mid-rapidity in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 A GeV by the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS. Source radii were extracted using the Yano-Koonin-Podgoretsky and Bertsch-Pratt parameterizations. The results are compared to published pion data. The measured m_perp dependence for kaons and pions is consistent with collective transverse expansion of the source and a freeze-out time of about 9.5 fm.
We study the behaviour of the effective temperature for K+ in several energy domains. For this purpose, we apply the recently developed SPheRIO code for hydrodynamics in 3+1 dimensions, using both Landau-type compact initial conditions and spatially more spread ones. We show that initial conditions given in small volume, like Landau-type ones, are unable to reproduce the effective temperature together with other data (multiplicities and rapidity distributions). These quantities can be reproduced altogether only when using a large initial volume with an appropriate velocity distribution.
We suggest that the fluctuations of strange hadron multiplicity could be sensitive to the equation of state and microscopic structure of strongly interacting matter created at the early stage of high energy nucleus-nucleus collisions. They may serve as an important tool in the study of the deconfinement phase transition. We predict, within the statistical model of the early stage, that the ratio of properly filtered fluctuations of strange to non-strange hadron multiplicities should have a non-monotonic energy dependence with a minimum in the mixed phase region.
The data on mT spectra of K0S K+ and K- mesons produced in all inelastic p + p and p + pbar interactions in the energy range sqrt(s)NN=4.7-1800GeV are compiled and analyzed. The spectra are parameterized by a single exponential function, dN/(m_T*dm_T)=C exp(-m_T/T), and the inverse slope parameter T is the main object of study. The T parameter is found to be similar for K0S, K+ and K- mesons. It increases monotonically with collision energy from T~30MeV at sqrt(s)NN=4.7GeV to T~220MeV at sqrt(s)NN=1800GeV. The T parameter measured in p+p and p+pbar interactions is significantly lower than the corresponding parameter obtained for central Pb+Pb collisions at all studied energies. Also the shape of the energy dependence of T is different for central Pb+Pb collisions and p+p(pbar) interactions.
The history and the main results of the energy scan program at the CERN SPS are reviewed. Several anomalies in energy dependence of hadron production predicted as signals of deconfinement phase transition are observed and they indicate that the onset of deconfinement is located at about 30 A GeV. For the first time we seem to have clear evidence for the existence of a deconfined state of matter in nature.
We propose a method to experimentally study the equation of state of strongly interacting matter created at the early stage of nucleus--nucleus collisions. The method exploits the relation between relative entropy and energy fluctuations and equation of state. As a measurable quantity, the ratio of properly filtered multiplicity to energy fluctuations is proposed. Within a statistical approach to the early stage of nucleus-nucleus collisions, the fluctuation ratio manifests a non--monotonic collision energy dependence with a maximum in the domain where the onset of deconfinement occurs.
Transverse activity of kaons and the deconfinement phase transition in nucleus-nucleus collisions
(2003)
We found that the experimental results on transverse mass spectra of kaons produced in central Pb+Pb (Au+Au) interactions show an anomalous dependence on the collision energy. The inverse slopes of the spectra increase with energy in the low (AGS) and high (RHIC) energy domains, whereas they are constant in the intermediate (SPS) energy range. We argue that this anomaly is probably caused by a modification of the equation of state in the transition region between confined and deconfined matter. This observation may be considered as a new signal, in addition to the previously reported anomalies in the pion and strangeness production, of the onset of deconfinement located in the low SPS energy domain.
Observation of an exotic S = -2, Q = -2 baryon resonance in proton-proton collisions at the CERN SPS
(2003)
Results of resonance searches in the Xi- pi-, Xi- pi+, antiXi+ pi- and antiXi+ pi+ invariant mass spectra in proton-proton collisions at sqrt s=17.2 GeV are presented. Evidence is shown for the existence of a narrow Xi- pi- baryon resonance with mass of 1.862+/-0.002 GeV/c^2 and width below the detector resolution of about 0.018 GeV/c^2. The significance is estimated to be 4.0 sigma. This state is a candidate for the hypothetical exotic Xi_(3/2)^-- baryon with S = -2, I = 3/2 and a quark content of (d s d s ubar). At the same mass a peak is observed in the Xi- pi+ spectrum which is a candidate for the Xi_(3/2)^0 member of this isospin quartet with a quark content of (d s u s dbar). The corresponding antibaryon spectra also show enhancements at the same invariant mass.
Results are presented on event-by-event fluctuations in transverse momentum of charged particles, produced at forward rapidities in p+p, C+C, Si+Si and Pb+Pb collisions at 158 AGeV. Three different characteristics are discussed: the average transverse momentum of the event, the Phi_pT fluctuation measure and two-particle transverse momentum correlations. In the kinematic region explored, the dynamical fluctuations are found to be small. However, a significant system size dependence of Phi_pT is observed, with the largest value measured in peripheral Pb+Pb interactions. The data are compared with predictions of several models. PACS numbers: 14.20.Jn, 13.75.Cs, 12.39.-x
Production of Lambda and Antilambda hyperons was measured in central Pb-Pb collisions at 40, 80, and 158 A GeV beam energy on a fixed target. Transverse mass spectra and rapidity distributions are given for all three energies. The Lambda/pi ratio at mid-rapidity and in full phase space shows a pronounced maximum between the highest AGS and 40 A GeV SPS energies, whereas the anti-Lambda}/pi ratio exhibits a monotonic increase. PACS numbers: 25.75.-q
Fluctuations of charged particle number are studied in the canonical ensemble. In the infinite volume limit the fluctuations in the canonical ensemble are different from the fluctuations in the grand canonical one. Thus, the well-known equivalence of both ensembles for the average quantities does not extend for the fluctuations. In view of a possible relevance of the results for the analysis of fluctuations in nuclear collisions at high energies, a role of the limited kinematical acceptance is studied.
A non-monotonic energy dependence of the K + / pi + ratio with a sharp maximum close to 30 A GeV is observed in central Pb+Pb collisions. Within a statistical model of the early stage, this is interpreted as a sign of the phase transition to a QGP, which causes a sharp change in the energy dependence of the strangeness to entropy ratio. This observation naturally motivates us to study the production of multistrange hyperons (Xi, Omega) as a function of the beam energy. Furthermore it was suggested that the kinematic freeze-out of Omega takes place directly at QGP hadronization. If this is indeed the case, the transverse momentum spectra of the Omega directly reflect the transverse expansion velocity of a hadronizing QGP. In this report we show preliminary NA49 results on Omega - and Omega + production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40 and 158 A GeV and compare them to measurements of Xi - and Xi + production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 30, 40, 80 and 158 A GeV.
Report from NA49
(2004)
The most recent data of NA49 on hadron production in nuclear collisions at CERN SPS energies are presented. Anomalies in the energy dependence of pion and kaon production in central Pb+Pb collisions are observed. They suggest that the onset of deconfinement is located at about 30 AGeV. Large multiplicity and transverse momentum fluctuations are measured for collisions of intermediate mass systems at 158 AGeV. The need for a new experimental programme at the CERN SPS is underlined.
The transverse mass mt distributions for deuterons and protons are measured in Pb+Pb reactions near midrapidity and in the range 0<mt–m<1.0 (1.5) GeV/c2 for minimum bias collisions at 158A GeV and for central collisions at 40 and 80 A GeV beam energies. The rapidity density dn/dy, inverse slope parameter T and mean transverse mass <mt> derived from mt distributions as well as the coalescence parameter B2 are studied as a function of the incident energy and the collision centrality. The deuteron mt spectra are significantly harder than those of protons, especially in central collisions. The coalescence factor B2 shows three systematic trends. First, it decreases strongly with increasing centrality reflecting an enlargement of the deuteron coalescence volume in central Pb+Pb collisions. Second, it increases with mt. Finally, B2 shows an increase with decreasing incident beam energy even within the SPS energy range. The results are discussed and compared to the predictions of models that include the collective expansion of the source created in Pb+Pb collisions.
Preliminary results on pion-pion Bose-Einstein correlations in central Pb+Pb collisions measured by the NA49 experiment are presented. Rapidity as well as transverse momentum dependence of the HBT-radii are shown for collisions at 20, 30, 40, 80, and 158 AGeV beam energy. Including results from AGS and RHIC experiments only a weak energy dependence of the radii is observed. Based on hydrodynamical models parameters like lifetime and geometrical radius of the source are derived from the dependence of the radii on transverse momentum.
Event-by-event fluctuations of particle ratios in central Pb + Pb collisions at 20 to 158 AGeV
(2004)
In the vicinity of the QCD phase transition, critical fluctuations have been predicted to lead to non-statistical fluctuations of particle ratios, depending on the nature of the phase transition. Recent results of the NA49 energy scan program show a sharp maximum of the ratio of K+ to Pi+ yields in central Pb+Pb collisions at beam energies of 20-30 AGeV. This observation has been interpreted as an indication of a phase transition at low SPS energies. We present first results on event-by-event fluctuations of the kaon to pion and proton to pion ratios at beam energies close to this maximum.
Results are presented on event-by-event electric charge fluctuations in central Pb+Pb collisions at 20, 30, 40, 80 and 158 AGeV. The observed fluctuations are close to those expected for a gas of pions correlated by global charge conservation only. These fluctuations are considerably larger than those calculated for an ideal gas of deconfined quarks and gluons. The present measurements do not necessarily exclude reduced fluctuations from a quark-gluon plasma because these might be masked by contributions from resonance decays.
System-size dependence of strangeness production in nucleus-nucleus collisions at √sNN = 17.3 GeV
(2005)
Emission of pi, K, phi and Lambda was measured in near-central C+C and Si+Si collisions at 158 AGeV beam energy. Together with earlier data for p+p, S+S and Pb+Pb, the system-size dependence of relative strangeness production in nucleus-nucleus collisions is obtained. Its fast rise and the saturation observed at about 60 participating nucleons can be understood as onset of the formation of coherent partonic subsystems of increasing size. PACS numbers: 25.75.-q
Results are presented on Omega production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40 and 158 AGeV beam energy. Given are transverse-mass spectra, rapidity distributions, and total yields for the sum Omega+Antiomega at 40 AGeV and for Omega and Antiomega separately at 158 AGeV. The yields are strongly under-predicted by the string-hadronic UrQMD model and are in better agreement with predictions from a hadron gas models. PACS numbers: 25.75.Dw
System size and centrality dependence of the balance function in A + A collisions at √sNN = 17.2 GeV
(2004)
Electric charge correlations were studied for p+p, C+C, Si+Si and centrality selected Pb+Pb collisions at sqrt s_NN = 17.2$ GeV with the NA49 large acceptance detector at the CERN-SPS. In particular, long range pseudo-rapidity correlations of oppositely charged particles were measured using the Balance Function method. The width of the Balance Function decreases with increasing system size and centrality of the reactions. This decrease could be related to an increasing delay of hadronization in central Pb+Pb collisions.
The hadronic final state of central Pb+Pb collisions at 20, 30, 40, 80, and 158 AGeV has been measured by the CERN NA49 collaboration. The mean transverse mass of pions and kaons at midrapidity stays nearly constant in this energy range, whereas at lower energies, at the AGS, a steep increase with beam energy was measured. Compared to p+p collisions as well as to model calculations, anomalies in the energy dependence of pion and kaon production at lower SPS energies are observed. These findings can be explained, assuming that the energy density reached in central A+A collisions at lower SPS energies is sufficient to force the hot and dense nuclear matter into a deconfined phase.
System size dependence of multiplicity fluctuations of charged particles produced in nuclear collisions at 158 A GeV was studied in the NA49 CERN experiment. Results indicate a non-monotonic dependence of the scaled variance of the multiplicity distribution with a maximum for semi-peripheral Pb+Pb interactions with number of projectile participants of about 35. This effect is not observed in a string-hadronic model of nuclear collision HIJING.
The hadronic final state of central Pb+Pb collisions at 20, 30, 40, 80, and 158 AGeV has been measured by the CERN NA49 collaboration. The mean transverse mass of pions and kaons at midrapidity stays nearly constant in this energy range, whereas at lower energies, at the AGS, a steep increase with beam energy was measured. Compared to p+p collisions as well as to model calculations, anomalies in the energy dependence of pion and kaon production at lower SPS energies are observed. These findings can be explained, assuming that the energy density reached in central A+A collisions at lower SPS energies is sufficient to transform the hot and dense nuclear matter into a deconfined phase.
Phase diagram of strongly interacting matter is discussed within the exactly solvable statistical model of the quark-gluon bags. The model predicts two phases of matter: the hadron gas at a low temperature T and baryonic chemical potential muB, and the quark-gluon gas at a high T and/or muB. The nature of the phase transition depends on a form of the bag mass-volume spectrum (its pre-exponential factor), which is expected to change with the muB/T ratio. It is therefore likely that the line of the 1st} order transition at a high muB/T ratio is followed by the line of the 2nd order phase transition at an intermediate muB/T, and then by the lines of "higher order transitions" at a low muB/T.
The negative-pion multiplicity is measured for central collisions of 40Ar with KCl at eight energies from 0.36 to 1.8 GeV/nucleon and for 4He on KCl and 40Ar on BaI2 at 977 and 772 MeV/nucleon, respectively. A systematic discrepancy with a cascade-model calculation which fits proton- and pion-nucleus cross sections but omits potential-energy effects is used to derive the energy going into bulk compression of the system. A value of the incompressibility constant of K=240 MeV is extracted in a parabolic form of the nuclear-matter equation of state.
The parities of eleven J=1 levels in 208Pb were determined by nuclear resonance fluorescence scattering of linearly polarized photons. A new 1+ level at Ex=5.846 MeV with Gamma 02 / Gamma =1.2±0.4 eV was found. This level can probably be identified with the theoretically predicted isoscalar 1+ state in 208Pb. All other bound dipole states below 7 MeV with Gamma 02 / Gamma >1.5 eV have negative parity. The 1- assignment to the 4.842-MeV level is of special significance because of previous conflicting results about its parity.
The 16O ( gamma ,p0) reaction has been studied with linearly polarized bremsstrahlung photons in and below the giant E1 resonance. The parity of the absorbed radiation was determined from the observed azimuthal asymmetry of the emitted protons. Combined with unpolarized measurements the polarized results determine the proton decay amplitudes of the M1 resonance at Ex=16.2 MeV in 16O. The shape of the unpolarized 16O ( gamma ,p3) angular distribution in the giant E1 resonance was derived from the measured analyzing power. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 16O( gamma ,p), E=15-25 MeV; measured analyzing power theta =90° linearly polarized bremsstrahlung; 16O dipole levels deduced pi ; 16.2 MeV 1+ resonance deduced p0 decay amplitudes; 16O GEDR deduced p3 angular distribution.
The ultrarelativistic quantum molecular dynamics model (UrQMD) is used to study global observables in central reactions of Au+Au at sqrt[s]=200A GeV at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC). Strong stopping governed by massive particle production is predicted if secondary interactions are taken into account. The underlying string dynamics and the early hadronic decoupling implies only small transverse expansion rates. However, rescattering with mesons is found to act as a source of pressure leading to additional flow of baryons and kaons, while cooling down pions.
11 262 keV 1+ state in 20Ne
(1983)
The excitation energy of the lowest 1+, T=1 state in 20Ne, which is important for parity nonconservation studies, has been determined in a photon scattering experiment to be 11 262.3 ± 1.9 keV. Values for the gamma -ray branching of this level to the ground state and to the first 2+ level in 20Ne are 84 ± 5% and 16 ± 5%, respectively. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 20Ne( gamma , gamma ), E gamma <18 MeV, bremsstrahlung; measured E gamma , gamma branching. Ne natural targets.
Proton emission in relativistic nuclear collisions is examined for events of low and high multiplicity, corresponding to large and small impact parameters. Peripheral reactions exhibit distributions of protons in agreement with spectator-participant decay modes. Central collisions of equal-size nuclei are dominated by the formation and decay of a fireball system. Central collisions of light projectiles with heavy targets exhibit an enhancement in sideward emission which is predicted by recent hydrodynamical calculations.
Angular distributions for elastic and inelastic transitions in 20Ne + 16O scattering have been measured at E(20Ne)=50 MeV. For the 0+, 2+, and 4+ members of the 20Ne ground-state rotational band, the angular distributions exhibit pronounced backward peaking characteristic of an alpha -cluster exchange mechanism. The analysis of the ground-state transition in the first-order elastic transfer model yields no satisfactory fit although microscopic cluster form factors and full recoil corrections are employed. A coupled channels calculation for the 0+, 2+, and 4+ transitions reveals very strong coupling effects, indicating that the coherent superposition of first-order optical model and distorted-wave Born-approximation amplitudes may not be an adequate model for these reactions. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 16O(20Ne, 16O) and 16O(20Ne, 20Ne), elastic and inelastic transfer; E=50MeV; measured sigma (Ef , theta ); optical model + DWBA, and CCBA analyses.
The elastic alpha scattering to backward angles has been studied for 40,42,44,48Ca between 40.7 and 72.3 MeV. The cross sections for 40Ca are larger than those for the higher isotopes up to the highest energies. They show backward increases that disappear above 50 MeV. The enhancement factor for 40Ca over 42,44Ca varies smoothly with energy. 48Ca does also show a backward cross-section enhancement over 42,44Ca. alpha -cluster rotational bands in the 44Ti compound state, four-nucleon correlations in 40Ca, and the l-dependent optical model are discussed as approaches to understand the anomaly. The rotator model appears to agree qualitatively with the experimental data. It involves rotational bands extending at least up to J=16 in 44Ti.
Back-angle enhancements of elastic alpha -scattering cross sections have been observed for nuclei at the ends of the 1p, 2s-1d, and f7 / 2 shells. Strong reduction of this enhancement occurs if excess neutrons enter the next open major shell. The results are discussed in terms of intermediate alpha structure.
Pion-production cross sections have been measured for the reaction 40Ar+40Ca--> pi ++X at a laboratory energy of 1.05 GeV/nucleon. A maximum in the pi + cross section occurs at mid-rapidity, which is anomalous relative to p+p and p+nucleus reactions and compared to many other heavy-ion reactions. Calculations based on cascade and thermal models fail to fit the data.
Inclusive energy spectra of protons, deuterons, and tritons were measured with a telescope of silicon and germanium detectors with a detection range for proton energies up to 200 MeV. Fifteen sets of data were taken using projectiles ranging from protons to 40Ar on targets from 27Al to 238U at bombarding energies from 240 MeV/nucleon to 2.1 GeV/nucleon. Particular attention was paid to the absolute normalization of the cross sections. For three previously reported reactions, He fragment cross sections have been corrected and are presented. To facilitate a comparison with theory the sum of nucleonic charges emitted as protons plus composite particles was estimated and is presented as a function of fragment energy per nucleon in the interval from 15 to 200 MeV/nucleon. For low-energy fragments at forward angles the protons account for only 25% of the nucleonic charges. The equal mass 40Ar plus Ca systems were examined in the center of mass. Here at 0.4 GeV/nucleon 40Ar plus Ca the proton spectra appear to be nearly isotropic in the center of mass over the region measured. Comparisons of some data with firestreak, cascade, and fluid dynamics models indicate a failure of the first and a fair agreement with the latter two. In addition, associated fast charged particle multiplicities (where the particles had energies larger than 25 MeV/nucleon) and azimuthal correlations were measured with an 80 counter array of plastic scintillators. It was found that the associated multiplicities were a smooth function of the total kinetic energy of the projectile. NUCLEAR REACTIONS U(20Ne,X), E / A=240 MeV/nucleon; U(40Ar,X), Ca(40Ar,X), U(20Ne,X), Au(20Ne,X), Ag(20Ne,X), Al(20Ne,X), U(4He,X), Al(4He,X), E / A=390 MeV/nucleon; U(40Ar,X), Ca(40Ar,X), U(20Ne,X), U(4He,X), U(p,X), E / A=1.04 GeV/nucleon; U(20Ne,X), E / A=2.1 GeV/nucleon; measured sigma (E, theta ), X=p,d,t.
Exclusive pi - and charged-particle production in collisions of Ar+KCl is studied at incident energies from 0.4 to 1.8 GeV/u. Complete disintegration of both nuclei is observed. The correlation between pi - and total charge multiplicity shows no islands of anomalous pion production. For constant numbers of proton participants the pi - multiplicity distributions are Poissons. For central collisions <n pi -> increases smoothly and to first order linearly with the c.m. energy. Disagreement with the firestreak model is found. Pacs numbers: 25.70.Hi, 24.10.Dp
Lambda 's produced in central collisions of 40Ar+KC1 at 1.8-GeV/u incident energy were detected in a streamer chamber by their charged-particle decay. For central collisions with impact parameters b<2.4 fm the Lambda production cross section is 7.6±2.2 mb. A calculation in which Lambda production occurs in the early stage of the collision qualitatively reproduces the results but underestimates the transverse momenta. An average Lambda polarization of -0.10±0.05 is observed. PACS numbers: 25.70 Bc
Pion production and charged-particle multiplicity selection in relativistic nuclear collisions
(1982)
Spectra of positive pions with energies of 15-95 MeV were measured for high energy proton, 4He, 20Ne, and 40Ar bombardments of targets of 27Al, 40Ca, 107,109Ag, 197Au, and 238U. A Si-Ge telescope was used to identify charged pions by dE / dx-E and, in addition, stopped pi + were tagged by the subsequent muon decay. In all, results for 14 target-projectile combinations are presented to study the dependence of pion emission patterns on the bombarding energy (from E / A=0.25 to 2.1 GeV) and on the target and the projectile masses. In addition, associated charged-particle multiplicities were measured in an 80-paddle array of plastic scintillators, and used to make impact parameter selections on the pion-inclusive data. NUCLEAR REACTIONS U(20Ne, pi +), E / A=250 MeV; U(40Ar, pi +), Ca(40Ar, pi +), U(20Ne, pi +), Au(20Ne, pi +), Ag(20Ne, pi +), Al(20Ne, pi +), U(4He, pi +), Al(4He, pi +). E / A=400 MeV; Ca(40Ar, pi +), U(20Ne, pi +), U(4He, pi +), U(p, pi +), E / A=1.05), GeV; U(20Ne, pi +), E / A=2.1 GeV; measured sigma (E, theta ), inclusive and selected on associated charged-particle multiplicity.
Energy spectra and angular distributions have been measured of 3He and 4He fragments emitted from Ag and U targets, bombarded with 2.7-GeV protons, and 1.05-GeV/nucleon alpha particles and 16O ions. All cross sections increase dramatically with projectile mass. No narrow peaks are found in the angular distributions or in the energy spectra.
Double-differential cross sections have been measured for high-energy p, d, t, 3He, and 4He particles emitted from uranium targets irradiated with 20Ne ions at energies of 250, 400, and 2100 MeV/nucleon and 4He ions at 400 MeV/nucleon. By using the shape and yield of the proton energy spectra, the shape and yield of the d, t, 3He, and 4He energy spectra can be deduced at all measured angles for all incident projectile energies by assuming that they are formed by a coalescence of cascade nucleons, using a model analogous to that of Butler and Pearson, and Schwarzschild and Zupancic-caron.
A simple model is proposed for the emission of nucleons with velocities intermediate between those of the target and projectile. In this model, the nucleons which are mutually swept out from the target and projectile form a hot quasiequilibrated fireball which decays as an ideal gas. The overall features of the proton-inclusive spectra from 250- and 400-MeV/nucleon 20Ne ions and 400-MeV/nucleon 4He ions interacting with uranium are fitted without any adjustable parameters.
The energy spectra of protons and light nuclei produced by the interaction of 4He and 20Ne projectiles with Al and U targets have been investigated at incident energies ranging from 0.25 to 2.1 GeV per nucleon. Single fragment inclusive spectra have been obtained at angles between 25° and 150°, in the energy range from 30 to 150 MeV/nucleon. The multiplicity of intermediate and high energy charged particles was determined in coincidence with the measured fragments. In a separate study, fragment spectra were obtained in the evaporation energy range from 12C and 20Ne bombardment of uranium. We observe structureless, exponentially decaying spectra throughout the range of studied fragment masses. There is evidence for two major classes of fragments; one with emission at intermediate temperature from a system moving slowly in the lab frame, and the other with high temperature emission from a system propagating at a velocity intermediate between target and projectile. The high energy proton spectra are fairly well reproduced by a nuclear fireball model based on simple geometrical, kinematical, and statistical assumptions. Light cluster emission is also discussed in the framework of statistical models. NUCLEAR REACTIONS U(20Ne,X), E=250 MeV/nucl.; U(20Ne,X), U(α,X) E=400 MeV/nucl.; U(20Ne,X), Al(20Ne,X), E=2.1 GeV/nucl.; measured σ(E,θ), X=p, d, t, 3He,4He. U(20Ne,X), U(α,X), E=400 MeV/nucl.; U(20Ne,X), E=2.1 GeV/nucl.; measured σ(E, θ), Li to O. U(20Ne,X), U(12C,X), E=2.1 GeV/nucl.; measured σ(E, 90°), 4He to B. Nuclear fireballs, coalescence, thermodynamics of light nuclei production.
Results are presented from a search for the decays D0 -> K min pi plus and D0 bar -> K plus pi min in a sample of 3.8x10^6 central Pb-Pb events collected with a beam energy of 158A GeV by NA49 at the CERN SPS. No signal is observed. An upper limit on D0 production is derived and compared to predictions from several models.
Particle production in central Pb+Pb collisions was studied with the NA49 large acceptance spectrometer at the CERN SPS at beam energies of 20, 30, 40, 80, and 158 GeV per nucleon. A change of the energy dependence is observed around 30A GeV for the yields of pions and strange particles as well as for the shapes of the transverse mass spectra. At present only a reaction scenario with onset of deconfinement is able to reproduce the measurements.
The transverse mass spectra of Omega hyperons and phi mesons measured recently by STAR Collaboration in Au+Au collisions at sqrt(s_NN) = 130 GeV are described within a hydrodynamic model of the quark gluon plasma expansion and hadronization. The flow parameters at the plasma hadronization extracted by fitting these data are used to predict the transverse mass spectra of J/psi and psi' mesons.
We argue that the shape of the system-size dependence of strangeness production in nucleus-nucleus collisions can be understood in a picture that is based on the formation of clusters of overlapping strings. A string percolation model combined with a statistical description of the hadronization yields a quantitative agreement with the data at sqrt s_NN = 17.3 GeV. The model is also applied to RHIC energies.
A steep maximum occurs in the Wroblewski ratio between strange and non-strange quarks created in central nucleus-nucleus collisions, of about A=200, at the lower SPS energy square root s approximately equal to 7 GeV. By analyzing hadronic multiplicities within the grand canonical statistical hadronization model this maximum is shown to occur at a baryochemical potential of about 450 MeV. In comparison, recent QCD lattice calculations at finite baryochemical potential suggest a steep maximum of the light quark susceptibility, to occur at similar mu B, indicative of "critical fluctuation" expected to occur at or near the QCD critical endpoint. This endpoint hat not been firmly pinned down but should occur in the 300 MeV < mu c B < 700 MeV interval. It is argued that central collisions within the low SPS energy range should exhibit a turning point between compression/heating, and expansion/cooling at energy density, temperature and mu B close to the suspected critical point. Whereas from top SPS to RHIC energy the primordial dynamics create a turning point far above in epsilon and T, and far below in mu B. And at lower AGS energies the dynamical trajectory stays below the phase boundary. Thus, the observed sharp strangeness maximum might coincide with the critical square root s at which the dynamics settles at, or near the QCD endpoint.
Strangeness enhancement is discussed as a feature specific to relativistic nuclear collisions which create a fireball of strongly interacting matter at high energy density. At very high energy this is suggested to be partonic matter, but at lower energy it should consist of yet unknown hadronic degrees of freedom. The freeze-out of this high density state to a hadron gas can tell us about properties of fireball matter. The hadron gas at the instant of its formation captures conditions directly at the QCD phase boundary at top SPS and RHIC energy, chiefly the critical temperature and energy density.
Relativistic nucleus-nucleus collisions create a "fireball" of strongly interacting matter at high energy density. At very high energy this is suggested to be partonic matter, but at lower energy it should consist of yet unknown hadronic, perhaps coherent degrees of freedom. The freeze-out of this high density state to a hadron gas can tell us about properties of fireball matter. Date (v1): Thu, 19 Dec 2002 12:52:34 GMT (146kb) Date (revised v2): Thu, 16 Jan 2003 15:11:47 GMT (146kb) Date (revised v3): Wed, 14 May 2003 12:49:35 GMT (146kb)
With new data available from the SPS, at 40 and 80 GeV/A, I review the systematics of bulk hadron multiplicities, with prime focus on strangeness production. The classical concept of strangeness enhancement in central AA collisions is reviewed, in view of the statistical hadronization model which suggests to understand strangeness enhancement to arise chiefly in the transition from the canonical to the grand canonical version of that model. I. e. enhancement results from the fading away of canonical suppression. The model also captures the striking strangeness maximum observed in the vicinity of sqrt s approx 8 GeV. A puzzle remains in the understanding of apparent grand canonical order at the lower SPS, and at AGS energies.
Transverse momentum event-by-event fluctuations are studied within the string-hadronic model of high energy nuclear collisions, LUCIAE. Data on non-statistical pT fluctuations in p+p interactions are reproduced. Fluctuations of similar magnitude are predicted for nucleus-nucleus collisions, in contradiction to the preliminary NA49 results. The introduction of a string clustering mechanism (Firecracker Model) leads to a further, significant increase of pT fluctuations for nucleus-nucleus collisions. Secondary hadronic interactions, as implemented in LUCIAE, cause only a small reduction of pT fluctuations.
Hadronic yields and yield ratios observed in Pb+Pb collisions at the SPS energy of 158 GeV per nucleon are known to resemble a thermal equilibrium population at T=180 +/- 10 MeV, also observed in elementary e+ + e- to hadron data at LEP. We argue that this is the universal consequence of the QCD parton to hadron phase transition populating the maximum entropy state. This state is shown to survive the hadronic rescattering and expansion phase, freezing in right after hadronization due to the very rapid longitudinal and transverse expansion that is inferred from Bose-Einstein pion correlation analysis of central Pb+Pb collisions.
A selection of recent data referring to Pb+Pb collisions at the SPS CERN energy of 158 GeV per nucleon is presented which might describe the state of highly excited strongly interacting matter both above and below the deconfinement to hadronization (phase) transition predicted by lattice QCD. A tentative picture emerges in which a partonic state is indeed formed in central Pb+Pb collisions which hadronizes at about T = 185 MeV, and expands its volume more than tenfold, cooling to about 120 MeV before hadronic collisions cease. We suggest further that all SPS collisions, from central S+S onward, reach that partonic phase, the maximum energy density increasing with more massive collision systems.
We investigate the sensitivity of several observables to the density dependence of the symmetry potential within the microscopic transport model UrQMD (ultrarelativistic quantum molecular dynamics model). The same systems are used to probe the symmetry potential at both low and high densities. The influence of the symmetry potentials on the yields of pi-, pi+, the pi-/pi+ ratio, the n/p ratio of free nucleons and the t/3He ratio are studied for neutron-rich heavy ion collisions (208Pb+208Pb, 132Sn+124Sn, 96Zr+96Zr) at E_b=0.4A GeV. We find that these multiple probes provides comprehensive information on the density dependence of the symmetry potential.
We present a detailed study of chemical freeze-out in nucleus-nucleus collisions at beam energies of 11.6, 30, 40, 80 and 158A GeV. By analyzing hadronic multiplicities within the statistical hadronization approach, we have studied the chemical equilibration of the system as a function of center of mass energy and of the parameters of the source. Additionally, we have tested and compared different versions of the statistical model, with special emphasis on possible explanations of the observed strangeness hadronic phase space under-saturation.
Cancer has become one of the most fatal diseases. The Heidelberg Heavy Ion Cancer Therapy (HICAT) has the potential to become an important and efficient treatment method because of its excellent “Bragg peak” characteristics and on-line irradiation control by the PET diagnostics. The dedicated Heidelberg Heavy Ion Cancer Therapy Project includes two ECR ion sources, a RF linear injector, a synchrotron and three treatment rooms. It will deliver 4*10 high 10 protons, or 1*10 high 10 He, or 1*10 high 9 Carbons, or 5*10 high 8 Oxygens per synchrotron cycle with the beam energy 50-430AMeV for the treatments. The RF linear injector consists of a 400AkeV RFQ and of a very compact 7AMeV IH-DTL accelerator operated at 216.816MHz. The development of the IH-DTL within the HICAT project is a great challenge with respect to the present state of the DTL art because of the following reasons: • The highest operating frequency (216.816MHz) of all IH-DTL cavities; • Extremely large cavity length to diameter ratio of about 11; • IH-DTL with three internal triplets; • The highest effective voltage gain per meter (5.5MV/m); • Very short MEBT design for the beam matching. The following achievements have been reached during the development of the IH-DTL injector for HICAT : The KONUS beam dynamics design with LORASR code fulfills the beam requirement of the HICAT synchrotron at the injection point. The simulations for the IH-DTL injector have been performed not only with a homogeneous input beam, but also with the actual particle distribution from the exit of the HICAT RFQ accelerator as delivered by the PARMTEQ code. The output longitudinal normalized emittance for 95% of all particles is 2.00AkeVns, the emittance growth is less than 24%, while the X-X’ and Y-Y’ normalized emittance are 0.77mmmrad and 0.62mmmrad, respectively. The emittance growth in X-X’ is less than 18%, and the emittance growth in Y-Y’ is less than 5%. Based on the transverse envelopes of the transported particles, the redesign of the buncher drift tubes at the RFQ high energy end has been made to get a higher transit time factor for this novel RFQ internal buncher. An optimized effective buncher gap voltage of 45.4KV has been calculated to deliver a minimized longitudinal beam emittance, while the influence of the effective buncher voltage on the transverse emittance can be neglected. Six different tuning concepts were investigated in detail while tuning the 1:2 scaled HICAT IH model cavity. ‘Volume Tuning’ by a variation of the cavity cross sectional area can compensate the unbalanced capacitance distribution in case of an extreme beta-lambda-variation along an IH cavity. ‘Additional Capacitance Plates’ or copper sheets clamped on drift tube stems are a fast way for checking the tuning sensitivity, but they will be replaced by massive copper blocks mounted on the drift tube girders finally. ‘Lens Coupling’ is an important tuning to stabilize the operation mode and to increase or decrease the coupling between neighboring sections. ‘Tube Tuning’ is the fine tuning concept and also the standard tuning method to reach the needed field distributions as well as the gap voltage distributions. ‘Undercut Tuning’ is a very sensitive tuning for the end sections and with respect to the voltage distribution balance along the structure. The different types of ‘plungers’ in the 3rd and 4th sections have different effects on the resonance frequency and on the field distribution. The different triplet stems and the geometry of the cavity end have been also investigated to reach the design field and voltage distributions. Finally, the needed uniform field distribution along the IH-DTL cavity and the corresponding effective voltage distribution were realized, the remaining maximum gap voltage difference was less than 5% for the model cavity. The several important higher order modes were also measured. The RF tuning of the IH-DTL model cavity delivers the final geometry parameters of the IH-DTL power cavity. A rectangular cavity cross section was adopted for the first time for this IH-DTL cavity. This eases the realization of the volume tuning concept in the 1st and 2nd sections. Lens coupling determines the final distance between the triplet and the girder. The triplets are mounted on the lower cavity half shell. The Microwave Studio simulations have been carried out not only for the HICAT model cavity, but also for the final geometry of the IH-DTL power cavity. The field distribution for the operation mode H110 fits to the model cavity measurement as well as the Higher Order Modes. The simulations prove the IH-DTL geometrical design. On the other hand, the precision of one simulation with 2.3 million mesh points for full cross section area and the CPU time more than 15hours on a DELL PC with Intel Pentium 4 of 2.4GHz and 2.096GRAM were exploited to their limit when calculating the real parameters for the two final machining iterations during production. The shunt impedance of the IH-DTL power cavity is estimated by comparison with the existing tanks to about 195.8MOmega/m, which fits to the simulation result of 200.3MOmega/m with reducing the conductivity to the 5.0*10 high 7 Omega-1m-1. The effective shunt impedance is 153 MOmega/m. The needed RF power is 755kW. The expected quality factor of the IH-DTL cavity is about 15600. The IH-DTL power cavity tuning measurements before cavity copper plating have been performed. The results are within the specifications. There is no doubt that the needed accuracy of the voltage distribution will be reached with the foreseen fine tuning concepts in the last steps.
Fluctuations and NA49
(2005)
A systematic analysis of data on strangeness and pion production in nucleon–nucleon and central nucleus–nucleus collisions is presented. It is shown that at all collision energies the pion/baryon and strangeness/pion ratios indicate saturation with the size of the colliding nuclei. The energy dependence of the saturation level suggests that the transition to the Quark Gluon Plasma occurs between 15 A·GeV/c (BNL AGS) and 160 A·GeV/c (CERN SPS) collision energies. The experimental results interpreted in the framework of a statistical approach show that the effective number of degrees of freedom increases in the course of the phase transition and that the plasma created at CERN SPS energies may have a temperature of about 280 MeV (energy density ~ 10 GeV/fm exp-3). The presence of the phase transition can lead to the non–monotonic collision energy dependence of the strangeness/pion ratio. After an initial increase the ratio should drop to the characteristic value for the QGP. Above the transition region the ratio is expected to be collision energy independent. Experimental studies of central Pb+Pb collisions in the energy range 20–160 A·GeV/c are urgently needed in order to localize the threshold energy, and study the properties of the QCD phase transition.
We argue that the measurement of open charm gives a unique opportunity to test the validity of pQCD-based and statistical models of nucleus-nucleus collisions at high energies. We show that various approaches used to estimate D-meson multiplicity in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 A GeV give predictions which differ by more than a factor of 100. Finally we demonstrate that decisive experimental results concerning the open charm yield in A+A collisions can be obtained using data of the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS.
Using CORSIKA for simulating extensive air showers, we study the relation between the shower characteristics and features of hadronic multiparticle production at low energies. We report about investigations of typical energies and phase space regions of secondary particles which are important for muon production in extensive air showers. Possibilities to measure relevant quantities of hadron production in existing and planned accelerator experiments are discussed.
The knowledge of the build up time of space charge compensation (SCC) and the investigation of the compensation process is of main interest for low energy beam transport of pulsed high perveance ion beams under space charge compensated conditions. To investigate experimentally the rise of compensation an LEBT system consisting of a pulsed ion source, two solenoids and a drift tube as diagnostic section has been set up. The beam potential has been measured time resolved by a residual gas ion energy analyser (RGA). A numerical simulation for the calculation of self-consistent equilibrium states of the beam plasma has been developed to determine plasma parameters which are difficult measure directly. The results of the simulation has been compared with the measured data to investigate the behavior of the compensation electrons as a function of time. The acquired data shows that the theoretical rise time of space charge compensation is by a factor of two shorter than the build up time determined experimentally. In view of description the process of SCC an interpretation of the gained results is given.
High perveance negative ion beams with low emittance are essential for several next generation particle accelerators (i. g. spallation sources like ESS [1] and SNS [2]). The extraction and transport of these beams have intrinsic difficulties different from positive ion beams. Limitation of beam current and emittance growth have to be avoided. To fulfill the requirements of those projects a detailed knowledge of the physics of beam formation the interaction of the H- with the residual gas and transport is substantial. A compact cesium free H- volume source delivering a low energy high perveance beam (6.5 keV, 2.3 mA, perveance K= 0.0034) has been built to study the fundamental physics of beam transport and will be integrated into the existing LEBT section in the near future. First measurements of the interaction between the ion beam and the residual gas will be presented together with the experimental set up and preliminary results.
For investigation of space charge compensation process due to residual gas ionization and the experimentally study of the rise of compensation, a Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) system consisting of an ion source, two solenoids, a decompensation electrode to generate a pulsed decompensated ion beam and a diagnostic section was set up. The potentials at the beam axis and the beam edge were ascertained from time resolved measurements by a residual gas ion energy analyzer. A numerical simulation of self-consistent equilibrium states of the beam plasma has been developed to determine plasma parameters which are difficult to measure directly. The temporal development of the kinetic and potential energy of the compensation electrons has been analyzed by using the numerically gained results of the simulation. To investigate the compensation process the distribution and the losses of the compensation electrons were studied as a function of time. The acquired data show that the theoretical estimated rise time of space charge compensation neglecting electron losses is shorter than the build up time determined experimentally. To describe the process of space charge compensation an interpretation of the achieved results is given.
Low energy beam transport (LEBT) for a future heavy ion driven inertial fusion (HIDIF [1]) facility is a crucial point using a Bi+ beam of 40 mA at 156 keV. High space charge forces (generalised perveance K=3.6*10-3) restrict the use of electrostatic focussing systems. On the other hand magnetic lenses using space charge compensation suffer from the low particle velocity. Additionally the emittance requirements are very high in order to avoid particle losses in the linac and at ring injection [2]. urthermore source noise and rise time of space charge compensation [3] might enhance particle losses and emittance. Gabor lenses [4] using a continuous space charge cloud for focussing could be a serious alternative to conventional LEBT systems. They combine strong cylinder symmetric focussing with partly space charge compensation and low emittance growth due to lower non linear fields. A high tolerance against source noise and current fluctuations and reduced investment costs are other possible advantages. The proof of principle has already been shown [5, 6]. To broaden the experiences an experimental program was started. Therefrom the first experimental results using a double Gabor lens (DGPL, see fig. 1 ) LEBT system for transporting an high perveance Xe+ beam will be presented and the results of numerical simulations will be shown.
The determination of the beam emittance using conventional destructive methods suffers from two main disadvantages. The interaction between the ion beam and the measurement device produces a high amount of secondary particles. Those particles interact with the beam and can change the transport properties of the accelerator. Particularly in the low energy section of high current accelerators like proposed for IFMIF, heavy ion inertial fusion devices (HIDIF) and spallation sources (ESS, SNS) the power deposited on the emittance measurement device can lead to extensive heat on the detector itself and can destruct or at least dejust the device (slit or grit for example). CCD camera measurements of the incident light emitted from interaction of beam ions with residual gas are commonly used for determination of the beam emittance. Fast data acquisition and high time resolution are additional features of such a method. Therefore a matrix formalism is used to derive the emittance from the measured profile of the beam [1,2] which does not take space charge effects and emittance growth into account. A new method to derive the phase space distribution of the beam from a single CCD camera image using statistical numerical methods will be presented together with measurements. The results will be compared with measurements gained from a conventional Allison type (slit-slit) emittance measurement device.
Investigation of the focus shift due to compensation process for low energy ion beam transport
(2000)
In magnetic Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) sections space charge compensation helps to enhance the transportable beam current and to reduce emittance growth due to space charge forces. For pulsed beams the time neccesary to establish space charge compensation is of great interest for beam transport. Particularly with regard to beam injection into the first accelerator section (e.g. RFQ) investigation of effects on shift of the beam focus due to space charge compensation are very important. The achieved results helps to obviate a mismatch into the first RFQ. To investigate the space charge compensation due to residual gas ionization, time resolved measurements using pulsed ion beams were performed at the LEBT system at the IAP and at the CEA-Saclay injektion line. A residual gas ion energy analyser (RGIA) equiped with a channeltron was used to measure the potential destribution as a function of time to estimate the rise time of compensation. For time resolved measurements (delta t min=50ns) of the radial density profile of the ion beam a CCD-camera was applied. The measured data were used in a numerical simulation of selfconsistant eqilibrium states of the beam plasma [1] to determine plasma parameters such as the density, the temperature, the kinetic and potential energy of the compensation electrons as a function of time. Measurements were done using focused proton beams (10keV, 2mA at IAP and 92keV, 62mA at CEA-Saclay) to get a better understanding of the influence of the compensation process. An interpretation of the acquired data and the achieved results will be presented.
Influence of space charge fluctuations on the low energy beam transport of high current ion beams
(2000)
For future high current ion accelerators like SNS, ESS or IFMIF the beam behaviour in low energy beam transport sections is dominated by space charge forces. Therefore space charge fluctuations (e. g. source noise) can drastically influence the beam transport properties of the low energy beam transport section. Losses of beam ions and emittance growth are the most severe problems. For electrostatic transport systems either a LEBT design has to be found which is insensitive to variations of the space charge or the origin of the fluctuations has to be eliminated. For space charge compensated transport as proposed for ESS and IFMIF the situation is different: No major influence on beam transport is expected for fluctuations below a cut-off frequency given by the production rate of the compensation particles. Above this frequency the fluctuations can not be compensated by particle production alone, but redistributions of the compensation particles helps to compensate the influence of the fluctuations. Above a second cut-off frequency given by the density and the temperature of the compensation particles their redistribution is too slow to reduce the influence of the space charge fluctuations. Transport simulations for the IFMIF injector including space charge fluctuations will be presented together with a determination of the cut-off frequencies. The results will be compared with measurements of the rise time of space charge compensation.
New results on the production of Xi and Omega hyperons in Pb+Pb interactions at 40 A GeV and Lambda at 30 A GeV are presented. Transverse mass spectra as well as rapidity spectra of these hyperons are shown and compared to previously measured data at different beam energies. The energy dependence of hyperon production (4Pi yields) is discussed. Additionally, the centrality dependence of Xi- production at 40 A GeV is presented.
First results on the production of Xi- and Anti-xi hyperons in Pb+Pb interactions at 40 A GeV are presented. The Anti-xi/Xi- ratio at midrapidity is studied as a function of collision centrality. The ratio shows no significant centrality dependence within statistical errors; it ranges from 0.07 to 0.15. The Anti-xi/Xi- ratio for central Pb+Pb collisions increases strongly with the collision energy.
High perveance negative ion beams with low emittance are essential for several next generation particle accelerators (i. g. spallation sources like ESS [1] and SNS [2]). The extraction and transport of these beams have intrinsic difficulties different from positive ion beams. Limitation of beam current and emittance growth have to be avoided. To fulfill the requirements of those projects a detailed knowledge of the physics of beam formation the interaction of the H- with the residual gas and transport is substantial. A compact cesium free H- volume source delivering a low energy high perveance beam (6.5 keV, 2.3 mA, perveance K= 0.0034) has been built to study the fundamental physics of beam transport and will be integrated into the existing LEBT section in the near future. First measurements of the interaction between the ion beam and the residual gas will be presented together with the experimental set up and preliminary results.
A LEBT system consisting of an ion source, two solenoids, and a diagnostic section has been set up to investigate the space charge compensation process due to residual gas ionization [1] and to study experimentally the rise of compensation. To gain the radial beam potential distribution time resolved measurements of the residual gas ion energy distribution were carried out using a Hughes Rojanski analyzer [2,3]. To measure the radial density profile of the ion beam a CCD-camera performed time resolved measurements, which allow an estimation the rise time of compensation. Further the dynamic effect of the space charge compensation on the beam transport was shown. A numerical simulation under assumption of selfconsistent states [4] of the beam plasma has been used to determine plasma parameters such as the radial density profile and the temperature of the electrons. The acquired data show that the theoretical estimated rise time of space charge compensation neglecting electron losses is shorter than the build up time determined experimentally. An interpretation of the achieved results is given.
To fulfil the requirements of ESS on beam transmission and emittance growth a detailed knowledge of the physics of beam formation as well as the interaction of the H- with the residual gas is substantial. Space charge compensated beam transport using solenoids for ion optics is in favour for the Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) between ion source and the first RFQ. Space charge compensation reduces the electrical self fields and beam radii and therefore emittance growth due to aberrations and redistribution. Transport of H- near the ion source is negatively influenced by the dipole fields required for beam extraction and e--dumping and the high gas pressure. The destruction of the rotational symmetry together with the space charge forces causes emittance growth and particle losses within the extraction system. High residual gas pressure near the extractor together with the high cross section for stripping will influence the transmission as well as space charge compensation. Therefore a detailed knowledge of the interaction of the residual gas with the beam and the influence of the external fields on the distribution of the compensation particles is necessary to reduce particle losses and emittance growth. Preliminary experiments using positive hydrogen ions for reference already show the influence of dipole fields on beam emittance. First measurements with H- confirm these results. Additional information on the interactions of the residual gas with the beam ions have been gained from the measurements using the momentum and energy analyser.
Vortrag gehalten an der Tagung "The XVI International Conference on Ultrarelativistic Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions, organized by SUBATECH Laboratory", in Nantes, France, 18-24 Juli 2002.
Rapidity distributions for Lambda and anti-Lambda hyperons in central Pb-Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 AGeV and for K 0 s mesons at 158 AGeV are presented. The lambda multiplicities are studied as a function of collision energy together with AGS and RHIC measurements and compared to model predictions. A different energy dependence of the Lambda/pi and anti-Lambda/pi is observed. The anti-Lambda/Lambda ratio shows a steep increase with collision energy. Evidence for a anti-Lambda/anti-p ratio greater than 1 is found at 40 AGeV.
The experiment NA49 at the CERN SPS is a large acceptance detector for charmed hadrons. The identification of neutral strange hadrons Lambda and AntiLambda is based on the measurement of their charged decay particles and the reconstruciton of the decay vertex. The charged particles were measured with the 4 time projection chambers (TPC), two of them are situated inside 2 large dipole magnets, the two others are downstream of the magnet. Lambda and AntiLambda baryons have been measured in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 160 GeV/nucleon over a wide range in rapidity (1 - 5) and transverse momentum (0 - 3 GeV/c). Particle yields and spectra will be shown for the different energies. The results will be put into the existing systematics of Lambda-production as a function of beam energy.
In this paper we present recent results from the NA49 experiment for Lambda and Lambda hyperons produced in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 A GeV. Transverse mass spectra and rapidity distributions for Lambda are shown for all three energies. The shape of the rapidity distribution becomes flatter with increasing beam energy. The multiplicities at mid-rapidity as well as the total yields are studied as a function of collision energy including AGS measurements. The ratio Lambda/pi at mid-rapidity and in 4 pi has a maximum around 40 A GeV. In addition, Lambda rapidity distributions have been measured at 40 and 80 A GeV, which allows to study the Lambda Lambda ratio.
Excitation functions for quasi-elastic scattering have been measured at backward angles for the systems 32,34S+197Au and 32,34S+208Pb for energies spanning the Coulomb barrier. Representative distributions, sensitive to the low energy part of the fusion barrier distribution, have been extracted from the data. For the fusion reactions of 32,34S with 197Au couplings related to the nuclear structure of 197Au appear to be dominant in shaping the low energy part of the barrier distibution. For the system 32S+208Pb the barrier distribution is broader and extends further to lower energies, than in the case of 34S+208Pb. This is consistent with the interpretation that the neutron pick-up channels are energetically more favoured in the 32S induced reaction and therefore couple more strongly to the relative motion. It may also be due to the increased collectivity of 32S, when compared with 34S.
A fundamental work on THz measurement techniques for application to steel manufacturing processes
(2004)
The terahertz (THz) waves had not been obtained except by a huge system, such as a free electron laser, until an invention of a photo-mixing technique at Bell laboratory in 1984 [1]. The first method using the Auston switch could generate up to 1 THz [2]. After then, as a result of some efforts for extending the frequency limit, a combination of antennas for the generation and the detection reached several THz [3, 4]. This technique has developed, so far, with taking a form of filling up the so-called THz gap . At the same time, a lot of researches have been trying to increase the output power as well [5-7]. In the 1990s, a big advantage in the frequency band was brought by non-linear optical methods [8-11]. The technique led to drastically expand the frequency region and recently to realize a measurement up to 41 THz [12]. On the other hand, some efforts have yielded new generation and detection methods from other approaches, a CW-THz as well as the pulse generation [13-19]. Especially, a THz luminescence and a laser, originated in a research on the Bloch oscillator, are recently generated from a quantum cascade structure, even at an only low temperature of 60 K [20-22]. This research attracts a lot of attention, because it would be a breakthrough for the THz technique to become widespread into industrial area as well as research, in a point of low costs and easier operations. It is naturally thought that a technology of short pulse lasers has helped the THz field to be developed. As a background of an appearance of a stable Ti:sapphire laser and a high power chirped pulse amplification (CPA) laser, instead of a dye laser, a lot of concentration on the techniques of a pulse compression and amplification have been done. [23] Viewed from an application side, the THz technique has come into the limelight as a promising measurement method. A discovery of absorption peaks of a protein and a DNA in the THz region is promoting to put the technique into practice in the field of medicine and pharmaceutical science from several years ago [24-27]. It is also known that some absorption of light polar-molecules exist in the region, therefore, some ideas of gas and water content monitoring in the chemical and the food industries are proposed [28-32]. Furthermore, a lot of reports, such as measurements of carrier distribution in semiconductors, refractive index of a thin film and an object shape as radar, indicate that this technique would have a wide range of application [33-37]. I believe that it is worth challenging to apply it into the steel-making industry, due to its unique advantages. The THz wavelength of 30-300 ¼m can cope with both independence of a surface roughness of steel products and a detection with a sub-millimeter precision, for a remote surface inspection. There is also a possibility that it can measure thickness or dielectric constants of relatively high conductive materials, because of a high permeability against non-polar dielectric materials, short pulse detection and with a high signal-to-noise ratio of 103-5. Furthermore, there is a possibility that it could be applicable to a measurement at high temperature, for less influence by a thermal radiation, compared with the visible and infrared light. These ideas have motivated me to start this THz work.
Das Ziel der Untersuchung von ultra-relativistischen Schwerionenkollisionen ist die Suche nach dem Quark Gluon Plasma (QGP), einem Zustand hochdichter stark wechselwirkender Materie in dem der Einschluss von Quarks und Gluonen in Hadronen aufgehoben ist. Die bisher gewonnenen experimentellen Hinweise deuten daraufhin,daß in Schwerionenkollisionen bei den derzeit höchsten zur Verfügung stehenden Energien von 158 GeV/Nukleon in Pb+Pb Reaktionen am CERN-SPS die Rahmenbedingungen für einen Phasenübergang von hadronischer Materie zu einer partonischen Phaseerfüllt sind. Die exakte Phasenstruktur stark wechselwirkender Materie hingegen ist derzeit noch nicht vollständig verstanden. Da inklusive hadronische Observablen und "penetrierende Proben" nicht direkt sensitiv auf die Existenz und Natur des Phasenübergangs sind, wurde die Analyse von Einzelereignis-"event-by-event"-Fluktuationenvorgeschlagen. Das Fluktuationsverhalten von Einzelereignis-Observablen sollte direkt sensitiv auf die Natur des zu beobachtenden Phasenübergangssein. In dieser Arbeit wurden Fluktuationen in der "chemischen" Zusammensetzung der Teilchenquelle untersucht und erste Ergebnisse werden präsentiert.
Cold target recoil ion momentum spectroscopy (COLTRIM) has been employed to image the momentum distributions of continuum electrons liberated in the impact of slow He2+ on He and H2. The distributions were measured for fully determined motion of the nuclei that is as a function of the impact parameter and in a well de ned scattering plane The single ionization (SI) of H2 leading to H2+ recoil ions in nondissociative states (He2+ + H+ -> He2+ + H+ + e-) and the transfer ionization (TI) of H2 leading to H2 dissociation into two free protons (He2+ H2 -> He+ + H+ + H+ + e-) were investigated. Similar measurements have been carried out for He target, the corresponding atomic two electron system, i.e. the single ionization (SI) (He2+ + He -> He+ + He2+ e- and the transfer ionization (TI) (He2+ + He -> He+ + He2+ + e-). These measurements have been exploited to understand the results obtained for H target. In comparing the continuum electron momentum distributions for H2 with that for He, a high degree of similarity is observed. In the case of transfer ionization of H2, the electron momentum distributions generated for parallel and perpendicular molecular orientations revealed no orientation dependence. The in scattering plane electron momentum distributions for the transfer ionization of H2 by He2+ and for the transfer ionization of He by He2e showed that the salient feature of these distributions for both collisions systems consists in the appearance of two groups of electrons with difeerent structures. In addition to the group of the saddle electrons forming two jets separated by a valley along the projectile axis we nd a new group of electrons moving with a velocity higher than the projectile velocity These new fast forward electrons result from a narrow range of impact parameters and appear as image saddle in the projectile frame. In contrast to the transfer ionization of He, the fast forward electrons group disappears in the in scattering plane electron momentum distribution generated for the single ionization of He. Instead of this group another new group of electrons appear These electrons exhibit an amount of backscattering These backward elec trons appear as image saddle in the target frame The structures that the saddle electrons show are owing to the quasi molecular nature of the collision process For the TI of H2, the TI of He and the SI of He, a pi-orbital shape of the electron momentum distribution is observed This indicates the importance of the rotational coupling 2-p-theta -> 2p-pi in the initial promotion of the ground state followed by further promotions to the continuum The backward electrons as well as the fast forward electrons are not discussed in the theoretical literature at all. However, a number of obvious indications of the existence of the backward and fast forward electrons could be seen in the experimental works of Abdallah et al. as well as in the theoretical calculations of Sidky et al One might speculate that electrons which are promoted on the saddle for some time during the collision could finally swing around the He+ ion in the way out of the collision, i.e. either around the projectile in the forward direction as in the TI case forming the fast forward electrons or around the recoil ion in the backward direction as in the SI case forming the backward electrons. This might be a result of the strong gradient, and hence the large acceleration of the screened He+ potential.
Compelling evidence for the creation of a new form of matter has been claimed to be found in Pb+Pb collisions at SPS. We discuss the uniqueness of often proposed experimental signatures for quark matter formation in relativistic heavy ion collisions. It is demonstrated that so far none of the proposed signals like J/psi meson production/suppression, strangeness enhancement, dileptons, and directed flow unambigiously show that a phase of deconfined matter has been formed in SPS Pb+Pb collisions. We emphasize the need for systematic future measurements to search for simultaneous irregularities in the excitation functions of several observables in order to come close to pinning the properties of hot, dense QCD matter from data.
We calculate the Gaussian radius parameters of the pion-emitting source in high energy heavy ion collisions, assuming a first order phase transition from a thermalized Quark-Gluon-Plasma (QGP) to a gas of hadrons. Such a model leads to a very long-lived dissipative hadronic rescattering phase which dominates the properties of the two-pion correlation functions. The radii are found to depend only weakly on the thermalization time tau i, the critical temperature T c (and thus the latent heat), and the specific entropy of the QGP. The dissipative hadronic stage enforces large variations of the pion emission times around the mean. Therefore, the model calculations suggest a rapid increase of R out/R side as a function of K T if a thermalized QGP were formed.
The equilibration of hot and dense nuclear matter produced in the central cell of central Au+Au collisions at RHIC (sqrt s = 200 A GeV) energies is studied within a microscopic transport model. The pressure in the cell becomes isotropic at t approx 5 fm/c after beginning of the collision. Within the next 15 fm/c the expansion of matter in the cell proceeds almost isentropically with the entropy per baryon ratio S/A approx 150, and the equation of state in the (P,epsilon) plane has a very simple form, P=0.15 epsilon. Comparison with the statistical model of an ideal hadron gas indicates that the time t approx 20 fm/c may be too short to reach the fully equilibrated state. Particularly, the creation of long-lived resonance-rich matter in the cell decelerates the relaxation to chemical equilibrium. This resonance-abundant state can be detected experimentally after the thermal freeze-out of particles.
The yields of strange particles are calculated with the UrQMD model for p,Pb(158 AGeV)Pb collisions and compared to experimental data. The yields are enhanced in central collisions if compared to proton induced or peripheral Pb+Pb collisions. The enhancement is due to secondary interactions. Nevertheless, only a reduction of the quark masses or equivalently an increase of the string tension provides an adequate description of the large observed enhancement factors (WA97 and NA49). Furthermore, the yields of unstable strange resonances as the Lambda star(1520) resonance or the phi meson are considerably affected by hadronic rescattering of the decay products.
The equilibration of hot and dense nuclear matter produced in the central region in central Au+Au collisions at square root s = 200A GeV is studied within the microscopic transport model UrQMD. The pressure here becomes isotropic at t approx 5 fm/c. Within the next 15 fm/c the expansion of the matter proceeds almost isentropically with the entropy per baryon ratio S/A approx 150. During this period the equation of state in the (P, epsilon)-plane has a very simple form, P = 0.15 epsilon. Comparison with the statistical model (SM) of an ideal hadron gas reveals that the time of approx 20 fm/c may be too short to attain the fully equilibrated state. Particularly, the fractions of resonances are overpopulated in contrast to the SM values. The creation of such a long-lived resonance-rich state slows down the relaxation to chemical equilibrium and can be detected experimentally.
Enhanced antiproton production in Pb(160 AGeV)+Pb reactions: evidence for quark gluon matter?
(2000)
The centrality dependence of the antiproton per participant ratio is studied in Pb(160 AGeV)+Pb reactions. Antiproton production in collisions of heavy nuclei at the CERN/SPS seems considerably enhanced as compared to conventional hadronic physics, given by the antiproton production rates in pp and antiproton annihilation in p p reactions. This enhancement is consistent with the observation of strong in-medium effects in other hadronic observables and may be an indication of partial restoration of chiral symmetry.
The relaxation of hot nuclear matter to an equilibrated state in the central zone of heavy-ion collisions at energies from AGS to RHIC is studied within the microscopic UrQMD model. It is found that the system reaches the (quasi)equilibrium stage for the period of 10-15 fm/c. Within this time the matter in the cell expands nearly isentropically with the entropy to baryon ratio S/A = 150 - 170. Thermodynamic characteristics of the system at AGS and at SPS energies at the endpoints of this stage are very close to the parameters of chemical and thermal freeze-out extracted from the thermal fit to experimental data. Predictions are made for the full RHIC energy square root s = 200$ AGeV. The formation of a resonance-rich state at RHIC energies is discussed.
The behavior of hadronic matter at high baryon densities is studied within Ultrarelativistic Quantum Molecular Dynamics (URQMD). Baryonic stopping is observed for Au+Au collisions from SIS up to SPS energies. The excitation function of flow shows strong sensitivities to the underlying equation of state (EOS), allowing for systematic studies of the EOS. Effects of a density dependent pole of the rho-meson propagator on dilepton spectra are studied for different systems and centralities at CERN energies.
Dilepton spectra are calculated within the microscopic transport model UrQMD and compared to data from the CERES experiment. The invariant mass spectra in the region between 300 MeV and 600 MeV depend strongly on the mass dependence of the rho meson decay width which is not sufficiently determined by the Vector Meson Dominance model. A consistent explanation of both the recent Pb+Au data and the proton induced data can be given without additional medium effects.
The hypothesis of local equilibrium (LE) in relativistic heavy ion collisions at energies from AGS to RHIC is checked in the microscopic transport model. We find that kinetic, thermal, and chemical equilibration of the expanding hadronic matter is nearly reached in central collisions at AGS energy for t >_ fm/c in a central cell. At these times the equation of state may be approximated by a simple dependence P ~= (0.12-0.15) epsilon. Increasing deviations of the yields and the energy spectra of hadrons from statistical model values are observed for increasing bombarding energies. The origin of these deviations is traced to the irreversible multiparticle decays of strings and many-body (N >_ 3) decays of resonances. The violations of LE indicate that the matter in the cell reaches a steady state instead of idealized equilibrium. The entropy density in the cell is only about 6% smaller than that of the equilibrium state.