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Chronic hepatitis C is a major reason for development of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma and a leading cause for liver transplantation. The development of direct-acting antiviral agents lead to (pegylated) interferon-alfa free antiviral therapy regimens with a remarkable increase in sustained virologic response (SVR) rates and opened therapeutic options for patients with advanced cirrhosis and liver graft recipients. This concise review gives an overview about most current prospective trials and cohort analyses for treatment of patients with liver cirrhosis and liver graft recipients. In patients with compensated cirrhosis Child-Pugh-Turcotte (CTP) class A, all approved agents are safe and SVR rates do not significantly differ from patients without cirrhosis in general. In patients with decompensated cirrhosis CTP class B or C, daclastasvir, ledipasvir, velpatasvir, and sofosbuvir are approved, and SVR rates higher than 90% can be achieved. Especially for patients with a model of end stage liver disease score higher than 15 and therefore eligible for liver transplantation, data is scarce. Reported SVR rates in patients with cirrhosis CTP class C are lower compared to patients with a less severe liver disease. In liver transplant recipients with a maximum of CTP class A, SVR rates are comparable to patients without LT. Patients with decompensated graft cirrhosis should be treated on an individual basis.
Global investment in biomedical research has grown significantly over the last decades, reaching approximately a quarter of a trillion US dollars in 2010. However, not all of this investment is distributed evenly by gender. It follows, arguably, that scarce research resources may not be optimally invested (by either not supporting the best science or by failing to investigate topics that benefit women and men equitably). Women across the world tend to be significantly underrepresented in research both as researchers and research participants, receive less research funding, and appear less frequently than men as authors on research publications. There is also some evidence that women are relatively disadvantaged as the beneficiaries of research, in terms of its health, societal and economic impacts. Historical gender biases may have created a path dependency that means that the research system and the impacts of research are biased towards male researchers and male beneficiaries, making it inherently difficult (though not impossible) to eliminate gender bias. In this commentary, we – a group of scholars and practitioners from Africa, America, Asia and Europe – argue that gender-sensitive research impact assessment could become a force for good in moving science policy and practice towards gender equity. Research impact assessment is the multidisciplinary field of scientific inquiry that examines the research process to maximise scientific, societal and economic returns on investment in research. It encompasses many theoretical and methodological approaches that can be used to investigate gender bias and recommend actions for change to maximise research impact. We offer a set of recommendations to research funders, research institutions and research evaluators who conduct impact assessment on how to include and strengthen analysis of gender equity in research impact assessment and issue a global call for action.
La littérature comparée est aujourd’hui solidement implantée dans les cursus universitaires français. Elle a engagé depuis le tournant des années 2000 une série de bilans et de réflexions sur son histoire, conditions d’un renouvellement pour affronter les nouveaux défis contemporains, notamment celui du numérique et de la mondialisation. On peut difficilement, de fait, comprendre sa place dans l’enseignement et la recherche français sans rappeler, même très brièvement, l’histoire de sa constitution en pratique de la critique et en discipline universitaire, et sans tenir compte des cadres institutionnels au sein desquels elle s’exerce. Cette présentation commencera donc par là, avant d’esquisser un état des lieux et des perspectives pour l’avenir.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic disease characterized by progressive tissue damage. In recent decades, novel treatments have greatly extended the life span of SLE patients. This creates a high demand for identifying the overarching symptoms associated with SLE and developing therapies that improve their life quality under chronic care. We hypothesized that SLE patients would present dysphonic symptoms. Given that voice disorders can reduce life quality, identifying a potential SLE-related dysphonia could be relevant for the appraisal and management of this disease. We measured objective vocal parameters and perceived vocal quality with the GRBAS (Grade, Roughness, Breathiness, Asthenia, Strain) scale in SLE patients and compared them to matched healthy controls. SLE patients also filled a questionnaire reporting perceived vocal deficits. SLE patients had significantly lower vocal intensity and harmonics to noise ratio, as well as increased jitter and shimmer. All subjective parameters of the GRBAS scale were significantly abnormal in SLE patients. Additionally, the vast majority of SLE patients (29/36) reported at least one perceived vocal deficit, with the most prevalent deficits being vocal fatigue (19/36) and hoarseness (17/36). Self-reported voice deficits were highly correlated with altered GRBAS scores. Additionally, tissue damage scores in different organ systems correlated with dysphonic symptoms, suggesting that some features of SLE-related dysphonia are due to tissue damage. Our results show that a large fraction of SLE patients suffers from perceivable dysphonia and may benefit from voice therapy in order to improve quality of life.
Quantification of spatially and temporally resolved water flows and water storage variations for all land areas of the globe is required to assess water resources, water scarcity and flood hazards, and to understand the Earth system. This quantification is done with the help of global hydrological models (GHMs). What are the challenges and prospects in the development and application of GHMs? Seven important challenges are presented. (1) Data scarcity makes quantification of human water use difficult even though significant progress has been achieved in the last decade. (2) Uncertainty of meteorological input data strongly affects model outputs. (3) The reaction of vegetation to changing climate and CO2 concentrations is uncertain and not taken into account in most GHMs that serve to estimate climate change impacts. (4) Reasons for discrepant responses of GHMs to changing climate have yet to be identified. (5) More accurate estimates of monthly time series of water availability and use are needed to provide good indicators of water scarcity. (6) Integration of gradient-based groundwater modelling into GHMs is necessary for a better simulation of groundwater–surface water interactions and capillary rise. (7) Detection and attribution of human interference with freshwater systems by using GHMs are constrained by data of insufficient quality but also GHM uncertainty itself. Regarding prospects for progress, we propose to decrease the uncertainty of GHM output by making better use of in situ and remotely sensed observations of output variables such as river discharge or total water storage variations by multi-criteria validation, calibration or data assimilation. Finally, we present an initiative that works towards the vision of hyperresolution global hydrological modelling where GHM outputs would be provided at a 1-km resolution with reasonable accuracy.
Am 10. Mai 2014 starb, im hohen Alter von 99 Jahren, Elisabeth Frenzel, geborene Lüttig-Niese, in ihrem letzten Wohnort in Berlin. Zu ihrer Beerdigung erschienen, wie ein lesenswerter Nachruf von David Ensikat im Berliner 'Tagesspiegel' berichtet, 15 Menschen. Die Pastorin stellte die Trauerfeier unter das Thema des schwierigen Erbes, der Schuld und den Möglichkeiten der Vergebung. Das war vielleicht nicht im Sinne der Verstorbenen, aber im Sinne der Lebensgeschichte der Verstorbenen sicherlich ein sehr guter Ansatz, um sich von Elisabeth Frenzel zu verabschieden.
Nachruf auf Eberhard Lämmert
(2015)
Den Erzähler Thomas Mann nannte der Germanist Eberhard Lämmert 'buchtenreich'. Auch sein eigenes OEuvre verdient indes diese Qualifikation: Es ist - natürlich - eines aus zahllosen literaturwissenschaftlichen Büchern, Aufsätzen, Vorworten, Nachbemerkungen, aus offiziellen Reden, öffentlichen Statements, Aufrufen, Gutachten und und und, die Themen sind vielfältig, die Beziehungen zwischen ihnen komplex.
The world in a 'Zeitschrift'
(2015)
The relaunching of the Jahrbuch 'Komparatistik' in 2015 takes place at a time of ferment in comparative literary studies, as a discipline long focused primarily on Western Europe seeks to reconsider its position in a global landscape, and in the process to rethink the contours of European literature itself. Here I would like to discuss one new manifestation of this rethinking: the founding of the 'Journal of World Literature', which will be debuting in 2016. Published in Amsterdam by Brill, with its managing editors located in Leuven and in Göttingen, the 'JWL' represents a European initiative in comparative and world literary studies, and the journal has a global presence as well. It is overseen by an international board of editors (myself among them), and it has an association with the Institute for World Literature, a Harvard-based program supported by five dozen institutions around the world, which will be responsible for one of its quarterly issues each year. Global in outlook and outreach, the 'JWL' can equally be thought of as carrying on an originally German project: to embody the potentially vast field of comparative and world literature within the pages available in a scholarly journal. To this end, very different approaches were tried in the last quarter of the nineteenth century by two foundational journals: the 'Acta Comparationis Litterarum Universarum', published in Cluj from 1877-88 by the Transylvanian scholars Hugo Meltzl and Sámuel Brassai, and the 'Zeitschrift für vergleichende Litteraturgeschichte', founded in 1886, published in Berlin under the editorship of Max Koch. Probably the very first journals in the field – the French 'Revue de littérature comparée', for example, dates only from 1921 – these pioneering journals divided up the literary territory in very different ways. Meltzl and Brassai’s 'Acta' reflected an idealistic globalism grounded in a radical multilingualism, whereas Koch opted for a more pragmatic but markedly nationalistic conception of the field. The new 'Journal of World Literature' will need to draw on the strengths of each approach even as its editors seek to avoid the pitfalls of both.
The venture capital industry holds relevance for entrepreneurs looking for money to finance an innovative project, investors seeking to make money by investing in entrepreneurial firms and governments trying to promote innovation and entrepreneurship. Venture capital investment could facilitate innovation and thus a better economy.
Venture capital has enabled the U.S. to support its entrepreneurial talent by turning ideas into world-famous products and services, building companies from mere business plans to mature and powerful organizations. Three of the five largest U.S. public companies by market capitalization – Apple, Google and Microsoft – received most of their early external funding from venture capital. Having its ups and downs, venture capital investment in the U.S. expanded from virtually zero in the mid-1970s to $8 billion in 1995 and $49.3 billion in 2014. Venture backed companies have been a prime driver of economic growth in the U.S.Across the pacific, venture capital investment in China has grown out of the transition from a centrally planned economy to a free market economy over the past three decades, becoming an important pillar supporting China’s innovation system. In 2015, a total of 2,824 venture capital investment deals provided an aggregate investment of $36.9 billion. Venture capital has long been a hot topic in China’s capital market, particularly since the government decided to boost “mass entrepreneurship and innovation” in 2014.
In the U.S., most venture capital firms are organized as limited partnerships, with the venture capitalists being general partners and the investors limited partners. Studies have shown that investors choose to invest through venture funds as an intermediary rather than placing their investments directly with the entrepreneurs; because of the high risk nature of the entrepreneur’s business, it is hard for them to get bank loans or direct equity investments. Conflicts may also arise, however, between the venture capitalists acting as agents and the investors as principals.5 This agency problem maybe particularly severe, since venture capital provides money for businesses with high potential and high risk, although the limited partnership has certain merits and is still most commonly chosen as the business form for venture capital funds.6 At the same time, the fact that general partners have total control of the partnership business necessitates that the agency problem is addressed by legal rules, contracts and other mechanisms.
Meanwhile, despite the rapid growth of venture capital investments in China, little attention has been paid to the organizational form of venture capital funds. In contrast to the U.S., most Chinese venture funds have been structured as corporations. One may argue that it was due to legislative reasons: that the limited partnership was not recognized by Chinese law when venture capital first appeared in China. However, after adopted a chapter was adopted in the Partnership Enterprise Law (PEL) governing limited partnerships in 2007, most of the venture funds abided by their choice, while those opting for the limited partnership have encountered difficulties: the limited partners are having trouble trusting the general partners with their money and are therefore interfering with the operation of the partnership business, which may lead to dissolution of the partnership.
This thesis applies transaction cost theory to explain the benefits and costs of choosing the limited partnership as a business form in the special context of venture capital investments, showing that the potential agency conflict between the general partners and the limited partners have been mitigated by legal and other mechanismsin the United States, and that the U.S. investors could therefore exploit the merit of the limited partnership form in venture capital financing. In China, investors have different answers to the agency problem. Similarly to the situation in the U.S., Chinese partners also employ contract terms to deal with agency problems, and the legislators enact laws that aim at regulating the limited partnership form; some legislation was even transplanted from the U.S., such as that part of the PEL which governs limited partnerships. It seems, then, that similar mechanisms that deal with agency problems also exist in China. However, given the unique history of the development of China’s innovation system and venture capital market, the effectiveness of these constraints is questionable. Chinese venture capital investors have therefore characteristically behaved differently to U.S. investors. Rather than relying on these questionable mechanisms, Chinese investors as well as the Chinese government have developed different approaches to addressing these agency problems.
During the 1970s, industrial countries, including the US and continental Europa, experienced a combination of slow productivity growth and high unemplyoment. Subsequent research has shown that the standard model of unemployment actually gives counterfactual predictions. Motivated by the observation that the 1970s were also characterized by high and rising inflation, Tesfaselassie and Wolters examine the effect of growth on unemployment in the presence of nominal price rigidity.
The authors demonstrate that the effect of growth on unemployment may be positive or negative. Faster growth leads to lower unemployment if the rate of inflation is high enough. There is a threshold level of inflation below which faster growth leads to higher unemployment and above which faster growth leads to lower unemployment. The threshold level in turn depends on labor market characteristics, such as hiring efficiency, the job destruction rate, workers' relative bargaining power and the opportunity cost of work.
To broaden the scope of monetary policy, cash abolishment is often suggested as a means of breaking through the zero lower bound. However, practically nothing is said about the welfare costs of such a proposal. Rösl, Seitz and Tödter argue that the welfare costs of bypassing the zero lower bound can be analyzed analytically and empirically by assuming negative interest rates on cash holdings. They gauge the welfare effects of abolishing cash, both, for the euro area and for Germany.
Their findings suggest that the welfare losses of negative interest rates incurred by money holders are large, notably if implemented in the current low interest rate environment. Imposing a negative interest rate of 3 percentage points on cash holdings and reducing the interest on all assets included in M3 creates a deadweight loss of € 62bn for the euro area and of €18bn for Germany. Therefore, the authors argue that cash abolishment or negative interest rates on cash to break through the zero lower bound at any price can hardly be a meaningful policy goal.
The currrent debate on monetary and fiscal policy is heavily influenced by estimates of the equilibrium real interest rate. Beyer and Wieland re-estimate the U.S. equilibrium rate with the methodology of Laubach and Williams and further modifications. They provide new estimates for the United States, the euro area and Germany and subject them to sensitivity tests. Beyer and Wieland conclude that due to the great uncertainty and sensitivity, the observed decline in the estimates is not a reliable indicator of a need for expansionary monetary and fiscal policy. Yet, if those estimates are employed to determine the appropriate monetary policy stance, such estimates are better used together with the consistent estimate of the level of potential output.
I propose a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model in which the leverage of borrowers as well as banks and housing finance play a crucial role in the model dynamics. The model is used to evaluate the relative effectiveness of a policy to inject capital into banks versus a policy to relieve households of mortgage debt. In normal times, when the economy is near the steady state and policy rates are set according to a Taylor-type rule, capital injections to banks are more effective in stimulating the economy in the long-run. However, in the middle of a housing debt crisis, when households are highly leveraged, the short-run output effects of the debt relief are more substantial. When the zero lower bound (ZLB) is additionally considered, the debt relief policy can be much more powerful in boosting the economy both in the short-run and in the longrun. Moreover, the output effects of the debt relief become increasingly larger, the longer the ZLB is binding.
We use the Italian Survey of Household Income and Wealth, a rather unique dataset with a long time dimension of panel information on consumption, income and wealth, to structurally estimate a buffer-stock saving model. We exploit the information contained in the joint dynamics of income, consumption and wealth to quantify the degree of insurance against income risk. The estimated model implies that Italian households can insure between 89 and 95 percent of a transitory and between 7 and 9 percent of a permanent income shock. Compared to existing empirical estimates for the same dataset, our findings suggest that Italian households do not have access to significant insurance beyond self-insurance.
Immunopathogenic mechanisms of autoimmune Hepatitis : how much do we know from animal models?
(2016)
Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is characterized by a progressive destruction of the liver parenchyma and a chronic fibrosis. The current treatment of autoimmune hepatitis is still largely dependent on the administration of corticosteroids and cytostatic drugs. For a long time the development of novel therapeutic strategies has been hampered by a lack of understanding the basic immunopathogenic mechanisms of AIH and the absence of valid animal models. However, in the past decade, knowledge from clinical observations in AIH patients and the development of innovative animal models have led to a situation where critical factors driving the disease have been identified and alternative treatments are being evaluated. Here we will review the insight on the immunopathogenesis of AIH as gained from clinical observation and from animal models.
Das Internet ist allgegenwärtig - so allgegenwärtig, dass es inzwischen in gewissen Kreisen en vogue ist, sich ab und an komplett vom Internet abzukapseln. Passend zur vorösterlichen Zeit könnte man von Internetfasten sprechen. Aber was passiert, wenn das Internet einfach komplett abgestellt wird, für alle? Was für uns primär eine akademische Fragestellung ist, ist in Kamerun, Indien, Pakistan und vielen anderen Ländern Realität. Diese Beispiele verdeutlichen nicht nur wie Internetabschaltung ein Instrument sozialer und politischer Kontrolle sind, sie zeigen auch ihre dramatischen Auswirkungen. Das Thema sollte uns auch hier interessieren...
Curcumin, the active constituent of Curcuma longa L. (family Zingiberaceae), has gained increasing interest because of its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-rheumatic properties associated with good tolerability and safety up to very high doses of 12 g. Nanoscaled micellar formulations on the base of Tween 80 represent a promising strategy to overcome its low oral bioavailability. We therefore aimed to investigate the uptake and transepithelial transport of native curcumin (CUR) vs. a nanoscaled micellar formulation (Sol-CUR) in a Caco-2 cell model. Sol-CUR afforded a higher flux than CUR (39.23 vs. 4.98 μg min−1 cm−2, respectively). This resulted in a higher Papp value of 2.11 × 10−6 cm/s for Sol-CUR compared to a Papp value of 0.56 × 10−6 cm/s for CUR. Accordingly a nearly 9.5 fold higher amount of curcumin was detected on the basolateral side at the end of the transport experiments after 180 min with Sol-CUR compared to CUR. The determined 3.8-fold improvement in the permeability of curcumin is in agreement with an up to 185-fold increase in the AUC of curcumin observed in humans following the oral administration of the nanoscaled micellar formulation compared to native curcumin. The present study demonstrates that the enhanced oral bioavailability of micellar curcumin formulations is likely a result of enhanced absorption into and increased transport through small intestinal epithelial cells.
50 years of amino acid hydrophobicity scales : revisiting the capacity for peptide classification
(2016)
Background: Physicochemical properties are frequently analyzed to characterize protein-sequences of known and unknown function. Especially the hydrophobicity of amino acids is often used for structural prediction or for the detection of membrane associated or embedded β-sheets and α-helices. For this purpose many scales classifying amino acids according to their physicochemical properties have been defined over the past decades. In parallel, several hydrophobicity parameters have been defined for calculation of peptide properties. We analyzed the performance of separating sequence pools using 98 hydrophobicity scales and five different hydrophobicity parameters, namely the overall hydrophobicity, the hydrophobic moment for detection of the α-helical and β-sheet membrane segments, the alternating hydrophobicity and the exact ß-strand score.
Results: Most of the scales are capable of discriminating between transmembrane α-helices and transmembrane β-sheets, but assignment of peptides to pools of soluble peptides of different secondary structures is not achieved at the same quality. The separation capacity as measure of the discrimination between different structural elements is best by using the five different hydrophobicity parameters, but addition of the alternating hydrophobicity does not provide a large benefit. An in silico evolutionary approach shows that scales have limitation in separation capacity with a maximal threshold of 0.6 in general. We observed that scales derived from the evolutionary approach performed best in separating the different peptide pools when values for arginine and tyrosine were largely distinct from the value of glutamate. Finally, the separation of secondary structure pools via hydrophobicity can be supported by specific detectable patterns of four amino acids.
Conclusion: It could be assumed that the quality of separation capacity of a certain scale depends on the spacing of the hydrophobicity value of certain amino acids. Irrespective of the wealth of hydrophobicity scales a scale separating all different kinds of secondary structures or between soluble and transmembrane peptides does not exist reflecting that properties other than hydrophobicity affect secondary structure formation as well. Nevertheless, application of hydrophobicity scales allows distinguishing between peptides with transmembrane α-helices and β-sheets. Furthermore, the overall separation capacity score of 0.6 using different hydrophobicity parameters could be assisted by pattern search on the protein sequence level for specific peptides with a length of four amino acids.
Bears are iconic mammals with a complex evolutionary history. Natural bear hybrids and studies of few nuclear genes indicate that gene flow among bears may be more common than expected and not limited to polar and brown bears. Here we present a genome analysis of the bear family with representatives of all living species. Phylogenomic analyses of 869 mega base pairs divided into 18,621 genome fragments yielded a well-resolved coalescent species tree despite signals for extensive gene flow across species. However, genome analyses using different statistical methods show that gene flow is not limited to closely related species pairs. Strong ancestral gene flow between the Asiatic black bear and the ancestor to polar, brown and American black bear explains uncertainties in reconstructing the bear phylogeny. Gene flow across the bear clade may be mediated by intermediate species such as the geographically wide-spread brown bears leading to large amounts of phylogenetic conflict. Genome-scale analyses lead to a more complete understanding of complex evolutionary processes. Evidence for extensive inter-specific gene flow, found also in other animal species, necessitates shifting the attention from speciation processes achieving genome-wide reproductive isolation to the selective processes that maintain species divergence in the face of gene flow.
The role of endogenous melatonin for the control of the circadian system under entrained conditions and for the determination of the chronotype is still poorly understood. Mice with deletions in the melatoninergic system (melatonin deficiency or the lack of melatonin receptors, respectively) do not display any obvious defects in either their spontaneous (circadian) or entrained (diurnal) rhythmic behavior. However, there are effects that can be detected by analyzing the periodicity of the locomotor behaviors in some detail. We found that melatonin-deficient mice (C57Bl), as well as melatonin-proficient C3H mice that lack the melatonin receptors (MT) 1 and 2 (C3H MT1,2 KO), reproduce their diurnal locomotor rhythms with significantly less accuracy than mice with an intact melatoninergic system. However, their respective chronotypes remained unaltered. These results show that one function of the endogenous melatoninergic system might be to stabilize internal rhythms under conditions of a steady entrainment, while it has no effects on the chronotype.
In its soluble form, the extracellular matrix proteoglycan biglycan triggers the synthesis of the macrophage chemoattractants, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand CCL2 and CCL5 through selective utilization of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their adaptor molecules. However, the respective downstream signaling events resulting in biglycan-induced CCL2 and CCL5 production have not yet been defined. Here, we show that biglycan stimulates the production and activation of sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1) in a TLR4- and Toll/interleukin (IL)-1R domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon (IFN)-β (TRIF)-dependent manner in murine primary macrophages. We provide genetic and pharmacological proof that SphK1 is a crucial downstream mediator of biglycan-triggered CCL2 and CCL5 mRNA and protein expression. This is selectively driven by biglycan/SphK1-dependent phosphorylation of the nuclear factor NF-κB p65 subunit, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk)1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases. Importantly, in vivo overexpression of soluble biglycan causes Sphk1-dependent enhancement of renal CCL2 and CCL5 and macrophage recruitment into the kidney. Our findings describe the crosstalk between biglycan- and SphK1-driven extracellular matrix- and lipid-signaling. Thus, SphK1 may represent a new target for therapeutic intervention in biglycan-evoked inflammatory conditions.
Background: In oldest-old patients (>80), few trials showed efficacy of treating hypertension and they included mostly the healthiest elderly. The resulting lack of knowledge has led to inconsistent guidelines, mainly based on systolic blood pressure (SBP), cardiovascular disease (CVD) but not on frailty despite the high prevalence in oldest-old. This may lead to variation how General Practitioners (GPs) treat hypertension. Our aim was to investigate treatment variation of GPs in oldest-olds across countries and to identify the role of frailty in that decision.
Methods: Using a survey, we compared treatment decisions in cases of oldest-old varying in SBP, CVD, and frailty. GPs were asked if they would start antihypertensive treatment in each case. In 2016, we invited GPs in Europe, Brazil, Israel, and New Zealand. We compared the percentage of cases that would be treated per countries. A logistic mixed-effects model was used to derive odds ratio (OR) for frailty with 95% confidence intervals (CI), adjusted for SBP, CVD, and GP characteristics (sex, location and prevalence of oldest-old per GP office, and years of experience). The mixed-effects model was used to account for the multiple assessments per GP.
Results: The 29 countries yielded 2543 participating GPs: 52% were female, 51% located in a city, 71% reported a high prevalence of oldest-old in their offices, 38% and had >20 years of experience. Across countries, considerable variation was found in the decision to start antihypertensive treatment in the oldest-old ranging from 34 to 88%. In 24/29 (83%) countries, frailty was associated with GPs’ decision not to start treatment even after adjustment for SBP, CVD, and GP characteristics (OR 0.53, 95%CI 0.48–0.59; ORs per country 0.11–1.78).
Conclusions: Across countries, we found considerable variation in starting antihypertensive medication in oldest-old. The frail oldest-old had an odds ratio of 0.53 of receiving antihypertensive treatment. Future hypertension trials should also include frail patients to acquire evidence on the efficacy of antihypertensive treatment in oldest-old patients with frailty, with the aim to get evidence-based data for clinical decision-making.
Drug induced liver injury (DILI) is a potentially serious adverse reaction in a few susceptible individuals under therapy by various drugs. Health care professionals facing DILI are confronted with a wealth of drug-unrelated liver diseases with high incidence and prevalence rates, which can confound the DILI diagnosis. Searching for alternative causes is a key element of RUCAM (Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method) to assess rigorously causality in suspected DILI cases. Diagnostic biomarkers as blood tests would be a great help to clinicians, regulators, and pharmaceutical industry would be more comfortable if, in addition to RUCAM, causality of DILI can be confirmed. High specificity and sensitivity are required for any diagnostic biomarker. Although some risk factors are available to evaluate liver safety of drugs in patients, no valid diagnostic or prognostic biomarker exists currently for idiosyncratic DILI when a liver injury occurred. Identifying a biomarker in idiosyncratic DILI requires detailed knowledge of cellular and biochemical disturbances leading to apoptosis or cell necrosis and causing leakage of specific products in blood. As idiosyncratic DILI is typically a human disease and hardly reproducible in animals, pathogenetic events and resulting possible biomarkers remain largely undisclosed. Potential new diagnostic biomarkers should be evaluated in patients with DILI and RUCAM-based established causality. In conclusion, causality assessment in cases of suspected idiosyncratic DILI is still best achieved using RUCAM since specific biomarkers as diagnostic blood tests that could enhance RUCAM results are not yet available.
Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is a lethal cancer with poor prognosis associated with high invasiveness and poor response to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. New therapeutic approaches are urgently needed in order to improve survival and response rates of GBC patients. We screened 130 small molecule inhibitors on a panel of seven GBC cell lines and identified the HSP90 inhibitor 17-AAG as one of the most potent inhibitory drugs across the different lines. We tested the antitumor efficacy of 17-AAG and geldanamycin (GA) in vitro and in a subcutaneous preclinical tumor model NOD-SCID mice. We also evaluated the expression of HSP90 by immunohistochemistry in human GBC tumors.
In vitro assays showed that 17-AAG and GA significantly reduced the expression of HSP90 target proteins, including EGFR, AKT, phospho-AKT, Cyclin B1, phospho-ERK and Cyclin D1. These molecular changes were consistent with reduced cell viability and cell migration and promotion of G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis observed in our in vitro studies.
In vivo, 17-AAG showed efficacy in reducing subcutaneous tumors size, exhibiting a 69.6% reduction in tumor size in the treatment group compared to control mice (p < 0.05).
The HSP90 immunohistochemical staining was seen in 182/209 cases of GBC (87%) and it was strongly expressed in 70 cases (33%), moderately in 58 cases (28%), and weakly in 54 cases (26%).
Our pre-clinical observations strongly suggest that the inhibition of HSP90 function by HSP90 inhibitors is a promising therapeutic strategy for gallbladder cancer that may benefit from new HSP90 inhibitors currently in development.
The detailed biophysical mechanisms through which transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) activates cortical circuits are still not fully understood. Here we present a multi-scale computational model to describe and explain the activation of different pyramidal cell types in motor cortex due to TMS. Our model determines precise electric fields based on an individual head model derived from magnetic resonance imaging and calculates how these electric fields activate morphologically detailed models of different neuron types. We predict neural activation patterns for different coil orientations consistent with experimental findings. Beyond this, our model allows us to calculate activation thresholds for individual neurons and precise initiation sites of individual action potentials on the neurons’ complex morphologies. Specifically, our model predicts that cortical layer 3 pyramidal neurons are generally easier to stimulate than layer 5 pyramidal neurons, thereby explaining the lower stimulation thresholds observed for I-waves compared to D-waves. It also shows differences in the regions of activated cortical layer 5 and layer 3 pyramidal cells depending on coil orientation. Finally, it predicts that under standard stimulation conditions, action potentials are mostly generated at the axon initial segment of cortical pyramidal cells, with a much less important activation site being the part of a layer 5 pyramidal cell axon where it crosses the boundary between grey matter and white matter. In conclusion, our computational model offers a detailed account of the mechanisms through which TMS activates different cortical pyramidal cell types, paving the way for more targeted application of TMS based on individual brain morphology in clinical and basic research settings.
R-flurbiprofen is the non-COX-inhibiting enantiomer of flurbiprofen and is not converted to S-flurbiprofen in human cells. Nevertheless, it reduces extracellular prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in cancer or immune cell cultures and human extracellular fluid. Here, we show that R-flurbiprofen acts through a dual mechanism: (i) it inhibits the translocation of cPLA2α to the plasma membrane and thereby curtails the availability of arachidonic acid and (ii) R-flurbiprofen traps PGE2 inside of the cells by inhibiting multidrug resistance–associated protein 4 (MRP4, ABCC4), which acts as an outward transporter for prostaglandins. Consequently, the effects of R-flurbiprofen were mimicked by RNAi-mediated knockdown of MRP4. Our data show a novel mechanism by which R-flurbiprofen reduces extracellular PGs at physiological concentrations, particularly in cancers with high levels of MRP4, but the mechanism may also contribute to its anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties and suggests that it reduces PGs in a site- and context-dependent manner.
Purpose: Current systemic treatment of targeted therapies, namely the vascular endothelial growth factor-antibody (VEGF-AB), VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors, have improved progression-free survival and replaced non-specific immunotherapy with cytokines in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC).
Methods: A panel of experts convened to review currently available phase 3 data for mRCC treatment of approved agents, in addition to available EAU guideline data for a collaborative review as the plurality of substances offers different options of first-, second- and third-line treatment with potential sequencing.
Results: Sunitinib and pazopanib are approved treatments in first-line therapy for patients with favorable- or intermediate-risk clear cell RCC (ccRCC). Temsirolimus has proven benefit over interferon-alfa (IFN-α) in patients with non-clear cell RCC (non-ccRCC). In the second-line treatment TKIs or mTOR inhibitors are treatment choices. Therapy options after TKI failure consist of everolimus and axitinib. Available third-line options consist of everolimus and sorafenib. Recently, nivolumab, a programmed death-1 (PD1) checkpoint inhibitor, improved overall survival benefit compared to everolimus after failure of one or two VEGFR-targeted therapies, which is likely to become the first established checkpoint inhibitor in mRCC. Data for the sequencing of agents remain limited.
Conclusions: Despite the high level of evidence for first and second-line treatment in mRCC, data for third-line therapy are limited. Possible sequences include TKI-mTOR-TKI or TKI–TKI-mTOR with the upcoming checkpoint inhibitors in perspective, which might settle a new standard of care after previous TKI therapy.
In this thesis we study strongly correlated electron systems within the Density Functional Theory (DFT) in combination with the Dynamical Mean-Field Theory (DMFT).
First, we give an introduction into the theoretical methods and then apply them to study realistic materials. We present results on the hole-doped 122-family of the iron-based superconductors and the transition-metal oxide SrVO3. Our investigations show that a proper treatment of strong electronic correlations is necessary to describe the experimental observations.
The humanized non-depleting anti-CD4 monoclonal antibody Tregalizumab (BT-061) is able to selectively activate the suppressive function of regulatory T cells and has been investigated up to phase 2b in clinical trials in patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis (RA).
A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model, which is based on clinical data from RA and healthy subjects, used the cell surface CD4-down-modulation as marker of the antibodies' activity. This model surprisingly revealed a stronger effect of Tregalizumab in healthy subjects compared to RA patients. This thesis presents a series of experiments performed to understand this phenomenon.
To counteract oxidative stress, which is strongly associated with RA pathophysiology, the organism employs the small oxidoreductase thioredoxin-1 (Trx1). Therefore, augmented expression and secretion of Trx1 was seen in many studies the synovial fluid and plasma of RA patients. Moreover, the binding site of Tregalizumab is in close proximity to a disulfide bond in domain 2 (D2) of CD4, which is a known target for a reduction by Trx1. So, this thesis also evaluated the influence of Trx1 on binding of Tregalizumab to its target CD4.
With the experiments reported herein, it was possible to demonstrate that specific reduction of the D2 disulfide bond of CD4 by Trx1 led to diminished binding of Tregalizumab to recombinant human soluble CD4 (rh sCD4) and membrane-bound CD4 on T cells from a human leukemia cell line and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Moreover, the experiments revealed that this caused changes in the Tregalizumab-induced CD4 signalling pathway via the lymphocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase p56Lck.
In summary, this thesis provides evidence that high Trx1 levels in RA patients compared to healthy subjects are a potential valid reason for diminished binding of Tregalizumab to CD4-positive T cells and offers an explanation for the observed decreased CD4 down-modulation in RA patients in comparison with healthy subjects. It emphasizes that binding of Tregalizumab is impaired in a particular way in RA patients.
We designed and fielded an experimental module in the 2014 HRS which seeks to measure older persons’ willingness to voluntarily defer claiming of Social Security benefits. In addition we evaluate the stated willingness of older individuals to work longer, depending on the Social Security incentives offered to delay claiming their benefits. Our project extends previous work by analyzing the results from our HRS module and comparing findings from other data sources, which included very much smaller samples of older persons. We show that half of the respondents would delay claiming if no work requirement were in place under the status quo, and only slightly fewer, 46 percent, with a work requirement. We also asked respondents how large a lump sum they would need with or without a work requirement. In the former case, the average amount needed to induce delayed claiming was about $60,400, while when part-time work was required, the average was $66,700. This implies a low utility value of leisure foregone of only $6,300, or about 10 percent of older households’ income.
On average young people \undersave" whereas old people \oversave" with respect to the rational expectations model of life-cycle consumption and savings. According to numerous studies on subjective survival beliefs, young people also \underestimate" whereas old people \overestimate" their objective survival chances on average. We take a structural behavioral economics approach to jointly address both empirical phenomena by embedding subjective survival beliefs that are consistent with these biases into a rank-dependent utility (RDU) model over life-cycle consumption. The resulting consumption behavior is dynamically inconsistent. Considering both naive and sophisticated RDU agents we show that within this framework underestimation of young age and overestimation of old age survival probabilities may (but need not) give rise to the joint occurrence of undersaving and oversaving. In contrast to this RDU model, the familiar quasi-hyperbolic discounting (QHD), which is nested as a special case, cannot generate oversaving.
We test two hypotheses, based on sexual selection theory, about gender differences in costly social interactions. Differential selectivity states that women invest less than men in interactions with new individuals. Differential opportunism states that women’s investment in social interactions is less responsive to information about the interaction’s payoffs. The hypotheses imply that women’s social networks are more stable and path dependent and composed of a greater proportion of strong relative to weak links. During their introductory week, we let new university students play an experimental trust game, first with one anonymous partner, then with the same and a new partner. Consistent with our hypotheses, we find that women invest less than men in new partners and that their investments are only half as responsive to information about the likely returns to the investment. Moreover, subsequent formation of students’ real social networks is consistent with the experimental results: being randomly assigned to the same introductory group has a much larger positive effect on women’s likelihood of reporting a subsequent friendship.
Das zwischenstaatliche Gewaltverbot steht im Zentrum der völkerrechtlichen Aufmerksamkeit. Auf bewaffnete Konflikte auf dem afrikanischen Kontinent trifft dies nur begrenzt zu. An dieses Defizit knüpft die Autorin ab der Zeitwende 1989/90 an. Dabei überschreitet sie die traditionellen Grenzen des Gewaltverbots und analysiert, inwieweit dies, v. a. durch die Fortentwicklung der Menschenrechtslehre, eine inhaltliche Änderungen erfahren hat, die auch die militärische Anwendung von Gewalt im Innern eines Staates ächtet (ius contra bellum internum). Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt sind Interventionen durch Regionalorganisation. Hierbei wird untersucht, ob multilaterale Interventionen schon dann gewohnheitsrechtliche Akzeptanz erfahren, wenn sie entweder formell oder materiell rechtmäßig sind. Zumindest solche, die durch den UN-Sicherheitsrat autorisiert sind, können diese sog. Baugenehmigungsthese für sich in Anspruch nehmen. Doch auch ohne UN-Mandat vermögen humanitäre Interventionen regionaler Organisationen in engen Grenzen völkerrechtmäßig sein.
Samples of freshly fallen snow were collected at the high alpine research station Jungfraujoch (Switzerland) in February and March 2006 and 2007, during the Cloud and Aerosol Characterization Experiments (CLACE) 5 and 6. In this study a new technique has been developed and demonstrated for the measurement of organic acids in fresh snow. The melted snow samples were subjected to solid phase extraction and resulting solution analysed for organic acids by HPLC-MS-TOF using negative electrospray ionization. A series of linear dicarboxylic acids from C5 to C13 and phthalic acid, were identified and quantified. In several samples the biogenic acid pinonic acid was also observed. In fresh snow the median concentration of the most abundant acid, adipic acid, was 0.69 µg L−1 in 2006 and 0.70 µg L−1 in 2007. Glutaric acid was the second most abundant dicarboxylic acid found with median values of 0.46 µg L−1 in 2006 and 0.61 µg L−1 in 2007, while the aromatic acid phthalic acid showed a median concentration of 0.34 µg L−1 in 2006 and 0.45 µg L−1 in 2007. The concentrations in the samples from various snowfall events varied significantly, and were found to be dependent on the back trajectory of the air mass arriving at Jungfraujoch. Air masses of marine origin showed the lowest concentrations of acids whereas the highest concentrations were measured when the air mass was strongly influenced by boundary layer air.
Der bisher in Deutschland sehr selten gemeldete Neophyt Phedimus stolonifer wurde im Jahr 2015 in Frankfurt am Main anscheinend erstmals für Hessen nachgewiesen. Das individuenreiche Vorkommen längs eines Bachlaufes wird beschrieben. Eine Einbürgerung kann aufgrund der kurzen Beobachtungsdauer bislang nicht konstatiert werden.
Massive global spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella spp. expressing extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) and additional resistance to fluoroquinolones has often been attributed to high international mobility as well as excessive use of oral antibiotics in livestock farming. However, MDR Salmonella spp. have not been mentioned as a widespread pathogen in clinical settings so far. We demonstrate the case of a 25-year-old male with primary sclerosing cholangitis who tested positive for MDR Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis expressing ESBL and fluoroquinolone resistance. The pathogen was supposedly acquired during a trip to Thailand, causing severe fever, cholangitis and pancreatitis. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Salmonella enterica serotype Choleraesuis in Europe expressing such a multidrug resistance pattern. ESBL resistance of Salmonella enterica spp. should be considered in patients with obstructive biliary tract pathology and travel history in endemic countries.
The CDK inhibitor SNS-032 had previously exerted promising anti-neuroblastoma activity via CDK7 and 9 inhibition. ABCB1 expression was identified as major determinant of SNS-032 resistance. Here, we investigated the role of ABCB1 in acquired SNS-032 resistance. In contrast to ABCB1-expressing UKF-NB-3 sub-lines resistant to other ABCB1 substrates, SNS-032-adapted UKF-NB-3 (UKF-NB-3rSNS- 032300nM) cells remained sensitive to the non-ABCB1 substrate cisplatin and were completely re-sensitized to cytotoxic ABCB1 substrates by ABCB1 inhibition. Moreover, UKF-NB-3rSNS-032300nM cells remained similarly sensitive to CDK7 and 9 inhibition as UKF-NB-3 cells. In contrast, SHEPrSNS-0322000nM, the SNS-032-resistant sub-line of the neuroblastoma cell line SHEP, displayed low level SNS-032 resistance also when ABCB1 was inhibited. This discrepancy may be explained by the higher SNS-032 concentrations that were used to establish SHEPrSNS-0322000nM cells, since SHEP cells intrinsically express ABCB1 and are less sensitive to SNS-032 (IC50 912 nM) than UKF-NB-3 cells (IC50 153 nM). In conclusion, we show that ABCB1 expression represents the primary (sometimes exclusive) resistance mechanism in neuroblastoma cells with acquired resistance to SNS-032. Thus, ABCB1 inhibitors may increase the SNS-032 efficacy in ABCB1-expressing cells and prolong or avoid resistance formation.
The Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infects more than 170 million individuals worldwide and causes challenging HCV-related diseases. Unfortunately, there is no vaccine available. Therefore, a better understanding of the HCV life cycle is urgently needed to develop more effective and better tolerated therapies.
It has been reported that the secretory pathway plays an essential role for the release of HCV, and the SNARE complexes are a central factor controlling intracellular vesicular trafficking. Recently, our group observed that α-taxilin that binds to free syntaxin 4 prevents the SNARE complex formation and exerts an inhibitory effect on the release of HCV particles. Therefore, it was analyzed whether the t-SNARE protein syntaxin 4 is involved in the HCV life cycle.
An increased intracellular amount of syntaxin 4 was found in HCV-positive cells, while the level of syntaxin 4-specific transcripts was decreased as observed in HCV-positive Huh7.5 cells and in HCV-infected primary human hepatocytes (PHH). Since in HCV-positive cells a significant longer half-life of syntaxin 4 was found, the decreased expression is overcompensated, leading to the elevated amount of syntaxin 4. Overexpression of syntaxin 4 increases the amount of secreted infectious viral particles, while silencing of syntaxin 4 expression decreases the number of released viral particles, which indicates that HCV could use the SNARE-dependent secretory pathway for viral release. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that syntaxin 4 interacts with HCV core and NS5A. To identify the binding domain, various mutants of syntaxin 4 were generated. Based on these mutants, it was found that the H3 domain of syntaxin 4 interacts with core. These data show that the t-SNARE protein syntaxin 4 is an essential cellular factor for HCV morphogenesis and secretion.
HCV induces autophagy, and in HCV-infected cells a major fraction of the de novo synthesized viral particles is not released but intracellularly degraded. Syntaxin 17 is an autophagosomal SNARE required for the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes to form autolysosomes and thereby to deliver the enclosed contents for degradation. Therefore, we aim to investigate whether syntaxin 17 is a relevant factor for the HCV life cycle by regulating the fusion between autophagosomes and lysosomes. It was found that HCV-positive cells possess a decreased amount of syntaxin 17, and HCV reduces the intracellular level of syntaxin 17 by NS5A-mediated interruption of c-Raf signaling, which triggers the syntaxin 17 transcription, and by HCV-dependently induced autophagy. Overexpression of syntaxin 17 decreases the intracellular amount of viral particles and reduces the number of released infectious viral particles by favoring the formation of autolysosomes, in which HCV particles can be degraded. Vice versa, inhibition of syntaxin 17 expression by specific siRNAs results in an elevated amount of intracellular viral particles and increases the number of released viral particles by impaired autophagosome-lysosome fusion. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy analyses show a fraction of core protein in autophagosomes as stained by lysotracker and the autophagy maker p62. These data identify syntaxin 17 as a novel factor controlling the release of HCV and reveal the autophagosome-autolysosome fusion as an essential step affecting the equilibrium between the release of infectious viral particles and lysosomal degradation of intracellular viral particles.
Taken together, these data identify the t-SNARE proteins syntaxin 4 and syntaxin 17 as essential cellular factors for HCV morphogenesis and secretion.
Der Sufi-Meister und Dichter Ken’ân Rifâî gilt als eine der bedeutendsten und einflussreichsten Persönlichkeiten der osmanisch-türkischen Sufi-Tradition im 20. Jahrhundert. Sein Leben zwischen den Jahren 1867-1950, welches die vier Phasen, die Monarchie, die erste und zweite Verfassungsperiode (1876 und 1908), die Republik (1923) und auch die Anfangsphase der Demokratie (1950) umfasst, und seine Lehre reflektieren die Entwicklung, die Umwälzung und den letzten Zustand, die das sufische Leben im letzten Zeitabschnitt des Osmanischen Reiches und nach der Ṭarīqa-Phase in der Periode der Republik erlebt und erreicht hat. Ken’ân Rifâî fungierte zwischen den Jahren 1908-1925 als Tekke-Scheich, und zwar bis 1925, wo alle vorhandenen Tekkes in der Türkei gesetzlich verboten und dementsprechend geschlossen wurden...
Bartonella Adhäsin A (BadA), das zur Gruppe der TAAs gehört, ist ein essentieller Pathogenitätsfaktor von B. henselae und übernimmt während des Infektionsverlaufs wichtige Funktion wie Autoagglutination, Adhärenz an ECM-Proteine und Endothelzellen. BadA weist die für die für die Proteinklasse der TAAs charakteristische modulare Architektur bestehend aus N-terminaler Kopf-Domäne, Stiel-Domäne, Hals-Domäne und C-terminaler Membrananker-Domäne auf. Der modulare Aufbau des Proteins deutet daraufhin, dass bestimmte Domänen mit bestimmten biologischen Funktionen des Proteins verknüpft sind. Zur Untersuchung dieser Hypothese wurden Deletionsmutanten des BadA generiert.
Die Generierung weiterer BadA-Deletionsmutanten wird durch das langsame Wachstum des Erregers und die geringe Auswahl an molekularbiologischen Werkzeugen zur genetischen Manipulation von B. henselae erschwert. Daher sollte in ersten Teil dieser Arbeit ein Expressionsmodell für Deletionsmutanten des BadA etabliert und charakterisiert werden. Dies sollte am Beispiel des trunkierten BadA, BadA HN23, durchgeführt werden. Hierzu sollten drei Hybrid-Varianten des BadA HN23 erstellt werden: (i) Austausch der BadA-Signalsequenz gegen die E. coli OmpA-Signalsequenz, (ii) Austausch der BadA-Membrananker-Domäne gegen die YadA-Membrananker-Domäne sowie (iii) Austausch von sowohl der BadA-Signalsequenz als auch der BadA-Membrananker-Domäne gegen die bereits genannten Elemente. Danach sollten die konstruierten BadA HN23 Hybride und das BadA HN23 in induzierbare Expressionsvektoren kloniert und spezielle E. coli-Expressionsstämme mit diesen Plasmiden transformiert werden. Bei erfolgreicher Expression sollten die optimalen Bedingungen für die Expression (Temperatur, Induktorkonzentration) ermittelt werden und an-schließend die biologische Funktion der heterolog exprimierten BadA HN23 Hybride überprüft werden.
Der erste Abschnitt der hier vorliegenden Arbeit zeigte folgende Ergebnisse:
1) Die beschrieben BadA HN23 Hybrid Konstrukte wurden durch Austausch von: (i) BadA-Signalsequenz gegen E. coli OmpA-Signalsequenz im BadA HN23,
(ii) BadA-Membrananker-Domäne gegen YadA-Membrananker-Domäne im BadA HN23 und
(iii) Austausch von BadA-Signalsequenz und BadA-Membrananker-Domäne gegen E. coli OmpA-Signalsequenz und YadA-Membrananker-Domäne im BadA HN23 generiert.
Die BadA HN23 Hybride und BadA HN23 wurden in Expressionsvektoren kloniert und E. coli Omp2, E. coli Omp8 und E. coli Omp8ΔdegP transformiert.
2) Alle BadA HN23 Hybrid-Konstrukte und BadA HN23 lagen in einer monomeren und trimeren Form vor.
3) Durch IFT und - Durchflusszytometrie-Untersuchungen wurde die Oberflächenexpression der einzelnen Konstrukte quantifiziert. Es zeigte sich, dass es deutliche Unterschiede in der Menge des auf der Zelloberfläche befindlichen jeweiligen BadA HN23 Proteins gab. Dabei wiesen die Konstrukte, die die YadA-Membrananker-Domäne besaßen (BadA HN23 Hybrid 2 und 3), die stärkste Oberflächenexpression auf.
4) Die biologische Funktion des BadA HN23 wurde mittels des E. coli Omp2 BadA HN23 Hybrid 3 charakterisiert. Heterolog exprimiertes BadA HN23 vermittelt Autoagglutination, die Adhärenz des Expressionsstammes an Kollagen G und Endothelzellen.
5) Die Expression des BadA HN23 führt zur signifikant verstärkten in-vivo-Pathogenität im Galleria mellonella-Infektionsmodell.
6) Das E. coli-Expressionsmodell lieferte keine Aussage über eventuelle immunodominate Funktionen des heterolog exprimierten BadA HN23, da auch mit im IFT als anti- B. henselae negativ eingestuften Patientenseren im WB ein BadA HN23 spezifisches Bandensignal detektiert wurde. Dot Blot-Experimente ermöglichten ebenfalls keine Aussage über eventuelle immunodominate Funktion des nativen BadA HN23, da das verwendete anti-B. henselae-positive Patientenserum unspezifische Reaktion gegenüber dem Kontrollstamm zeigte.
Für verschiedene TAAs ist beschrieben worden, dass sie die Serumresistenz der exprimierenden Spezies vermitteln. Daher sollte im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit der Einfluss von BadA auf eventuelle Serumresistenz zweier B. henselae-Isolate untersucht werden. Dieser Teil lieferte folgende Ergebnisse:
1) B. henselae zeigte Sensitivität gegenüber normalem humanem Serum.
2) Sowohl BadA-positive als auch BadA-negative B. henselae-Isolate können Komplementinhibitoren wie Faktor H binden. Die dabei gebundene Menge ist relativ klein.
Die Expression von Deletionsmutanten des BadA in E. coli ist ein vielversprechendes Modell zur Analyse der Domänen-Funktionsbeziehung des BadA, da die meisten biologischen Funktionen einer homolog exprimierten BadA-Deletionsmutante reproduziert werden konnten und es sich bei E. coli um ein schnell wachsendes Bakterium, das sich leicht genetisch manipulieren lässt, handelt. Allerdings stellt das zytotoxische LPS des E. coli sowie das schnelle Wachstums der Bakterien eine Limitation des Expressionssystems dar, indem es Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der jeweiligen BadA-Deletionsmutante auf die Induktion der proangiogenetischen Wirtszellantwort verhindert oder Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der jeweiligen BadA-Deletionsmutante auf die Adhärenz an Endothelzellen deutlich erschwert. Außerdem kann eine mögliche Interaktion zwischen BadA bzw. BadA-Deletionsmutanten und dem TIVSS und zwischen BadA bzw. BadA-Deletionsmutanten und weiteren Adhäsinen (wie z.B. dem FHA) mit Hilfe dieses Expressionssystems nicht untersucht werden. Dies wäre nur im B. henselae Wildtyp-Stamm möglich.
Weltweit sind ca. 130–180 Millionen Menschen mit HCV infiziert und jährlich sterben etwa 500.000 Menschen an dessen Folgen. Die neuartigen Therapien versprechen zwar eine sehr hohe Heilungsrate, sind aber aufgrund ihrer enorm hohen Kosten nur in Industrieländern verfügbar. Noch immer gibt es keine prophylaktische Vakzinierung gegen HCV. Deshalb ist es wichtig, den HCV-Lebenszyklus und die Interaktion zwischen Wirtszelle und Virus detailliert zu verstehen, um die Entwicklung von Therapien und Impfungen zu ermöglichen. Außerdem kann ein fundiertes Wissen von HCV translatiert werden und auf neuartige Erreger der Familie der Flaviviridae, wie Denguevirus und Zikavirus, angewendet werden. Während der Zelleintritt und die Replikation von HCV relativ gut charakterisiert sind, bleiben die Assemblierung und Freisetzung der viralen Partikel schlecht verstandene Schritte des HCV-Lebenszyklus. In dieser Arbeit sollte die Rolle des zellulären Proteins α-Taxilin im Lebenszyklus von HCV untersucht werden. In einer späteren Phase der Arbeit wurde der endosomale Freisetzungsweg von HCV untersucht. Dazu wurden HCV Varianten generiert und charakterisiert, die Fluoreszenz-Proteine im NS5A- und E1-Protein enthalten, durch die es möglich ist, den Replikationskomplex und die Viruspartikel zu visualisieren und zu quantifizieren und den viralen Lebenszyklus dadurch besser untersuchen zu können...
FUSE Binding Protein 1 (FUBP1) is a transcriptional regulator, which is overexpressed in various cancer entities, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and colorectal cancer (CRC). It fulfills pro-proliferative and anti-apoptotic functions in cancer cells, resulting in increased proliferation and reduced sensitivity towards apoptotic stimuli.
Previously, camptothecin (CPT) and its clinically used analog 7-ethyl 10hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38) were shown to inhibit FUBP1 in biophysical interaction displacement assays (AlphaScreen; surface plasmon resonance, SPR), and first insights into the cellular effects of FUBP1 inhibition were obtained. CPT and SN-38 are known to potently inhibit topoisomerase 1 (TOP 1), and until today, these inhibitors were thought to be specific for this target. This could be disproved by our FUBP1 binding studies. An open issue, which is addressed in this thesis, was the contribution of FUBP1 inhibition to SN-38-mediated apoptosis apoptosis.
During this thesis, a low micromolar efficacy of CPT/SN-38-induced inhibition of FUBP1 binding to the Far Upstream Sequence Element (FUSE) oligonucleotide of p21 was determined. Furthermore, FUBP1 was for the first time shown to directly interact with a potential FUSE sequence upstream of the transcription start in pro-apoptotic gene BIK. In proof of-principle experiments, an effective inhibition of the binding of FUBP1 to the FUSE BIK DNA by CPT/SN-38 was verified.
One of the main goals of this thesis was to further elucidate the contribution of cellular FUBP1-inhibition by CPT/SN-38 to the anti-cancer potential of these substances. For this purpose, the TOP 1 mutant and TOP 1 wild type colorectal cancer sub-cell lines HCT116 G7 and HCT116 S were used. CPT/SN-38 was shown to induce apoptosis in single and combinatorial treatments with mitomycin c (MMC), independently of the TOP 1 mutation status of the cells. Furthermore, a prominent induction of a FUBP1 target gene signature was observed upon treatment of both cell lines with CPT/SN-38. Consequently, CPT/SN-38 was able to fulfill its anticancer effects in these cells, although TOP 1 could not be the main target in the mutant cell line.
In a second approach to gain indirect evidence for FUBP1 dependent effects of CPT/SN-38, the TOP 1-specific inhibitors topotecan (TTN) and β lapachone (BL) were used for the treatment of HCC and CRC cell lines. Interestingly, the TOP 1 inhibitors TTN and BL exhibited a reduced potency in apoptosis induction compared to the dual (FUBP1 and TOP 1) inhibitor SN-38.
Finally, two independent screens for a specific FUBP1 inhibitor were performed. In the first approach, a small number of structural and functional CPT-derivatives that exhibited a reduced inhibitory potential against TOP 1, were tested for their ability to interfere with the FUBP1/FUSE binding. Two particular indenoisoquinoline derivatives revealed potent in vitro inhibition of FUBP1 with low micromolar IC50 values.
In a second approach, previously identified candidate FUBP1 inhibitors that had been isolated from the Maybridge Hit Finder library served as lead structures for a structure activity relationship (SAR) study of the inhibition of FUBP1 binding to the FUSE oligonucleotide. After two cycles of optimization, a medium-potent FUBP1 inhibitor was obtained that induced effective deregulation of FUBP1 target genes in cell culture experiments.
This thesis describes the adaptation of Acinetobacter species to dry environments with the soil bacterium A. baylyi and the opportunistic hospital pathogen A. baumanii in its focus. The adaptation of A. baylyi and A. baumannii to osmotic stress was investigated. Compatible solutes that were uptaken from the environment or synthesized de novo to cope with the loss of water at high salinity were identified. The corresponding transporters and enzymes involved were characzerized. In addition, the desiccation resistance of A. baumannii was analyzed to elucidate its survival in hospital environments. The usage of compatible solutes during desiccation stress was analyzed and proteins that were produced were identified.
The availability of water is essential for bacterial life and if environmental conditions are awkward, bacteria have to cope with high salinitiy to prevent loss of water. In this thesis it was shown that A. baylyi synthesizes glutamate and mannitol de novo as compatible solutes in response to osmotic stress to balance the osmotic potential. The pathway for mannitol biosynthesis from Fructose-6-Phosphate (F-6-P) via Mannitol-1-Phosphate (Mtl-1-P) was elucidated and the isolation and characterization of a novel type of biofunctional enzyme was described. Interestingly, the unique bifunctional enzyme MtlD, acting as dehydrogenase and phosphatase, mediates both steps of the mannitol biosynthesis pathway. This enzyme catalyzes the reduction of F-6-P to Mtl-1-P with NADPH as reducing equivalent. The dehydrogenase activity of MtlD was salt dependent and the phosphatase activity was dependent on Mg2+ as cofactor. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that MtlD is broadly distributed among other Acinetobacter strains but not in other phylogenetic tribes.
In this thesis it is also described that, besides de novo synthesis of compatible solutes, A. baylyi takes up glycine betaine (GB) or its precursor choline by different transport systems and uses this solutes as osmoprotectants. The uptake of GB occurs via a secondary transporter (ACIAD3460) of the BCCT family. Choline is taken up as precursor and oxidized to GB by two dehydrogenases. The uptake and use of choline as GB precursor involves two transporters, whose genes are encoded in the bet cluster (BetT1, BetT2), two dehydrogenases (BetA, BetB) and a regulatory protein (BetI). Both transporters differ from each other in structure and function: BetT1 is osmo-independent and active independently of osmotic stress. BetT2 contains - in contrast to BetT1 - a long C-terminal domain for osmo-sensing and its activity highly increases in the presence of high osmolarity. The oxidation of choline occurs independently of the osmolarity of the medium but in the absence of salt stress, GB is exported. In contrast, in the presence of high salinity, GB is accumulated in the cytoplasm to balance the osmotic potential in order to prevent loss of water. The regulation of both transporters, the uptake of choline independently of the osmolarity and the export of GB under isoosmotic conditions are regulated by the transcriptional regulator BetI.
A. baumannii ATCC 19606 was also shown to cope with high salinity. Analogously to A. baylyi, A. baumannii ATCC19606 synthesizes glutamate and mannitol de novo in response to osmotic stress. The genes for the synthesis of these compatible solutes are identical to those found in A. baylyi. This suggests that the solute biosynthesis pathways of A. baumannii and A. baylyi are identical. A. baumannii was also able to take up GB and choline in response to osmotic stress and growth at high salinity was restored upon addition of GB and its precursor choline. The bet cluster was also present in the genome A. baumannii and also contains the two different choline transporters BetT1 and BetT2.
Our suggestion that choline or GB or the utilization of phosphatidylcholine as carbon source led to an increase in the survival under desiccation stress was not confirmed. However, 2D analysis of proteins produced during desiccation stress in A. baumannii led to elevated amounts of proteins implicated in biofilm formation, regulation, cell morphology and general stress response, such as Hsp60 or superoxide dismutase, both might play a role in general stress protection.
Protein synthesis is a central process within every living cell, where information embodied in the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA is translated into the primary sequence of proteins. The translation procedure comprises four steps: initiation, elongation, termination, and recycling. Ribosome recycling orchestrated by the ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) protein ABCE1, renders mRNA translation into a cyclic process, connecting termination with re initiation. In Archaea and Eukarya, the ABC protein ABCE1 catalyzes ribosome recycling by splitting the ribosome (80S/70S) into the small 40S/30S and large 60S/50S subunits, providing them for the next translation round.
The ABC‐type ATPase one of the most conserved proteins, present in all Archaea and Eukarya, but not in Bacteria, is essential for life in all organisms examined so far. ABCE1 was initially identified as RNase L inhibitor (Rli1), involved in the antiviral RNA immunity, and as host protein 68 (HP68) playing a role in HIV capsid assembly. However, the strong sequence conservation of ABCE1 points towards a more fundamental function within cell homeostasis, which was found by its involvement in various translation processes. ABCE1 turned out to be the major ribosome recycling factor indispensable for life in Eukarya and Archaea, being involved in canonical translation, mRNA surveillance, ribosome biogenesis, and translation initiation.
Recent functional and structural data provided first insights into the mechanism of ABCE1 in ribosome recycling. The nucleotide‐binding domains (NBDs) sandwich two ATP molecules in the NBD1‐NBD2 interface causing an NBD engagement, which is released upon ATP hydrolysis. In case of ABCE1, this ATP‐dependent tweezer‐like motion of the NBDs transfers mechanical energy to the ribosome and tears the subunits apart. The FeS‐cluster domain may swing out of the NBD cleft into the inter‐subunit space of the ribosome, which drives the subunits apart either directly or via the bound a/eRF1. Hence, the subunits are released and the post‐splitting complex (PSC, 40S/30S∙ABCE1∙ATP) is available for re‐initiation events, presumably occurring via the known interactions of ABCE1with initiation factors.
One of the most crucial aspects of this model is the nucleotide‐dependent conformational switch of ABCE1, which drives ribosomal subunit splitting. However, the conformational states, which ABCE1 undergoes during ribosome recycling, including their mechanistic importance for its diverse functions, remain unknown. Further, the exact role and movement of the essential FeScluster domain during ribosome recycling are not yet understood. Additional, it remains elusive where ABCE1 is bound in the post‐splitting complex and how the splitting mechanism is regulated concerning the asymmetric NBDs and the coupling of nucleotide binding with NBD closing and ATP hydrolysis.
Thus, in order to monitor the conformational dynamics of the ribosome recycling factor ABCE1 two complementing methods in structural biology, namely single‐molecule based Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) and pulsed electron‐electron double resonance (PELDOR) spectroscopy were applied.
Single‐molecule FRET as an integrated biophysical approach based on Förster resonance energy transfer and single‐molecule detection was used to understand the fundamental molecular principles of ABCE1. Contrary to the anticipated two‐state model of ABC proteins, it was shown in this thesis that both nucleotide‐binding sites of ABCE1 are always in a dynamic equilibrium between conformational states with distinct properties: open, intermediate, and closed. The equilibrium in the two nucleotide‐binding sites is distinctly affected when ABCE1 interacts with ribosomal subunits and nucleotides. While ABCE1 can adopt all three conformational states in its free or 30S bound situation, the closed state has the highest affinity for 30S subunit. Further, dissociation of ABCE1 from the small ribosomal subunit, a step that completes the recycling process, is followed by the opening of the NBSs. Hence, the current findings have important implications not only for ribosome recycling but represent a new paradigm for the molecular mechanisms of twin‐ATPases.
The complementing PELDOR measurements provide the advantage of high distance precision and reliability studying macromolecular complexes. Distance distributions of a number of ABCE1 variants even bound to the 1‐MDa post‐splitting complex (30S∙ABCE1∙AMP‐PNP), composed of the 16S rRNA, 28 ribosomal proteins, and ABCE1, was analyzed. Thus, the available crystal structures of ABCE1 in the open state were validated, since all distances of ABCE1 measured in this study perfectly correspond to this crystallized state. Unfortunately, ABCE1 could not be trapped in the closed state under the experimental conditions applied, although plenty different approaches to stabilize this state were performed.
In the second part of this study the architecture yet unknown of the 1‐MDa post splitting complex (40S/30S∙ABCE1∙ATP), concerning especially the ABCE1 binding site and its interactions with translational proteins, was probed by a method, which combines chemical cross linking with mass‐spectrometry (XL‐MS). Following this approach, it was demonstrated that ABCE1 remains bound at the translational GTPase‐binding site after ribosome splitting, contacting the S24e protein of the small subunit. The platform for the intensive contacts to the small ribosomal subunit is thereby provided by the unique helix‐loop‐helix motif of ABCE1. Notably, the FeScluster domain of ABCE1 undergoes a large rotational and translational rearrangement towards the small ribosomal subunit S12 upon nucleotide‐dependent closure of the NBDs. Thus, a key complex in the translational cycle, resembling the link between translation initiation and ribosome recycling processes, was reconstituted and structurally analyzed.
In view of the diverse functionalities of RNA, the search for tools suitable for regulating and understanding RNA grows continuously. Dysfunction of RNA controlled processes can lead to diseases, calling for external regulation mechanisms – a difficult task in view of the complexity of biological systems. One of the recently developed methods that aim to systematically control RNA relates to photoregulation. Here, the RNA functions are triggered by photochromic molecules – for example, azobenzene or spiropyran – which are bound either covalently or non-covalently to the target RNA. This is a flexible approach, which can be improved by using suitably substituted chromophores. However, many issues regarding the details of photocontrol are still open. A detailed understanding of the mechanism of photocontrol is therefore of crucial importance.
The present thesis explores theoretical approaches to the photocontrol of RNA, focussing upon azobenzene chromophores covalently bound to RNA. The aim of the thesis is to characterize, at a molecular level, the effect of trans-to-cis isomerization of the azobenzene chromophore on RNA, and thus understand the mechanism of RNA unfolding triggered by azobenzene isomerization. In particular, we attempt to answer the following questions:
How does azobenzene isomerization happen in an RNA environment, i.e., how is
the isomerization influenced by the local RNA environment?
Conversely, how is RNA dynamics, on a longer time scale, affected by azobenzene attachment and photoisomerization?
Further, can regulation be enhanced by substituted azobenzenes? And, does simulation yield a picture that is consistent with experiment?
Due to the very different times scales of azobenzene isomerization (femtoseconds to picoseconds) and the much slower RNA response (nanoseconds to milliseconds), complementary techniques have been chosen: (i) hybrid quantum-classical approaches, i.e., on-the-fly Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM), to characterize the isomerization and RNA response on an ultrafast time scale, and (ii) molecular dynamics with enhanced sampling techniques, in particular, Replica Exchange MD (REMD), to explore longer time scales where the effect of RNA unfolding becomes manifest. Furthermore, substituent effects on azobenzene were separately investigated, in collaboration with two experimental groups.
The first part of this thesis is focused on the conformational influence of azobenzene on a small RNA hairpin on longer time scales using REMD simulations. In accordance with experiment, it is found that both the trans and cis form of azobenzene destabilize the RNA system. Trans azobenzene stays stacked in the double strand, whereas the cis form flips out of the RNA. These stacking interactions are the main reason why a trans azobenzene-RNA-complex is more stable than a cis-azobenzene-RNA-complex. Furthermore, the loop region of the RNA hairpin is highly destabilized by the intercalation of azobenzene.
In the second part, on-the-fly QM/MM simulations of the same azobenzene substituted hairpin are undertaken. These simulations use a surface hopping (SH) algorithm in conjunction with hybrid QM/MM electronic structure calculations to give a complete picture of the isomerization process on a picosecond time scale. It is shown that, due to the constraints of the RNA environment, the isomerization time of the azobenzene chromophore is significantly increased (from 300 femtoseconds in the gas phase to around 20 picoseconds in the RNA environment), and the isomerization yield is low. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first QM/MM simulations reported for azobenzene in a nucleic acid environment.
In the third and final part of this thesis, the properties of substituted azobenzenes have been explored, in collaboration with two experimental groups at the department. In particular, para- and meta-hydroxy substituted azobenzenes were suggested as improved photoswitches for the photoregulation of RNA, but spectroscopic investigations showed that isomerization was inefficient in some of the investigated species. Therefore, we investigated the photoisomerisation pathway of the keto/enol-form of para- and meta-hydroxy-azobenzenes by Time-Dependent Density Functional Theory (TDDFT) calculations. These calculations show that the competing keto/enol-tautomerism can result in an unstable cis form, making these substituted chromophores unsuitable as photoswitches.
Overall, the present thesis has contributed to obtaining a molecular-level understanding of photocontrol in azobenzene substituted RNAs, showing that theory and simulations can provide useful guidance for new experiments.
The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a heterodimeric ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport complex, which selects peptides for export into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and subsequent loading onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules to trigger adaptive immune responses against virally or malignantly transformed cells. Due to its pivotal role in adaptive immunity, TAP is a target for infectious diseases and malignant disorders, such as bare lymphocyte syndrome type I and cancer. A detailed knowledge about the TAP structure and transport mechanism is fundamental for the development of therapies or drugs against such diseases, but numerous aspects are insufficiently determined to date. The aim of this PhD thesis was to elucidate several structural details of TAP using powerful biochemical and biophysical methods and thereby to contribute to the understanding of the translocation machinery functionality.
High protein yields, an efficient isolation from the lipid environment and subsequent purification of a stoichiometric, stable, and functional TAP complex are prerequisites to get detailed insights into TAP functionality. The natural product digitonin is typically used as detergent to isolate TAP, but suffered from fluctuating purity and high costs. The novel detergent GDN was selected from a number of potential detergents upon their ability to isolate and purify TAP overcoming the limitations of digitonin without compromising on functional integrity. State-of-the-art biophysical techniques, such as solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), require highly concentrated protein samples. A new and mild procedure to concentrate TAP was established within this thesis. Freeze drying is superior to conventional concentration techniques, such as ultrafiltration, resulting in TAP inactivation and aggregation already at concentrations of 10 mg/mL. This new procedure enables stabilizing TAP in a condensed glycerol matrix and to concentrate the transport complex up to 30 mg/mL active transporter. The functional integrity of the freeze-dried TAP complex was verified by determining equilibrium dissociation constants, peptide dissociation and ATP-hydrolysis rates as well as long-term stabilities identical to untreated TAP. The combined application of the detergent GDN and the freeze drying procedure facilitates the cost-efficient isolation of functional and highly concentrated TAP and enables to study the structure and mechanism of the peptide transporter TAP using modern analyses methods.
Information on peptide-TAP interactions at atomic level have not been obtained so far. This lack of knowledge hampered the mechanistic understanding of the initial steps of substrate translocation catalyzed by TAP. Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) enhanced magic angle spinning (MAS) solid-state NMR on highly concentrated TAP samples prepared with the freeze-drying procedure was used within this thesis to study this challenging membrane protein-substrate complex. The affinity and specificity of peptide binding by TAP are mediated by multiple recognition sites in the N- and C-terminal regions. Side-chains of positions 1, 3, and 9 are most substantially affected upon binding to TAP, revealing recognition principles of the translocation machinery. The nonamer peptide binds to TAP in an extended conformation with an N-to-C terminus distance of ~2.5 nm. Molecular docking revealed that the peptide substrate is locked with its N and C termini between TAP1 and TAP2 and adopts a tilted pose with respect to the membrane plane. The identified contact sites of TAP are consistent with results from earlier crosslinking and mutational analyses on the TAP complex.
The inadequate structure determination and insufficient knowledge about the dynamics of substrate translocation impedes a detailed comprehension of the TAP transport mechanism. Advanced biophysical methods, such as pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), enable to locate the peptide-binding pocket and to elucidate dwell-times, conformational states and dynamics within the translocation cycle of TAP. The specific introduction of spin or fluorescent labels via single cysteines for such studies requires a cysteine-less TAP complex. The endogenous cysteine 213 in TAP2 remained to create a pseudo Cys-less TAP complex within this thesis due to its altered substrate repertoire when mutated to serine as shown in previous studies. Latter complex was used to introduce single-Cys mutations in the cytosolic extensions of transmembrane helices of TAP1. Their functional integrity with respect to peptide binding and translocation was comparable to pseudo Cys-less TAP. All pseudo single cysteines were efficiently labeled, but unintentionally C213TAP2 was labeled as well and TAP concomitantly inactivated. These unsatisfactory initial experiments required the generation of a functional, entirely Cys-less TAP transporter within this thesis. Therefore, C213TAP2 was replaced by all 19 proteinogenic amino acids. All analyzed mutants were capable to bind a high-affinity peptide of TAP, but with varying affinities and binding capacities. The replacement of C213 by isoleucine enabled the generation of a cysteine-less TAP complex with functional characteristics similar to the wild-type transporter and will promote the elucidation of the translocation mechanism of the peptide transporter TAP in future studies using pulsed EPR and single-molecule FRET.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures neural activity non-invasively and at an excellent temporal resolution. Since its invention (Cohen, 1968, 1972), MEG has proven a most valuable tool in neurocognitive (Salmelin et al., 1994) and clinical research (Stufflebeam et al., 2009; Van ’t Ent et al., 2003). MEG is able to measure rapid changes in electrophysiological neural signals related to sensory and cognitive processes. The magnetic fields measured outside the head by MEG directly reflect the cortical currents generated by the synchronised activity of thousands of neuronal sources. This distinguishes MEG from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), where measurements are only indirectly related to electrophysiological activity through neurovascular coupling...
Soil fungal communities are an essential element in the terrestrial ecosystem, however their response to ongoing anthropogenic climate change is currently poorly understood. Fungi are one of the most abundant groups of microbes in soil, they are mainly responsible for the decomposition of organic matter (Baldrian et al., 2012; Buée et al., 2009). By binding carbon in soil, fungi thus maintain an important role in the global carbon cycle (Bardgett et al., 2008). Future climates are likely to influence the communities of belowground microbial organisms (Castro et al., 2010; Deacon et al., 2006). However, how these communities are affected in their diversity, composition, and function after environmental perturbation is insufficiently known.
Molecular techniques using high-throughput sequencing are presently revolutionizing the analysis of complex communities, such as soil fungi. High-throughput metabarcoding enables the recovery of DNA sequence data directly from environmental samples, and DNA sequences from entire communities present in these samples can be simultaneously recovered through massively parallel sequencing reactions (Bik et al., 2012; Taberlet et al., 2012b). This results in more accurate estimation of diversity and community composition and thus provides unprecedented insight into cryptic communities (Lindahl and Kuske, 2014). Yet, challenges associated with these novel techniques include the bioinformatic processing, and the ecological analyses of the large amount of sequence data generated. Most biologists without explicit training in bioinformatics spend a fair amount of time learning how to filter raw sequence data, and customize bioinformatics pipelines specific to their project. To improve the quality of data treatment, and decrease the time needed for the analyses, it is desirable to have bioinformatics pipelines that are easy to use, well explained to researchers not trained in bioinformatics, and adaptable to individual research needs...
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden Anaylsenmethoden zur Quantifizierung von Ceramiden und Prostanoiden in verschiedenen biologischen Matrices unter Verwendung von Nano-LC gekoppelt mit Tandemmassenspektrometrie entwickelt und bei diversen biologischen Fragestellungen angewendet.
Die analytische Methode zu Quantifizierung der Ceramide ermöglichte deren Bestimmung in einem Probenvolumen von 2 μL CSF. Diese neu entwickelte Methode ist die erste publizierte Nano-LC-MS/MS-Methode zur Quantifizierung der Ceramide in biologischen Proben, gleichzeitig ist es auch diejenige analytische Methode mit der höchsten Empfindlichkeit [171]. Die beschriebene Methode umfasste die Substanzen C8:0, C16:0, C18:1, C18:0, C20:0, C24:1 und C24:0 Ceramid, als interner Standard wurde C17:0 Ce-ramid verwendet. Die Probenaufarbeitung bestand in einer einfachen Proteinfällung und Verdünnung mit Methanol, die chromatografische Trennung der Analyten erfolgte mit einer RP-C8 Säule unter Verwendung eines Gradientenprogramms. Die Methode wurde anhand von FDA-Richtlinien bezüglich Linearität, Bestimmungsgrenze, Präzision, Richtigkeit und Autosampler-Stabilität validiert. Die erreichten Bestimmungsgrenzen betrugen 0,225 pg auf der Säule (2,25 pg/μL CSF) für alle Ceramide außer C24:0 Ceramid, für das der Wert von 0,75 pg auf der Säule (7,5 pg/μL CSF) ermittelt wurde. Mit der durchgeführten Validierung wurde die Zuverlässigkeit der Methode für die Quantifizierung der Ceramide in CSF gezeigt. Mit einem Standardadditionsexperiment konnte belegt werden, dass PBS als Ersatzmatrix für CSF geeignet ist und somit die Ergebnisse der Validierung mit dotierten PBS-Proben auf CSF-Proben übertragbar sind. Das entwickelte Verfahren wurde für die Quantifizierung der Analyten in murinen CSF-Proben im Rahmen eines Projekts zur Erforschung der Rolle der Ceramide bei Multipler Sklerose angewendet. Anhand der Ergebnisse wurde die Hypothese bestätigt, dass die Konzentration von C16:0 Ceramid in CSF von EAE-Mäusen erhöht ist.
Die zweite entwickelte Nano-LC-MS/MS-Methode ermöglichte die Quantifizierung der Prostanoide PGE2, PGD2, 6-keto PGF1α, PGF2α und TXB2 in einer geringen Anzahl Immunzellen. Für eine erfolgreiche Bestimmung der Analyt-Konzentrationen waren nur 5.000 T-Zellen oder 40.000 Mastzellen erforderlich. Damit ist die beschriebene Methode geeignet für die Quantifizierung in Zellen, die durch Isolation aus tierischen Geweben oder Organen erhalten werden, ohne dass das Vereinigen mehrerer Proben erforderlich ist. Durch die Messung dieser bestimmten Zellpopulationen kann, im Unterschied zur Vermessung des gesamten Organs, eine differenziertere Analyse der Lokalisation der gemessenen Analyten erfolgen. Mittels der entwickelten Methode konnten die Prostanoide PGE2, PGD2, 6-keto PGF1α, PGF2α und TXB2 quantifiziert werden. Als interner Standard stand für jedes dieser Prostanoide ein vierfach deuteriertes Strukturanalogon zur Verfügung. Die Aufarbeitung der Immunzell-Proben erfolgte durch Flüssig-Flüssig-Extraktion mit Ethylacetat, die Chromatografie wurde mit einer RP-C8-Säule und einem Gradientenprogramm durchgeführt. Eine Validierung erfolgte für die Quantifizierung in T-Lymphozyten und Mastzellen für die Parameter Linearität, Bestimmungsgrenze, Präzision, Richtigkeit, Wiederfindung, Selektivität und Stabilität. Auch ein Standardadditionsexperiment mit beiden Matrices wurde durchgeführt. Die Bestimmungsgrenzen betrugen 75 fg auf der Säule für PGE2 und PGD2 sowie 112,5 fg für 6-keto PGF1α, PGF2α und TXB2, damit zeichnet sich die Methode durch höchste Empfindlichkeit aus. Die Me-thode wurde zur Messung der Prostanoid-Konzentration in T-Zellen, die im Rahmen eines Kontaktallergie-Modells aus dem Blut von unterschiedlich behandelten Mäusen isoliert worden waren, angewendet. Es konnte kein Unterschied in den Prostanoid-Konzentrationen in den T-Zellen sensibilisierter und nicht-sensibilisierter bzw. provozierter und nicht-provozierter Mäuse festgestellt werden. Bei einer zweiten Anwendung wurden die Prostanoide in murinen Mastzellen, die nach Zymosan-Injektion in die Hinterpfote zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten nach dem Auslösen der Entzündung aus dem entstandenen Ödem isoliert worden waren, gemessen. Zusätzlich für diese Anwendung wurden einige Leukotriene in die Methode integriert. Es wurde festgestellt, dass die Konzentrationen von PGE2, PGD2 und PGF2α in Mastzellen nach der Injektion von Zymosan-Injektion ansteigen, wobei die gemessenen Konzentrationen für PGE2 48 Stunden nach der Injektion verglichen mit denen nach 24 Stunden, bezogen auf die anderen beiden Prostaglandine, am stärksten ansteigen. Außerdem wurde mittels der für die Immunzellen entwickelten Methode die Prostanoide in murinem Urin, humanem Plasma und humaner Tränenflüssigkeit quantifiziert.
Zusammenfassend ermöglichen die entwickelten Methoden die Analyse geringer Ana-lytkonzentrationen in sehr kleinen Probenmengen und damit eine Reduktion von Versuchstierzahlen und Kosten.
Prognostische Faktoren und das Outcome von Patienten mit einem primären Glioblastom sind in der Fachliteratur gut beschrieben. Im Gegensatz dazu gibt es wenige vergleichbare Informationen zu Patienten mit einem sekundären Glioblastom. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Outcome von Patienten mit einem sekundären Glioblastom zu beurteilen und prognostische Faktoren in Be-zug auf das Gesamtüberleben zu identifizieren.
Dazu wurde die interne Datenbank des Universitätsklinikums Frankfurt/Main von Patienten mit Hirntumoren retrospektiv nach klinischen Daten durchsucht. Alle Patienten hatten ein histologisch gesichertes WHO Grad II oder III Gliom und anschließend ein WHO Grad IV sekundäres Glioblastom. Paraffiniertes Hirntumorgewebe wurde auf Mutationen der Isocitrat Dehydrogenase-1 (IDH1) mittels einer immunhistochemischen Färbung mit einem R132H (clone H09) spezifischen Antikörper untersucht. Eine uni- und multivariate statistische Analyse wurde durchgeführt, um Faktoren zu ermitteln, die potentiell das Gesamt-überleben beeinflussen könnten.
Es wurden 45 Patienten mit einem histologisch gesicherten sekundären Glioblastom untersucht. Das mediane Alter betrug 41 Jahre. 14 Patienten unterzogen sich einer radiologisch kompletten Resektion des sekundären Glioblastoms, 31 Patienten wurden subtotal reseziert oder biopsiert. Initial ist bei 37 Patienten ein astrozytärer Tumor nachgewiesen worden und die restlichen Patienten litten an Oligodendrogliomen oder gemischten Gliomen; bei der initialen Diagnose wurden 17 WHO Grad II und 28 WHO Grad III Tumoren fest-gestellt. Die mediane Zeit zwischen Ursprungstumor und dem Auftreten des sekundären Glioblastoms betrug 158,9 Wochen. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben betrug 445 Tage nach der Diagnose eines sekundären Glioblastoms. Mutationen des IDH1 (R132H) Proteins wurden bei 24 Patienten festgestellt und fehlten bei 17 Patienten; bei 4 Patienten konnte keine IDH1 immunhistochemische Färbung durchgeführt werden.
In der univariaten Analyse konnte der Zeitraum zwischen initialer Läsion und dem Progress zu einem sekundären Glioblastom als statistisch signifikanter Einflussfaktor identifiziert werden- Patienten mit einem Zeitraum von mehr als 2 Jahren hatten ein besseres Gesamtüberleben (460 vs. 327 Tage, p = 0,011). Außerdem konnte bei Patienten, die eine kombinierte Radiochemotherapie bekamen, ein besseres Gesamtüberleben nachgewiesen werden als bei Patienten, welche ausschließlich eine Therapieform erhielten (611 vs. 380 Tage, p < 0,001). Weiterhin konnten ein WHO Grad II Ursprungstumor (472 vs. 421 Tage, p = 0,05) und eine Frontalllappenlokalisation des Glioblastoms (472 vs. 425 Ta-ge, p = 0,031) das Überleben steigern.
In der multivariaten Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Mutation des IDH1 (R132H) Proteins in statistisch signifikanter Weise mit einem längeren Gesamtüberleben assoziiert war (p = 0,012); statistische Signifikanz für ein län-geres Gesamtüberleben bei Patienten mit initial einem WHO Grad II (p = 0,047) und einer Frontallappenlokalisation des Glioblastoms (p = 0,042) stellte sich auch ein. In Bezug auf die Patienten spezifischen Daten wurden zwei Prognosegruppen erstellt; Patienten in der guten Prognosegruppe scheinen einen Benefit von einer totalen Tumorresektion zu haben (p = 0,02), während eine Resektion für die andere Prognosegruppe keine große Rolle spielte (p = 0,926).
Trotz des relativ geringen Erkrankungsalters haben sekundäre Glioblastom Patienten eine schlechte Prognose. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit unterstreichen die Wichtigkeit und den prognostischen Wert der IDH1 Diagnostik, die Notwendigkeit einer kombinierten Radiochemotherapie und eine Risikostratifizierung für eine Prognoseabschätzung anhand der Patienten spezifischen Einflussfaktoren.
The Cueva del Azufre in Tabasco, Mexico, is a nutrient-rich cave and its inhabitants need to cope with high levels of dissolved hydrogen sulfide and extreme hypoxia. One of the successful colonizers of this cave is the poeciliid fish Poecilia mexicana, which has received considerable attention as a model organism to examine evolutionary adaptations to extreme environmental conditions. Nonetheless, basic ecological data on the endemic cave molly population are still missing; here we aim to provide data on population densities, size class compositions and use of different microhabitats. We found high overall densities in the cave and highest densities at the middle part of the cave with more than 200 individuals per square meter. These sites have lower H2S concentrations compared to the inner parts where most large sulfide sources are located, but they are annually exposed to a religious harvesting ceremony of local Zoque people called La Pesca. We found a marked shift in size/age compositions towards an overabundance of smaller, juvenile fish at those sites. We discuss these findings in relation to several environmental gradients within the cave (i.e., differences in toxicity and lighting conditions), but we also tentatively argue that the annual fish harvest during a religious ceremony (La Pesca) locally diminishes competition (and possibly, cannibalism by large adults), which is followed by a phase of overcompensation of fish densities.
The article consists in a comparative reading of three novels: Um rio chamado tempo by Mia Couto, Le pain des corbeaux by Lhoussain Azergui and Paw królowej by Dorota Masłowska. In spite of the difference of the historical circumstances of Mozambique, Morocco and Poland, these three books meet at an intersecting point: the emergence of an intelligentsia that uses literacy and writing as an instrument to deconstruct the post-colonial concept of nation and to operate a trans-colonial renegotiation of identity. By the notion of trans-colonial, I understand the opposition against new kinds of symbolic violence that emerged after the end of the colonial period; here this new form of oppression is related to the concept of national unity – an artificial construct that leaves no place for a dualism or pluralism of cultural reality (two shores of the Zambezi river, Arab and Berber dualism in Morocco, "small homelands" in Poland).
The young heroes of the novels grasp the pen in order to break through the falseness or the taboos created by the fathers, establishing, at the same time, the relation of solidarity with the world of the grandfathers. The act of writing becomes an actualization of the ancestral universe of magic. The settlement of accounts with the parental generation concerns the vision of nation built upon the resistance against the colonizer (it also refers to the Polish cultural formation, based on the tradition of uprisings and resistance against the Russians).
The release of RNA-containing extracellular vesicles (EV) into the extracellular milieu has been demonstrated in a multitude of different in vitro cell systems and in a variety of body fluids. RNA-containing EV are in the limelight for their capacity to communicate genetically encoded messages to other cells, their suitability as candidate biomarkers for diseases, and their use as therapeutic agents. Although EV-RNA has attracted enormous interest from basic researchers, clinicians, and industry, we currently have limited knowledge on which mechanisms drive and regulate RNA incorporation into EV and on how RNA-encoded messages affect signalling processes in EV-targeted cells. Moreover, EV-RNA research faces various technical challenges, such as standardisation of EV isolation methods, optimisation of methodologies to isolate and characterise minute quantities of RNA found in EV, and development of approaches to demonstrate functional transfer of EV-RNA in vivo. These topics were discussed at the 2015 EV-RNA workshop of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles. This position paper was written by the participants of the workshop not only to give an overview of the current state of knowledge in the field, but also to clarify that our incomplete knowledge – of the nature of EV(-RNA)s and of how to effectively and reliably study them – currently prohibits the implementation of gold standards in EV-RNA research. In addition, this paper creates awareness of possibilities and limitations of currently used strategies to investigate EV-RNA and calls for caution in interpretation of the obtained data.
Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS), the most common cancer of connective tissues in pediatrics, is often resistant to conventional therapies. One underlying mechanism of this resistance is the overexpression of Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) proteins, leading to a dysfunctional cell death program within tumor cells. Smac mimetics (SM) are small molecules that can reactivate the cell death program by antagonizing IAP proteins and thereby compensating their overexpression. Here, we report that SM sensitize two RMS cell lines (RD and RH30) toward natural killer (NK) cell-mediated killing on the one hand, and increase the cytotoxic potential of NK cells on the other. The SM-induced sensitization of RH30 cells toward NK cell-mediated killing is significantly reduced through blocking tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) on NK cells prior to coculture. In addition, the presence of zVAD.fmk, a pancaspase inhibitor, rescues tumor cells from the increase in killing, indicating an apoptosis-dependent cell death. On the NK cell side, the presence of SM in addition to IL-2 during the ex vivo expansion leads to an increase in their cytotoxic activity against RH30 cells. This effect is mainly TNFα-dependent and partially mediated by NK cell activation, which is associated with transcriptional upregulation of NF-κB target genes such as IκBα and RelB. Taken together, our findings implicate that SM represent a novel double-hit strategy, sensitizing tumor and activating NK cells with one single drug.
Current anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) act on a limited set of neuronal targets, are ineffective in a third of patients with epilepsy, and do not show disease-modifying properties. MicroRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that regulate levels of proteins by post-transcriptional control of mRNA stability and translation. MicroRNA-134 is involved in controlling neuronal microstructure and brain excitability and previous studies showed that intracerebroventricular injections of locked nucleic acid (LNA), cholesterol-tagged antagomirs targeting microRNA-134 (Ant-134) reduced evoked and spontaneous seizures in mouse models of status epilepticus. Translation of these findings would benefit from evidence of efficacy in non-status epilepticus models and validation in another species. Here, we report that electrographic seizures and convulsive behavior are strongly reduced in adult mice pre-treated with Ant-134 in the pentylenetetrazol model. Pre-treatment with Ant-134 did not affect the severity of status epilepticus induced by perforant pathway stimulation in adult rats, a toxin-free model of acquired epilepsy. Nevertheless, Ant-134 post-treatment reduced the number of rats developing spontaneous seizures by 86% in the perforant pathway stimulation model and Ant-134 delayed epileptiform activity in a rat ex vivo hippocampal slice model. The potent anticonvulsant effects of Ant-134 in multiple models may encourage pre-clinical development of this approach to epilepsy therapy.
Borrelia (B.) miyamotoi, an emerging tick-borne relapsing fever spirochete, resists complement-mediated killing. To decipher the molecular principles of immune evasion, we sought to identify determinants contributing to complement resistance. Employing bioinformatics, we identified a gene encoding for a putative Factor H-binding protein, termed CbiA (complement binding and inhibitory protein A). Functional analyses revealed that CbiA interacted with complement regulator Factor H (FH), C3, C3b, C4b, C5, and C9. Upon binding to CbiA, FH retained its cofactor activity for Factor I-mediated inactivation of C3b. The Factor H-binding site within CbiA was mapped to domain 20 whereby the C-terminus of CbiA was involved in FH binding. Additionally, CbiA directly inhibited the activation of the classical pathway and the assembly of the terminal complement complex. Of importance, CbiA displayed inhibitory activity when ectopically produced in serum-sensitive B. garinii G1, rendering this surrogate strain resistant to human serum. In addition, long-term in vitro cultivation lead to an incremental loss of the cbiA gene accompanied by an increase in serum susceptibility. In conclusion, our data revealed a dual strategy of B. miyamotoi to efficiently evade complement via CbiA, which possesses complement binding and inhibitory activities.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a natural producer of isobutanol, which has more advantages as biofuel than ethanol, i.e. superior combustion energy, weaker corrosive action and reduced aqueous miscibility. Isobutanol is produced by the combination of the valine biosynthesis and the Ehrlich pathway. In this work, an industrial strain was employed for isobutanol production, in which the valine pathway was relocated into the cytosol. The valine pathway in yeast has a cofactor imbalance, since the glycolysis produces NADH, while Ilv5 employs NADPH for the reaction. Therefore, the cofactor specificity of the pathway was rebalanced with exchange of Ilv5 by an NADH-consuming mutant, IlvC6E6. Furthermore, Ilv6, which regulates the feed-back inhibition of the valine biosynthesis, was tested to boost isobutanol production; however, none of these Ilv6 alternatives could greatly enhance isobutanol production. Therefore, due to a still low production yield, the bottlenecks of the isobutanol pathway were deeper studied.
The major observed bottleneck concerned the conversion of DIV into KIV, since high concentrations of acetoin, 2,3-butandiol and, specially, DIV were observed in the fermentation supernatant, while neither KIV nor isobutyraldehyde were detected. This step is performed by the dihydroxy-acid dehydratase, Ilv3, which needs iron-sulfur clusters for its activity. Therefore, the first approach to circumvent this limitation was to increase the FeS assembly and its transference into the cytoplasm; however, Ilv3Δ19 activity was not improvement. Afterwards, Ilv3 alternatives were screened for substitution of Ilv3Δ19. Heterologous ILV3 orthologous with possible advantages were investigated, but Ilv3Δ19 was still the most promising alternative. Furthermore, sugar-acid enolases were tested as Ilv3Δ19 substitutes. These enolases also catalyze the dehydration of the substrate in the same way as Ilv3, but uses Mg2+ as cofactor. One of the employed enolases could complement valine auxotrophy; however, it allowed just a very slow growth of the Δilv3 strain and its activity could not be enhanced by mutagenesis studies.
Interestingly, we observed that once DIV is secreted out of the cell, it cannot be re-uptaken from the medium and this possibly further aggravates the pathway flux and Ilv3Δ19 activity. In order to suppress DIV waste, two strategies were formulated: the deletion of the possible DIV transporter, and the substrate channeling of DIV from IlvC6E6 to Ilv3Δ19. In order to find possible DIV export proteins, a transcriptome analysis of a strain producing high amounts of DIV against a strain producing no detected DIV were compared. Several transporters were found upregulated in the DIV producing strain, but, alone, none of these were responsible for the DIV efflux. For the substrate channeling, an artificial enzymatic net was constructed by the fusion of IlvC6E6 and Ilv319 with synthetic zippers, which have high affinity to each other, and as both enzymes are alone organized as oligomers. The use of this enzymatic net enhanced not only the isobutanol production in about 17%, but also 3-methyl-butanol production yield was 25% increased.
Nevertheless, together with bottlenecks arising from Ilv3 activity, the isobutanol production is limited by the ethanol production, which is the main product of S. cerevisiae. Therefore, in order to abolish ethanol production, PDC1 and PDC5 were deleted. Moreover, BDH1 and BDH2 were also deleted to create an NADH-driving force towards isobutanol production. However, the isobutanol yield of this mutant was even lower than that of the strain without the mentioned deletions. As a high production of isobutyric acid was observed, and it could be produced directly from KIV, different KIV decarboxylases and isobutanol dehydrogenases were investigated; but without improvement. Then, alternative pathways were abolished in other to favor isobutanol production, e.g. valine, leucine, isoleucine and panthotenate biosyntheses. Nevertheless, isobutanol yields were still low and the main byproducts were glycerol, acetoin, DIV and isobutyric acid. Despite the outcomes were not enough to enhance isobutanol production up to commercially required yields, these results help in the comprehension of the bottlenecks surrounding the isobutanol production pathway and serve as basis for further studies within the branched-chain amino acids biosynthesis and Ehrlich pathway.
Nearly 170 million people are chronically infected with HCV and thus at risk of developing liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although new and effective oral antiviral drugs are available, there is still the need for a preventive vaccine. In addition, in light of the high number of patients who are chronically infected with HCV the development of a therapeutic vaccine will present a support or even an alternative to the expensive medications.
To induce HCV-specific immune responses in a vaccine model, the HBV capsid is used as a carrier to deliver HCV antigens. Due to its icosahedral structure, the HBV capsid is highly immunogenic and helps to elicit a strong B cell response against the delivered antigens. In addition, the translocation motif (TLM) from the HBV surface protein is fused to the core protein. The TLM conveys membrane-permeability to the carrier capsid, enabling antigen transfer into the cytoplasm, and thus allows immunoproteasomal processing and MHC class I-mediated presentation of the antigen. To load the capsid with foreign antigens, a strep-Tag/streptavidin system is utilized. Recombinant capsids and antigens were purified from the E. coli production system. Detailed characterization of the carrier capsid demonstrated the proper assembly, adequate thermal stability and the successful loading of the foreign antigens onto the capsid surface.
As a further step, seven different HCV-derived proteins were produced and purified for the coupling on the surface of TLM-core particles. The characterization of their immunogenicity using this system is being performed.
Using ovalbumin as a model antigen, which is coupled to the carrier capsids via strep-Tag/streptavidin binding, shows that this system is suitable to efficiently deliver antigens into the cytoplasm of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), leading to the activation of APCs. This activation was assessed by measuring the secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α, in addition to the upregulation of activation markers (CD40, CD80, CD69, and MHC class I). Upon activation, the APCs were able to activate ova-specific CD8+ T cells measured by secreted IFN-γ, which was up to 20-folds more than IFN-γ secreted upon incubation with free ovalbumin. These data indicate that the TLM-capsid is suitable to serve as a carrier to deliver foreign antigens into the cytoplasm of APCs leading to MHC class I-mediated presentation and induction of an antigen-specific CTLs response.
Lepton pairs emerging from decays of virtual photons represent promising probes of nuclear matter under extreme conditions of temperature and density. These etreme conditions can be reached in heavy-ion collisions in various facilities around the world. Hereby the collision energy in the center-of-mass system (√SNN) varies from few GeV (SIS) to the TeV (LHC). In the energy domain of 1 - 2 GeV per nucleon (GeV/u), the HADES experiment at GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt studies dielectrons and strangeness production.
Various reactions, for example collisions of pions, protons, deuterons and heavy-ions with nuclei have been studied since its installation in the year 2001. Hereby the so called DLS Puzzle was solved experimentally, with remeasuring C+C at 1 and 2 GeV/u and by careful studies of inclusive pp and pn reactions at 1.25 GeV. With these measurements the so-called reference spectrum was established. Measurements of e+ e− production Ar+KCl showed an enhancement on the dilepton spectrum above the trivial NN back-
ground. Theory predicts a strong enhancement of medium radiation with the system size, due to large production of fast decaying baryonic resonances like ∆ and N∗ . The heaviest system measured so far was Au+Au at a kinetic beam energy of 1.23 GeV/u. The precise determination of the medium radiation depends
on a precise knowledge of the underlying hadronic cocktail composed of various sources contributing to the measured dilepton spectrum. In general the medium radiation needs to be separated from contributions coming from long-lived particles, that decay after the freeze out of the system. For a more model independent
understanding of the dilepton cocktail the production cross sections of these particles need to measured independently. In the related energy regime the main contributers are π0 and η Dalitz decays. Both mesons have a dominant decay into two real photons and have been reconstructed successfully in this channel. Since HADES has no electromagnetic calorimeter the mesons can not be identified in this decay channel directly. In this thesis the capability of HADES to detect e+ e− pairs from conversions of real photons is demonstrated.
Therefore not only the conversion probability but also the resulting efficiencies are shown. Furthermore, the reconstruction method for neutral mesons will be explained and the resulting spectra are interpreted. The measurement of neutral pions is compared to the independent measured charged pion distribution, and
extrapolated to full phase space. An integrated approach is used to determine the η yield. Both measurement are compared to the world data and to theory model claculations. Finally, the measurements will be used together with the reconstructed dilepton spectra to determine the amount and the properties of in medium radiation in the Au+Au system.
The mainstream law and economics approach has dominated positive analysis and normative design of economic regulations. This approach represents a form of applied neoclassical and new institutional economics. Neoclassical and/or new institutional economic theories, models, and analytical concepts are applied automatically to economic regulatory problems.
This automatic application of neoclassical economics to economic regulatory problems loses sight of the valid insights of non-neoclassical schools of economic thought and theories, which may illuminate important aspects of the regulatory problems. This thesis, therefore, advocates an integrated law and economics approach to economic regulations. This approach identifies the relevant insights of neoclassical and non-neoclassical schools of thought and theories and refines them through a process of cross-criticism. In this process, the insights of each school of thought are subjected to the critiques of other schools of thought. The resulting refined insights, which are more likely to be valid, are then integrated consistently through various techniques of integration.
Not only does neoclassical (micro and macro) law and economics overlook the valid insights of non-neoclassical schools of thought, it is also highly reductionist. It ignores the interdependencies of legal institutions, highlighted mainly by the comparative capitalism literature, and the structural interlinkages among socio-economic actors, highlighted by economic sociology and complexity economics. Rather, it takes rational individuals and their interactions subject to the constraint of isolated institution(s) as its unit of analysis. In place of this reductionist perspective, the thesis argues for a systemic approach to economic regulations. This systemic perspective replaces the reductionist unit of neoclassical regulatory analysis with a systemic unit of analysis that consists of the least non-decomposable actors’ network and its associated least non-decomposable institutional network. Then, the thesis develops an operationalized and replicable systemic framework for systemic analysis and design of institutional networks.
Both the systemic and integrated approaches are theoretically consistent and complementary. The systemic approach is in essence a way of thinking that requires a broad and rich informational basis that can be secured by using the integrated approach. Due to their complementarity, they give rise to what I call “the integrated and systemic law and economics approach.” The thesis operationalizes this approach by setting out well-defined replicable steps and applying them to concrete regulatory problems, namely, the choice of a corporate governance model for developing countries and the development of a normative theory of economic regulations. These concrete applications demonstrate the critical bite of the integrated and systemic approach, which reveals significant shortcomings of mainstream law and economics’ answers to these regulatory questions. They also show the constructive potential of the integrated and systemic approach in overcoming the critiques advanced to the neoclassical regulatory conclusions.
The operationalized integrated and systemic approach is both a law and economics as well as a law and development approach. It does not only provide an alternative to mainstream law and economics analysis and design of economic regulations. It also fills a significant analytical lacuna in the law and development literature that lacks an analytical framework for analysis and design of context-specific legal institutions that can promote economic development in developing economies.
In the adult mammalian brain stem cells within defined neurogenic niches retain the capacity for lifelong de novo generation of neurons. The subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular layer (SGL) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) have been identified as the two major sites of adult neurogenesis. Moreover, the third ventricle in the hypothalamus is emerging as a new neurogenic niche in the adult brain. Extracellular purine and pyrimidine nucleotides are involved in the control of both embryonic and adult neuro-genesis. These nucleotides act via ionotropic P2X or metabotropic P2Y receptors and studies of the adult SVZ and the DG provide strong evidence that ATP promotes progenitor cell proliferation in this stem cell rich regions. Previous studies have shown that the extracellular nucleotide-hydrolyzing enzyme NTPDase2 is highly expressed by adult neural stem and progenitor cells of the SVZ and the rostral migratory stream (RMS), the hippocampal SGL, and the third ventricle. NTPDase2 preferentially hydrolyzes extracellular nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) and, to a lower extent, diphosphates, thus modulating their effect on nearby nucleotide receptors. Deletion of the enzyme increases extracellular NTP concentrations, and might indicate roles of purinergic signaling in adult neurogenesis. As shown by enzyme histochemistry, genetic deletion of NTPDase2 essentially eliminates ATPase activity in neurogenic niches but does not affect protein expression levels and activity of other ectonucleotidases. Lack of NTPDase2 leads to expansion of the hippocampal stem cell pool as well as of the inter-mediate progenitor type-2 cells. Cell expansion is lost at around type-3 stage, paralleled by increased labeling for caspase-3, indicating increased apoptosis, and decreased levels in CREB phosphorylation in doublecortin-expressing cells, diminishing survival in this cell population. In line with increased cell death, P2Y12 receptor-expressing microglia is enriched at the hilus orientated side of the granule cell layer. These data strongly suggest that NTPDase2 functions as central homeostatic regulator of nucleotide-mediated neural progenitor cell proliferation and expansion in the adult brain by balancing extracellular nucleotide concentrations and activation of purinergic receptors.
In order to further characterize the role of purinergic signaling in adult neurogenesis, the ADP-sensitive P2Y13 receptor was identified as a potential candidate whose activation might inhibit neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the newly identified neurogenic niche at the third ventricle. Deletion of P2ry13 increased progenitor cell proliferation and long-term progenitor survival as well as new neuron formation in the hippocampal neurogenic niche. This was further paralleled by increased thickening of the granule cell layer, CREB phosphorylation, and expression of the neuronal activity marker c-Fos. Increased progenitor cell proliferation and progenitor survival persist in aged P2ry13 knockout animals. However, in the ventral dentate gyrus proliferation and expansion levels of progenitor cells did not differ significantly from the wild type. This study strongly supports the notion that extracellular nucleotides significantly contribute to the control of adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus in situ. Data in this work suggest that activation of the P2Y13 receptor dampens progenitor cell proliferation, new neuron formation, and neuronal activity. In contrast to several in vitro studies and studies in the SVZ in situ, a contribution of the ATP/ADP-sensitive P2Y1 receptor could not be confirmed in the dentate gyrus in vivo.
To unravel implications of purinergic signaling and P2Y13 receptor action in the control of adult hypothalamic neurogenesis a pilot study was performed. Mice null for P2ry13 revealed increased progenitor cell proliferation at the third ventricle as well as long-term progeny survival and new neuron formation in the hypothalamus. In contrast to results obtained in the dentate gyrus expression of the neuronal activity marker c-Fos was significantly decreased in hypothalamic nuclei, indicating increased inhibition of appetite-regulating neuronal circuits by surplus neurons in knockout animals. These data provide first evidence that extracellular nucleotide signaling contributes to the control of adult hypothalamic neurogenesis in situ. Activation of the P2Y13 receptor inhibits progenitor cell proliferation, long-term survival and neuron formation and therefore controls inhibition of appetite-regulating circuits in the adult rodent hypothalamus.
In dieser Arbeit wurde YM155 anhand eines Neuroblastom-Zellmodells bezüglich seiner antitumoralen Wirkung, sowie möglicher Resistenzmechanismen untersucht. Mit Hilfe eines Viabilitäts-‚Screenings‘ wurde eine Auswahl von 113 chemosensitiven und chemoresistenten Neuroblastomzellen auf mögliche Kreuzresistenzen gegen YM155 untersucht. Hinsichtlich der IC50 Werte gegen YM155, lagen insgesamt 74 % der untersuchten Zelllinien im therapeutisch erreichbaren Bereich von unter 50 nM. Zusätzlich wurden Neuroblastom-, Mammakarzinom- und Prostatakarzinomzellen an eine klinisch relevante YM155 Konzentration adaptiert. Diese zeigten wiederum, dass durch die Adaptierung hervorgerufene Expressionsänderung des ABC-Transporters ABCB1 und des ‚solute carrier‘ Protein SLC35F2 eine bedeutsame Rolle hinsichtlich des Resistenzmechanismus gegen YM155 spielen. Durch den Einsatz von spezifischen ABCB1-Inhibitoren, als auch durch siRNA-vermittelte Reduzierung von ABCB1 konnte eine Abhängigkeit für die Wirksamkeit YM155 von ABCB1 in Neuroblastomzellen bestätigt werden. Des Weiteren wurde in den untersuchten Zelllinien ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Wirkung von YM155 und der Expression des ‚solute carrier‘ Proteins SLC35F2 hergestellt. Dazu wurden Zellen mit verminderter SLC35F2 Expression verwendet, welche durch Transduktion mit einem für eine SLC35F2 spezifische shRNA kodierenden Vektor etabliert wurden. Dabei führte eine verminderte SLC35F2 Expression zu einer starken Minderung der Sensitivität gegen YM155. Das Zusammenspiel dieser beiden Transporter und der damit verbundene Resistenzmechanismus gegen YM155, konnte in fast allen etablierten YM155-resistenten Zelllinien (UKF-NB-3rYM15520, 22RV1rYM155300, PC-3rYM15520, HCC-1806rYM15520 und MDA-MB-231rYM15520) gezeigt werden. Wobei diese Zellen unabhängig von der Tumorentität als Resistenzmechanismus gegen YM155 entweder eine signifikant induzierte ABCB1 Expression (verstärkter YM155 Efflux) und/oder eine verminderte SLC35F2 Expression (verringerter YM155 Influx) entwickelten. Außerdem konnte mit Hilfe der p53-depletierten Zelllinie UKF-NB-3pc-p53 eine Abhängigkeit der YM155 Wirkung vom Tumorsuppressor p53 nachgewiesen werden, wobei es durch die Depletierung von p53 zu einer verminderten Sensitivität der Zellen gegen YM155 kam. Zudem kam es durch die Nutlin-3 hervorgerufene p53 Aktivierung und Akkumulierung zu einer Verstärkung der YM155 Wirkung in den untersuchten Zellen. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der p53 Status von Zellen einen Einfluss auf deren YM155 Resistenz haben kann. Da in der Behandlung von Neuroblastomen neben der Chemotherapie auch Bestrahlung eingesetzt wird, wurde zusätzlich untersucht ob eine Adaptierung von Neuroblastomzellen an YM155 zu einer verminderten Sensitivität gegen Bestrahlung führen kann. Da die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersuchten UKF-NB-3 Zelllinien (UKF-NB-3 und UKF-NB-3rYM15520) eine ähnliche Sensitivität gegenüber der Bestrahlung aufwiesen, konnte kein Zusammenhang zwischen einer Adaptierung an YM155 und der Ausbildung einer Bestrahlungsresistenz gezeigt werden.
Ein weiterer wichtiger Teil dieser Arbeit war es, den primären Wirkmechanismus von YM155 in Neuroblastomzellen zu untersuchen. In vorangegangenen Studien wurde die vom Hersteller beschriebene Wirkung von YM155 als Survivin-Inhibitor in Frage gestellt. Stattdessen soll der primäre Apoptose-induzierende Effekt in erster Linie durch DNA-Schäden hervorgerufen werden, während die Survivin Inhibierung lediglich darauf folgen soll. In einer zeitlichen und konzentrationsabhängigen Kinetik der YM155 Behandlung konnte in UKF-NB-3 Zellen der genaue Zeitpunkt der Survivin-Inhibierung und der Induktion der DNA-Schadensantwort ermittelt werden. Dabei konnte in der vorliegenden Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass in Neuroblastomzellen als Antwort auf die YM155 Behandlung zuerst eine Survivin-Inhibierung erfolgt, und die DNA-Schadensantwort als Folge dieser induziert wird. Darüber hinaus belegte die siRNA-vermittelte Survivin-Inhibierung in UKF-NB-3 und UKF-NB-6, dass eine fehlende Survivin Expression die DNA-Schadensantwort induziert.
Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit erstmals in YM155 adaptierten Neuroblastomzellen der Resistenzmechanismus gegen YM155 näher untersucht werden und darüber hinaus wurde demonstriert, dass die Wirkung von YM155 in Neuroblastomzellen nicht auf die Induktion der DNA-Schadensantwort beruht, sondern primär auf die Survivin-Inhibierung zurückzuführen ist.
The baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a valuable and increasingly important microorganism for industrial applications (Hong and Nielsen, 2012). Its robustness concerning process conditions like low pH, osmotic and mechanical stress as well as toxic compounds is an advantage. Moreover, S. cerevisiae is ‘generally regarded as safe’ (GRAS). The model organism has been studied intensively. The collected data, including genomic, proteomic and metabolic information, can be used to genetically modify and improve its metabolism. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives have wide applications as biofuels, biomaterials, and other biochemicals. Several studies have been dealing with the overproduction of fatty acids and derivatives thereof in S. cerevisiae. The fatty acid biosynthesis starting with acetyl-CoA requires two enzymes, the acetyl-CoA carboxylase (Acc1p) and the fatty acid synthase complex (FAS), to produce acyl-CoA esters with predominantly 16 to 18 carbon atoms chain length (Lynen et al., 1980). For the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids in S. cerevisiae the ER bound acyl-CoA desaturase, Ole1p is essential (Tamura et al., 1976; Certik and Shimizu, 1999).
Using S. cerevisiae, the first section of this work dealt with the heterologous characterization of potential ω1-desaturases. Due to the fact that unsaturated fatty compounds can be modified further by hydrosilylations, hydrovinylations, oxidations to epoxides, acids, aldehydes, ketones or metathesis reactions, the interest in ω1-fatty acids is tremendous (Behr and Gomes, 2010). With the intention to find enzymes in fungi, that have a terminal desaturase activity a search in different genome databases was performed. The sequences of Pex-Desat3 and Obr-TerDes were used as reference sequences. The analysed proteins from Schizophyllum commune (EFI94599.1), Schizosaccharomyces octosporus (EPX72095.1), Wallemia mellicola (EIM20316.1), Wallemia ichthyophaga (EOR00207.1) and Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus (EKV44635.1), however, finally turned out to be Δ9 desaturases. A fungal desaturase with ω1-activity could not be found. The Δ9 desaturase SCD1 from Mus musculus was crystallized by Bai et al. (2015) and the information for specific amino acids responsible for the substrate specificity or enzyme activity were allocated. In combination with sequence and enzyme activity data form ChDes1 from Calanus hyperboreus, Desat2 from Drosophila melanogaster, Pex-Desat3 from Planotortrix excessana and Obr-TerDes from Operophtera brumata single amino acid exchanges were performed in the Δ9 desaturase Ole1p from S. cerevisiae. For all mutants, only fatty acids (C16 - C18) with a double bond between carbon C9 and C10 could be found. This indicates, that all inserted amino acid exchanges do not affect the substrate specificity or the position of the introduced double bond.
In the second section the focus was in the development of a production system for fatty acids in S. cerevisiae with regard to the previously established procedures by metabolic engineering. The combination of cytosolic malate dehydrogenase (MDH3), cytosolic malate enzyme (MAE1) and a citrate- α-ketoglutarate- carrier (YHM2) should improve the availability of acetyl-CoA in the cytosol, which is an important precursor for the fatty acid biosynthesis. If the major pathway (acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase) was already optimized by high expression levels than no positive effect on increased fatty acid synthesis was detectable. Only non-optimized strains, with the additional overexpression of ATP-citrate lyase and cytosolic malate dehydrogenase, lead to a 41 % (20 mg/g dcw) improvement of fatty acid synthesis. In order to increase the fatty acid content further, the additional overexpression of DGA1 and TGL3 was performed. Hence, the highest amount of fatty acids could be observed with the strain S. cerevisiae WRY1ΔFAA1ΔFAA4 (2.5 g/L ± 0.8 g/L). The additional elimination of acyl-CoA synthetase Fat1p did not improve the yield.
It was recently reported, that chain length control of the fatty acid synthesis of bacterial FAS can be changed by rational engineering (Gajewski et al., 2017a). The knowledge about bacterial FAS was transferred in this work to S. cerevisiae FAS. Mutating up to five amino acids in the FAS complex enabled S. cerevisiae to produce medium chain fatty acids (C6 - C12). Further improvement was done by metabolic pathway engineering (promoter of alcohol dehydrogenase II from S. cerevisiae (pADH2), deletion of acyl-CoA synthetase FAA2) and optimization of fermentation conditions (YEPD-bacto medium buffered with potassium phosphate). The production of medium chain fatty acids resulted in the highest yield of 464 mg/L (C6 to C12 fatty acids). Furthermore, strains were created specifically overproducing hexanoic acid (158 mg/L) and octanoic acid (301 mg/L). The characterization of transferases, which could be responsible for the de-esterification of CoA-bound fatty acids, was analysed in an additional approach. It could be shown, that the genes EHT1, EEB1 and MGL2 have an influence on the MCFA yield in the supernatant. Generally speaking, the data from the single and double deletion strains suggest that Eeb1p has a selective hydrolytic activity for hexanoic acid-CoA ester, while Eht1p shows selective hydrolytic activity for octanoic acid-CoA ester, which is in line with Saerens et al. (2006).
One of the most important shifts in mathematics learning and instruction in the last decades has taken place in the conception of the subject matter, changing from a perspective of mathematics as composed of concepts and skills to be learned, to a new one emphasizing the mathematical modelling of the reality (De Corte, 2004). This shift has had, as it is to be expected, an impact on classroom processes, and changed instructional settings and practices.
Instructional explanations, the object of study in the present work, are an interesting topic in that landscape, since they continue to be a typical form of classroom discourse, especially −but no exclusively−when new contents are introduced to the students (e.g. Leinhardt, 2001; Perry, 2000; Wittwer & Renkl, 2008). Consequently, good teachers are also supposed to be good explainers, independently whether they are the main speaker, or play the role of moderator in exchange between students (e.g. Charalambous, Hill, & Ball, 2011; Danielson, 1996; Inoue, 2009).
Despite the central role that instructional explanations play in classroom practices, current instructional quality models, which describe how effective teaching practices should look like, do not consider instructional explanations as a key element (Danielson, 1996; Klieme, Lipowsky, Rakoczy, & Ratzka, 2006; Pianta & Hamre, 2009). Moreover, aside from a few notable exceptions (Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, & Vavrus, 1986; Leinhardt & Steele, 2005; Perry, 2000), instructional explanations have not been investigated empirically within other traditions either. Thus, there is scarce of empirical work about instructional explanations and their potential contribution to promote students’ learning.
The purpose of the present work is to examine instructional explanations from a theoretical perspective as well as empirically, in order to characterize them and investigate their association with students’ learning outcomes. The underlying theoretical framework chosen to organize the study is the one proposed by Leinhardt (2001) with some adaptations according to pertinent complementary literature (Drollinger-Vetter & Lipowsky, 2006; Leinhardt & Steele, 2005).
The empirical work of this dissertation was carried out in the context of the project “Analysis of mathematic lessons” (FONIDE 209) funded by the Chilean Ministry of Education during 2007. This study, in turn, was embedded in the international extension of the research project the ‘‘Quality of instruction, learning, and mathematical understanding’’ carried out between 2000 and 2006 by the German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF) in Frankfurt, Germany, and the University of Zurich in Switzerland (e.g. Klieme & Reusser, 2003; Klieme et al., 2006). According to the design of the original project, the study considers the inclusion of different perspectives, namely, teachers, students and external observers, by means of questionnaires, tests and classroom observation protocols.
The examination of instructional explanations in this dissertation begins in chapter 2 with the review of relevant literature and introduction of the theoretical background underpinning the study of instructional explanations. This theoretical review comprises three subsections, the first one describing the evolution of the process-product-paradigm into the actual instructional quality models that are presented in a next step. The second subsection includes a detailed theoretical presentation of explanations and instructional explanations, addressing the main theoretical issues and giving examples of the few empirical works about instructional explanations found in the literature. Finally, the third subsection with the description of Chilean teaching practices in order to contextualize the study.
Chapter 3 presents the research questions and lists the associated work hypotheses that are investigated throughout this work. Chapter 4 includes the methodological aspects of the work, indicating the description of the sample, design of the study, the methods used the gather the data and the analyses chosen to answer the proposed research questions.
Chapter 5 contains the presentation of results, which are organized by research question, starting with the results from quantitative analyses and continuing with the results from qualitative analyses. This chapter closes with a general summary of the results organized according to the central themes of the study. Finally, chapter 6 concludes with a discussion of the link between the results and the instructional explanations literature and research, or lack thereof, that originally motivated the research questions addressed in this study. This chapter finishes with a discussion of the limitations of the study and the implications of its results, as well as an examination of areas where the research on instructional explanations can be fruitfully expanded in the future.
In healthy older adults, resveratrol supplementation has been shown to improve long-term glucose control, resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) of the hippocampus, and memory function. Here, we aimed to investigate if these beneficial effects extend to individuals at high-risk for dementia, i.e., patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). In a randomized, double-blind interventional study, 40 well-characterized patients with MCI (21 females; 50–80 years) completed 26 weeks of resveratrol (200 mg/d; n = 18) or placebo (1,015 mg/d olive oil; n = 22) intake. Serum levels of glucose, glycated hemoglobin A1c and insulin were determined before and after intervention. Moreover, cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (3T) (n = 14 vs. 16) was conducted to analyze hippocampus volume, microstructure and RSFC, and neuropsychological testing was conducted to assess learning and memory (primary endpoint) at both time points. In comparison to the control group, resveratrol supplementation resulted in lower glycated hemoglobin A1c concentration with a moderate effect size (ANOVARM p = 0.059, Cohen's d = 0.66), higher RSFC between right anterior hippocampus and right angular cortex (p < 0.001), and led to a moderate preservation of left anterior hippocampus volume (ANOVARM p = 0.061, Cohen's d = 0.68). No significant differences in memory performance emerged between groups. This proof-of-concept study indicates for the first-time that resveratrol intake may reduce glycated hemoglobin A1c, preserves hippocampus volume, and improves hippocampus RSFC in at-risk patients for dementia. Larger trials with longer intervention time should now determine if these benefits can be validated and extended to cognitive function.
Evidence about distribution patterns of brain metastases with regard to breast cancer subtypes and its influence on the prognosis of patients is insufficient. Clinical data, cranial computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of 300 breast cancer patients with brain metastases (BMs) were collected retrospectively in four centers participating in the Brain Metastases in Breast Cancer Registry (BMBC) in Germany. Patients with positive estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), or human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) statuses, had a significantly lower number of BMs at diagnosis. Concerning the treatment mode, HER2-positive patients treated with trastuzumab before the diagnosis of BMs showed a lower number of intracranial metastases (p < 0.001). Patients with a HER2-positive tumor-subtype developed cerebellar metastases more often compared with HER2-negative patients (59.8% vs. 44.5%, p = 0.021), whereas patients with triple-negative primary tumors had leptomeningeal disease more often (31.4% vs. 18.3%, p = 0.038). The localization of Brain metastases (BMs) was associated with prognosis: patients with leptomeningeal disease had shorter survival compared with patients without signs of leptomeningeal disease (median survival 3 vs. 5 months, p = 0.025). A shorter survival could also be observed in the patients with metastases in the occipital lobe (median survival 3 vs. 5 months, p = 0.012). Our findings suggest a different tumor cell homing to different brain regions depending on subtype and treatment. View Full-Text
Retinal OFF bipolar cells show distinct connectivity patterns with photoreceptors in the wild-type mouse retina. Some types are cone-specific while others penetrate further through the outer plexiform layer (OPL) to contact rods in addition to cones. To explore dendritic stratification of OFF bipolar cells in the absence of rods, we made use of the ‘cone-full’ Nrl-/- mouse retina in which all photoreceptor precursor cells commit to a cone fate including those which would have become rods in wild-type retinas. The dendritic distribution of OFF bipolar cell types was investigated by confocal and electron microscopic imaging of immunolabeled tissue sections. The cells’ dendrites formed basal contacts with cone terminals and expressed the corresponding glutamate receptor subunits at those sites, indicating putative synapses. All of the four analyzed cell populations showed distinctive patterns of vertical dendritic invasion through the OPL. This disparate behavior of dendritic extension in an environment containing only cone terminals demonstrates type-dependent specificity for dendritic outgrowth in OFF bipolar cells: rod terminals are not required for inducing dendritic extension into distal areas of the OPL.
Processes shaping the African Guineo-Congolian rain forest, especially in the West African part, are not well understood. Recent molecular studies, based mainly on forest tree species, confirmed the previously proposed division of the western African Guineo-Congolian rain forest into Upper Guinea (UG) and Lower Guinea (LG) separated by the Dahomey Gap (DG). Here we studied nine populations in the area of the DG and the borders of LG and UG of the widespread liana species, Chasmanthera dependens (Menispermaceae) by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), a chloroplast DNA sequence marker, and modelled the distribution based on current as well as paleoclimatic data (Holocene Climate Optimum, ca. 6 kyr BP and Last Glacial Maximum, ca. 22 kyr BP). Current population genetic structure and geographical pattern of cpDNA was related to present as well as historical modelled distributions. Results from this study show that past historical factors played an important role in shaping the distribution of C. dependens across West Africa. The Cameroon Volcanic Line seems to represent a barrier for gene flow in the present as well as in the past. Distribution modelling proposed refugia in the Dahomey Gap, supported also by higher genetic diversity. This is in contrast with the phylogeographic patterns observed in several rainforest tree species and could be explained by either diverging or more relaxed ecological requirements of this liana species.
The effect-response framework states that plant functional traits link the abiotic environment to ecosystem functioning. One ecosystem property is the body size of the animals living in the system, which is assumed to depend on temperature or resource availability, among others. For primary consumers, resource availability may directly be related to plant traits, while for secondary consumers the relationship is indirect. We used plant traits to describe resource availability along an elevational gradient on Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Using structural equation models, we determined the response of plant traits to changes in precipitation, temperature and disturbance with and assessed whether abiotic conditions or community-weighted means of plant traits are stronger predictors of the mean size of bees, moths, frugivorous birds, and insectivorous birds. Traits indicating tissue density and nutrient content strongly responded to variations in precipitation, temperature and disturbance. They had direct effects on pollination and fruit traits. However, the average body sizes of the animal groups considered could only be explained by temperature and habitat structure, not by plant traits. Our results demonstrate a strong link between traits and the abiotic environment, but suggest that temperature is the most relevant predictor of mean animal body size. Community-weighted means of plant traits and body sizes appear unsuitable to capture the complexity of plant-animal interactions.
Clustering of cardiovascular risk factors and carotid intima-media thickness : the USE-IMT study
(2017)
Background: The relation of a single risk factor with atherosclerosis is established. Clinically we know of risk factor clustering within individuals. Yet, studies into the magnitude of the relation of risk factor clusters with atherosclerosis are limited. Here, we assessed that relation.
Methods: Individual participant data from 14 cohorts, involving 59,025 individuals were used in this cross-sectional analysis. We made 15 clusters of four risk factors (current smoking, overweight, elevated blood pressure, elevated total cholesterol). Multilevel age and sex adjusted linear regression models were applied to estimate mean differences in common carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) between clusters using those without any of the four risk factors as reference group.
Results: Compared to the reference, those with 1, 2, 3 or 4 risk factors had a significantly higher common CIMT: mean difference of 0.026 mm, 0.052 mm, 0.074 mm and 0.114 mm, respectively. These findings were the same in men and in women, and across ethnic groups. Within each risk factor cluster (1, 2, 3 risk factors), groups with elevated blood pressure had the largest CIMT and those with elevated cholesterol the lowest CIMT, a pattern similar for men and women.
Conclusion: Clusters of risk factors relate to increased common CIMT in a graded manner, similar in men, women and across race-ethnic groups. Some clusters seemed more atherogenic than others. Our findings support the notion that cardiovascular prevention should focus on sets of risk factors rather than individual levels alone, but may prioritize within clusters.
The widespread application of fertilizers has greatly influenced many processes and properties of agroecosystems, and agricultural fertilization is expected to increase even further in the future. To date, most research on fertilizer impacts has used short-term studies, which may be unrepresentative of long-term responses, thus hindering our capacity to predict long-term impacts. Here, we examined the effects of long-term fertilizer addition on key ecosystem properties in a long-term grassland experiment (Palace Leas Hay Meadow) in which farmyard manure (FYM) and inorganic fertilizer treatments have been applied consistently for 120 years in order to characterize the experimental site more fully and compare ecosystem responses with those observed at other long-term and short-term experiments. FYM inputs increased soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, hay yield, nutrient availability and acted as a buffer against soil acidification (>pH 5). In contrast, N-containing inorganic fertilizers strongly acidified the soil (<pH 4.5) and increased surface SOC stocks by increasing the C stored in the coarse (2.8 mm-200 μm) and fine (200–50 μm) fractions. Application of N fertilizers also reduced plant species richness and the abundance of forbs and legumes. Overall, our results were broadly consistent with those observed in other very long-term studies (the Park Grass and Steinach Grassland experiments) in that fertilization effects on plant and soil properties appeared to be driven by differences in both nutrient input and changes to soil pH. We also established that the direction of long-term fertilization effects tended to be comparable with short-term experiments, but that their magnitude differed considerably, particularly where ammonium sulphate-induced acidification had occurred. We therefore conclude that short-term studies are unlikely to possess the required timeframe to accurately predict long-term responses, thus necessitating the use of long-term study sites. Such experiments should be strategically established in regions where future fertilizer use is expected to increase rapidly.
Bank regulators have the discretion to discipline banks by executing enforcement actions to ensure that banks correct deficiencies regarding safe and sound banking principles. We
highlight the trade-offs regarding the execution of enforcement actions for financial stability. Following this we provide an overview of the differences in the legal framework governing supervisors’ execution of enforcement actions in the Banking Union and the United States. After discussing work on the effect of enforcement action on bank behaviour and the real economy, we present data on the evolution of enforcement actions
and monetary penalties by U.S. regulators. We conclude by noting the importance of supervisors to levy efficient monetary penalties and stressing that a division of competences among different regulators should not lead to a loss of efficiency regarding
the execution of enforcement actions.
The centerpiece of all neuronal processes is the synaptic transmission. It consists of a complex series of events. Two key elements are the binding of synaptic vesicles (SV) to the presynaptic membrane and the subsequent fusion of the two membranes. SV are neurotransmitter-filled membranous spheres with many integral and peripheral proteins. The synaptic SNARE complex consists of three interacting proteins, which energize and regulate the fusion of the SV membrane with the presynaptic membrane. Both processes are closely orchestrated to ensure a specific release of neurotransmitter. Already many experiments have been performed, such as genetic screens and proteome analysis of SV, to determine the functions of the various proteins involved. Nevertheless, the functions of the identified proteins are still not fully elucidated. The aim of this thesis was initially applying a tandem affinity purification (TAP) of SV to identify unknown interaction partner of SV and to determine their role. This was supposed to be performed in the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). The underlying mechanisms are conserved throughout the phylogentic tree and identified interaction partners will help to understand the processes in the mammalian brain. Although there is no neuron-rich tissue in C. elegans as in other model organisms, the diverse genetic methods allows a rapid creation of modified organisms and a prompt determination of the function of identified proteins. The integral SV protein synaptogyrin has been fused to a TAP-tag. The TAP-tag consists of a ProteinA, a TEV protease cleavage site and a calmodulin binding peptide (CBP). Both affinity purification steps are performed sequentially and allow a highly specific native purification of proteins and their interaction partners. Due to technical difficulties the purification strategy was modified several times during the course of this thesis and then finally abandoned for a more promising project, the SNARE complex purification. In conclusion, one of the reasons was the necessary lack of detergent.
The amended aim of this thesis has been the TAP of solubilized SNARE complex to identify unknown interaction partner and to determine their role. In order to increase the specificity of the purification, in terms of formed complexes, the two SNARE subunits, synaptobrevin (SNB-1 in C. elegans) and syntaxin (UNC-64 in C. elegans), were separately fused to the different affinity tags. As the modifications of the proteins could impair their function and lead to false interaction partners, their functionality was tested. For this purpose, the corresponding fusion constructs were expressed in strains with mutated snb¬1 and unc-64. Non-functional synaptic proteins display an altered course of paralysis in an aldicarb assay. The fusion proteins which were expressed in their respective mutant strains displayed a near to wild-type (WT) behavior in contrast to the naive mutant strains. Multiple TAP demonstrated SNB-1 signals in Western blot analysis and complex sets of proteins in the final elution step in a silver staining of SDS-PAGEs. These samples were sent with negative control (WT purification) for MS analysis to various cooperation partners. 119 proteins were identified which appeared only in data sets with SNARE proteins and not in WT samples. If proteins were detected in ≥ 2 SNARE positive MS analysis and had known neural functions or homologies to neuronal proteins in other species, they were selected for further analysis. These candidates were knocked down by RNAi and tested for synaptic function in a following aldicarb assay. The treatment with their specific RNAi resulted for mca-3 in a strong resistance, while frm-2, snap-29, ekl-6, klb-8, mdh-2, pfk-2, piki-1 and vamp-8 resulted in hypersensitivity. The most responsive genes frm-2, snap-29 and mca-3 were examined, whether they displayed a co-localization together with synaptobrevin in promoter fusion constructs or functional fusion constructs. In fluorescence microscopy images only MCA-3::YFP demonstrated neuronal expression.
In order to substantiate the synaptic nature and functionality of the MCA-3::YFP a swimming assay was performed. Here, fusion construct expressing strains, which contained mutated mca-3, were compared with untreated mutant strains and WT strains according to their behavior. In this swimming assay a partial restoration of WT behavior was shown in the MCA-3::YFP expressing mutant strains. Based on these data, we discovered with MCA 3 a new interaction partner of the SNARE complex. MCA-3 is a plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase and was initially seen only in their role in the endocytosis. Its new putative role is the reduction of Ca2+ concentration at the bound SNARE complex. Since an interaction of syntaxin with Ca2+ channels has been demonstrated, it would be comprehensible to reduce the local concentration of Ca2+ to a minimum by tethering Ca2+ transporters to the SNARE complex.
The estimation of water balance components as well as water-related indicators on the land surface by means of global hydrological models have evolved in recent decades. Results of such models are frequently used in global- and continental-scale assessments of the current and future state of the terrestrial water cycle and provide a valuable data basis, e.g., for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The Water – Global Assessment and Prognosis (WaterGAP) model is one of the state-of-the-art models in that field and has been in development and application for around 20 years. The evaluation, modification and application of WaterGAP is the subject of this thesis. In particular, the sensitivity of climate input data on radiation calculation and simulated water fluxes and storages is evaluated in the first part. Effects of model modification such as updated spatial input datasets, improved process representation or an alternative calibration scheme are the focus of the second part. Finally, three applications of WaterGAP give insight into the capabilities of that model, namely an estimate of global and continental water balance components, an assessment of groundwater depletion and the impact of climate change on river flow regimes. Model experiments, which are described in six journal papers as well as the appendices, were used as the basis for answering the total of 13 research questions. One of the major foci was to quantify the sensitivity of simulated water fluxes and storages to alternative climate input data. It was found that the handling of precipitation undercatch leads to the greatest difference in water balance components, especially in those areas where WaterGAP is not calibrated due to a lack of river discharge observations. The modifications of WaterGAP in the last few decades has led in general to an improved simulation of monthly river discharge, but process representation in semi-arid and arid regions still requires improvements. With the most current model version, WaterGAP 2.2b, and for the time period 1971–2000, river discharge to the oceans and inland sinks is estimated to be 40 000 km3 yr-1, whereas actual evapotranspiration is simulated as 70 500 km3 yr-1. Future research needs for WaterGAP in particular but also for the global hydrological model community in general are defined, promoting a community-driven effort for a robust assessment of the continental water cycle.
NOSTRIN belongs to the family of F-BAR proteins, which are multi-domain adaptor proteins that have emerged as important regulators of membrane remodeling and actin dynamics in a variety of vital cellular processes. They have been analyzed structurally and biochemically and overexpression studies have revealed their potential in inducing membrane curvature and tubulation. Several studies have begun to decipher the function of individual proteins, but the understanding of F-BAR protein functions in vivo is still quite limited. The F-BAR protein NOSTRIN is mainly expressed in endothelial cells and has originally been described as interaction partner of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), modulating eNOS subcellular localization. The phenotypic characterization of NOSTRIN knockout mice revealed decreased nitric oxide (NO) and cGMP levels, an increase in systolic blood pressure and an impairment of the acetylcholine-induced, NO-dependent relaxation of aortic rings from mice with global as well as endothelial cell-specific knockout of the NOSTRIN gene (ECKO) . These findings implied that NOSTRIN plays a role in regulating NO production in vivo, but the underlying molecular mechanisms were unclear. Therefore, this study was aimed at addressing the mechanism causing the inhibited vasodilation specifically upon stimulation with acetylcholine in NOSTRIN KO and ECKO mice, and at exploring additional roles of NOSTRIN in the signal transduction of endothelial cells.
The major acetylcholine receptor that mediates vessel relaxation upon stimulation with acetylcholine is the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype M3 (M3R). In the present study NOSTRIN was identified as novel interaction partner of the M3R and important factor for the correct spatial distribution and functionality of the M3R. Moreover, it provides the first example of an F-BAR protein regulating a GPCR. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy analysis of isolated aortae from NOSTRIN KO and WT mice indicated that NOSTRIN was necessary for the proper subcellular localization of the M3R and targeted it to the plasma membrane. A series of pulldown experiments revealed a direct interaction of NOSTRIN with the M3R. The binding required the SH3 domain of NOSTRIN and the third intracellular loop of the M3R, which has a recognized role in receptor regulation. The interaction of NOSTRIN with the M3R was confirmed by co-localization of NOSTRIN and the M3R upon overexpression in mammalian cells. Expression levels of the M3R as well as eNOS were not affected by the loss of NOSTRIN in accordance with the finding, that NOSTRIN impacts on the acetylcholine/eNOS signaling axis through regulation of the subcellular trafficking of its binding partners.
Furthermore, there were first indications for a role of NOSTRIN in facilitating the carbachol-induced calcium response in M3R-expressing cells, suggesting that NOSTRIN might influence M3R activation. in the absence of NOSTRIN, the function of the M3R in mammalian cells overexpressing the M3R was markedly impaired, resulting in abolition of the calcium response to the M3R agonist carbachol. In accordance, the activated eNOS fraction associated with the Golgi complex was markedly reduced in aorta explants from NOSTRIN knockout and ECKO mice. Moreover, NOSTRIN knockout inhibited the carbachol-induced, activating phosphorylation of eNOS in murine aortae as well as primary mouse lung endothelial cells confirming its role as important regulator of eNOS activity in vivo.
Mit dem Stichwort "Materialanalyse" tritt ins Blickfeld, was Walter Benjamin als ein "zentrales Problem des historischen Materialismus" bezeichnet hat: "auf welchem Wege es möglich ist, gesteigerte Anschaulichkeit mit der Durchführung der marxistischen Methode zu verbinden". Die Frage betrifft die Beziehungen von Philologie, geschichtlicher Erfahrung und materialistischer Dialektik im Zusammenhang einer Geschichtsschreibung, der es nicht, wie der konservativen Hermeneutik, um das "Einrücken in ein Überlieferungsgeschehen" geht, sondern darum, das "Kontinuum der Geschichte aufzusprengen. Dass die marxistische Methode auf jene 'Beschaulichkeit' verzichten muss, die 'für' Benjamin das Verfahren des Historismus kennzeichnet, gründet in der von Friedrich Engels ausgegebenen Maxime, wonach die dialektische Darstellung den "Schein einer selbständigen Geschichte [...] der ideologischen Vorstellungen " aufzulösen habe, indem sie den "vom Denken unabhängigen Ursprung" zu ihrem Ausgangspunkt macht. Für Benjamin ist ihr Prinzip kein 'episches', sondern das der Montage. Sie ermöglicht, "die großen Konstruktionen aus kleinsten, scharf und schneidend konfektionierten Baugliedern zu errichten", um "durch Analyse des kleinen Einzelmoments" den "Kristall des Totalgeschehens" sichtbar werden zu lassen. Das Verfahren, das auch im apokryphen Materialgesellschaftliche Einsichten zu gewinnen sucht, verlangt nach einer aktiven Lektüre, die weniger 'auslegt' als 'übersetzt' und also den Text nicht unverändert lässt. Die Materialanalyse geht nicht aus von einem abstrakten Allgemeinbegriff, unter dem die Einzeldinge zum 'Spezialfall' herabsinken. Sie verlangt vielmehr, wie Theodor W. Adorno von der Dialektik fordert, die "Einlösung des Anspruchs der besonderen spezifischen Erkenntnis auf ihre Allgemeinheit". Ihren Namen, der in Studienprojekten des Argument-Verlags Ende der 1970er Jahre programmatisch wird, rechtfertigt die Materialanalyse da, wo das geschichtliche Material und eine am Begriff des Gegenstands selbst gebildete Reflexion sich zusammenschließen. Gefordert ist daher eine philosophische Arbeit, wie sie in marxistischer Tradition vor allem von Walter Benjamin und Antonio Gramsci ins Werk gesetzt worden ist. Die Materialanalyse setzt kein 'System' oder einen 'Entwurf' voraus, sondern schöpft aus der Kritik und dem Kommentar von Texten, prototypisch durchgeführt in der marxschen Kritik der politischen Ökonomie. Sie verlangt eine Kunst des Zitierens, wie sie sich im 'Passagen-Werk' von Benjamin ähnlich wie in den 'Gefängnisheften' Gramscis vorgebildet findet. Ihre Verfasser "haben vorgemacht, wie aus Zitaten ein Text aufgebaut werden kann, der den Ursprungstexten nie in den Sinn gekommen wäre". Das Feststellen der "Einzeltatsachen in ihrer unverwechselbaren 'Individualität'" gilt dabei als eine unhintergehbare Voraussetzung 'für die Schaffung einer' "lebendigen Philologie", die ihr Material analytisch zu durchdringen versteht.
In den Jahren um 1900 explodiert in Deutschland die sprachwissenschaftliche und sprachtheoretische 'Szene'. Alles, was in den nationalphilologischen Synthesen des 19. Jahrhunderts keinen Platz finden konnte, drängt spätestens jetzt zurück in das Licht der akademischen Öffentlichkeit. Nicht oder kaum akademisierte Unterströmungen wie die Sprachpsychologie, die Schulgrammatik, die Semantik, die Semiotik machen von sich reden. Bei weitem nicht alles wirkt dann tatsächlich auf die akademische Sprachwissenschaft. Diese sprachwissenschaftliche 'Überfülle' ist erst gebändigt worden in der Rezeption des kanonischen 'Cours de linguistique générale' Saussures, die einigermaßen erfolgreich den "eigentlichen" Gegenstand der Sprachwissenschaft als 'langue', als synchronisch zu fassendes einzelsprachliches Zeichensystem, zu fixieren suchte. All das ist historiographisch gut erforscht. Su gut wie überhaupt nicht im Blick der Historiographen ist hingegen die ebenfalls um 1900 erstmals erscheinende sprachwissenschaftliche Problemlinie, die später zu einer ebenfalls wirkmächtigen soziologisch-kommunikativen Sprachauffassung hinführt. Gute und gründliche Arbeiten gibt es zwar zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte der "Pragmatik", aber kaum untersucht ist die Vorgeschichte dessen, was heute entweder politische Begriffsgeschichte, Diskursanalyse oder Politolinguistik heißt. Das hängt gewiss damit zusammen, dass in Diskursanalyse und Begriffsgeschichte keineswegs nur (noch nicht einmal hauptsächlich) sprachwissenschaftliche Traditionen zusammenlaufen, sondern eben auch soziologische, politologische, philosophische. Ein bloßer Vortrag, versteht sich, kann diese Lücke nicht füllen. Ich will gleichwohl versuchen, wenigstens einen Strang aus dem einschlägigen problemgeschichtlichen Bündel zu ziehen - und der beginnt mit Karl Otto Erdmann.
Die stetig wachsende Menge an digital verfügbarem, zeitgenössischem wie historischem Textmaterial bietet für die begriffsgeschichtliche Forschung Chancen und Herausforderungen: Während die fortschreitende Digitalisierung die Verfügbarkeit erforschbaren Materials deutlich erhöht, resultiert aus der verbesserten Auffindbarkeit potentieller Quellen eine schwindende Übersicht dessen, was für begriffsgeschichtliche Studien überhaupt in Betracht zu ziehen ist. Am Beispiel der Begriffe Netz, Netzwerk und Vernetzung erproben wir quantitative, semi-automatische Ansätze für eine digitale Begriffsgeschichte. Dafür identifizieren wir zunächst die Beschränkungen des Tools Google Ngrams, das weder für die Analyse von Wortbedeutungen noch für die Bestimmung der Kontexte von Wortverwendungen geeignet ist. Demgegenüber erörtern wir die Vorzüge einer hier erstmals im Kontext begriffsgeschichtlicher Forschung vorgestellten Methode der vorwissensfreien Bedeutungsinduktion, die semantische Aspekte gesuchter Begriffsworte automatisch ermittelt, deren typische und untypische Verwendungskontexte aggregiert, Wortfelder kartiert und durch einen geeigneten Index die Möglichkeit bietet, Belegstellen zu betrachten sowie die Veränderung von Wortbedeutungen im Laufe eines gegebenen Zeitraums zu analysieren. Mittels dieser interaktiven, semi-automatischen Methode lässt sich für den deutschen Sprachraum nachweisen, dass sich zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts ein Problemdiskurs über Netzwerke entwickelt, mit dem sich ein Wandel der Semantik des Begriffswortes erklären lässt. Mit dem vorgestellten Verfahren lässt sich auch die Bedeutung komplexer metaphorischer Prozesse für den zu erklärenden Begriffswandel erschließen.
Semantische Kämpfe gehören zum Alltag, die Gegenwart ist geradezu erfüllt von ihnen, denn "Herrschaft und Macht werden auch über Semantik ausgeübt". Man möchte deshalb meinen, dass sie einfach zum Sprachgebrauch gehören und seit jeher unsere verbalen Auseinandersetzungen begleiten. Ob das richtig ist, kann und soll hier gar nicht untersucht werden, Historiker sind dafür eher ungeeignet. Seit wann sie aber in unser Bewusstsein getreten sind und weshalb, ist eine Frage, zu der die Begriffsgeschichte durchaus etwas beizutragen hat. Es verdient darum Interesse, den weit über Deutschland hinaus bekannten Historiker der Ideen und Begriffe, den 2006 verstorbenen Reinhart Koselleck, auf seinem Weg vom hochgradig ideologisierten Konzept semantischer Kämpfe zur radikal historisierten Begriffsgeschichte zu begleiten, weil einige seiner dabei gemachten Einsichten ganz allgemein zu verstehen helfen, wie in Europa sprachlich die Moderne entstand und welchen Verlauf sie genommen hat.
Rahel Jaeggi und Tilo Wesche erstellen im Sammelband 'Was ist Kritik?' eine präzise Kartographie der historischen Hauptbedeutungen dieses Begriffes, wobei sie vier Formen unterscheiden: 1) Aufklärung oder Zeitalter der Kritik, 2) historische Kritik, 3) emanzipatorische Kritik oder intellektuelle Tugend und 4) philosophische Kritik. Alle vier Formen sind mit eigenen Nuancen im Werk von Reinhart Koselleck zu finden, der, wie bekannt, nicht im Bann der sogenannten Frankfurter Schule stand. Er hat sich mit der 'Aufklärung als Zeitalter der Kritik' auseinandergesetzt und sogar von der "Dialektik der Aufklärung" gesprochen, genauer gesagt von der Dialektik von Politik und Moral in der Neuzeit. In Form einer Metakritik bzw. einer "Aufklärung über die Aufklärung" unterzog er deren ideologische Pervertierung der Moral einer bissigen Kritik. Koselleck meinte, diese perfide Dialektik, die moralisierende Politik, sei nicht obsolet geworden, sondern sie habe zu den Weltanschauungskriegen des 20. Jahrhunderts geführt. Er kultivierte keine moralische Enthaltung oder Abstinenz, aber er war mit den Exzessen des Moralismus vertraut und misstraute ihnen deshalb.
'Die Zukunft kommt von selbst - der Fortschritt nur mit uns' war das Motto eines SPD-Parteitages im Jahr 1988 in Münster. Dieses Motto verrät nicht nur etwas darüber, wie der Begriff des Fortschritts interpretiert wurde (dass Fortschritt nämlich im Unterschied zur Zukunft nicht automatisch eintritt, sondern politisch 'gemacht' werden muss und dass er, im Gegensatz zur unbestimmten Zukunft, kommen 'soll'), sondern zeigt vor allem, dass gerade dieser Begriff und der mit ihm verbundene politische Gestaltungsanspruch als wesentliches Distinktionsmerkmal zum politischen Gegner herausgestellt wurde. Die Beschlüsse, die 2016 auf dem Parteikonvent der SPD gefasst wurden, standen unter dem Motto 'Fortschritt und Gerechtigkeit'. Dieses Begriffspaar, so erklärte der Bundesvorsitzende Sigmar Gabriel, sei die "Seele der Partei". Die Selbstbeschreibung als Partei des Fortschritts vereinfacht aber die Sache. Wie gezeigt werden soll, hat die Rede über Fortschritt in der Sozialdemokratie eine wechselvolle und ambivalente Geschichte, angesichts derer der heutige, recht ungebrochene Bezug auf das Schlagwort Fortschritt doch ein wenig überrascht. Der Geschichte des Fortschrittsbegriffs in der deutschen Sozialdemokratie soll im Folgenden in einigen wichtigen Momenten durch eine Untersuchung der Programmtexte nachgegangen werden. Dazu wurde auch auf die Methoden der digitalen Korpusanalyse zurückgegriffen. Der Schwerpunkt liegt in diesem Beitrag auf der Herausbildung und der Erosion der 'klassischen' Prägung des Fortschrittsbegriffs in der SPD in der Bundesrepublik. Er wurde nach der Neuausrichtung der SPD beim Parteitag in Bad Godesberg 1959 in besonderer Weise mit benachbarten Kategorien gekoppelt und hat so die grundlegende politische Zielsetzung und das Selbstbild der Partei nachhaltig geprägt.
Die zunehmende Verbreitung des Internets als universelles Netzwerk zum Transport von Daten aller Art hat in den letzten zwei Dekaden dazu geführt, dass die anfallenden Datenmengen von traditionellen Datenbanksystemen kaum mehr effektiv zu verarbeiten sind. Das liegt zum einen darin, dass ein immer größerer Teil der Erdbevölkerung Zugang zum Internet hat, zum Beispiel via
Internet-fähigen Smartphones, und dessen Dienste nutzen möchte. Zudem tragen immer höhere verfügbare Bandbreiten für den Internetzugang dazu bei, dass die weltweit erzeugten Informationen mittlerweile exponentiell steigen.
Das führte zur Entwicklung und Implementierung von Technologien, um diese immensen Datenmengen wirksam verarbeiten zu können. Diese Technologien können unter dem Sammelbegriff "Big Data" zusammengefasst werden und beschreiben dabei Verfahren, um strukturierte und unstrukturierte Informationen im Tera- und Exabyte-Bereich sogar in Echtzeit verarbeiten zu können. Als Basis dienen dabei Datenbanksysteme, da sie ein bewährtes und praktisches Mittel sind, um Informationen zu strukturieren, zu organisieren, zu manipulieren und effektiv abrufen zu können. Wie bereits erwähnt, hat sich herausgestellt, dass traditionelle Datenbanksysteme, die auf dem relationalen Datenmodell basieren, nun mit Datenmengen konfrontiert sind, mit denen sie nicht sehr gut hinsichtlich der Performance und dem Energieverbrauch skalieren. Dieser Umstand führte zu der Entwicklung von spezialisierten Datenbanksystemen, die andere Daten- und Speichermodelle implementieren und für diese eine deutlich höhere Performance bieten.
Zusätzlich erfordern Datenbanksysteme im Umfeld von "Big Data" wesentlich größere Investitionen in die Anzahl von Servern, was dazu geführt hat, dass immer mehr große und sehr große Datenverarbeitungszentren entstanden sind. In der Zwischenzeit sind die Aufwendungen für Energie zum Betrieb und Kühlen dieser Zentren ein signifikanter Kostenfaktor geworden. Dementsprechend sind bereits Anstrengungen unternommen worden, das Themenfeld Energieeffizienz (die Relation zwischen Performance und Energieverbrauch) von Datenbanksystemen eingehender zu untersuchen.
Mittlerweile sind über 150 Datenbanksysteme bekannt, die ihre eigenen Stärken und Schwächen in Bezug auf Performance, Energieverbrauch und schlussendlich Energieeffizienz haben. Die Endanwender von Datenbanksystemen sehen sich nun in der schwierigen Situation, für einen gegebenen Anwendungsfall das geeigneteste Datenbanksystem in Hinblick auf die genannten Faktoren zu ermitteln. Der Grund dafür ist, dass kaum objektive und unabhängige Vergleichszahlen zur Entscheidungsfindung existieren und dass die Ermittlung von Vergleichszahlen zumeist über die Ausführung von Benchmarks auf verschiedensten technischen Plattformen geschieht. Es ist offensichtlich, dass die mehrfache Ausführung eines Benchmarks mit unterschiedlichsten Parametern (unter anderem die Datenmenge, andere Kombinationen aus technischen Komponenten, Betriebssystem) große Investitionen in Zeit und Technik erfordern, um möglichst breit gefächerte Vergleichszahlen zu erhalten.
Eine Möglichkeit ist es, die Ausführung eines Benchmarks zu simulieren anstatt ihn real zu absolvieren, um die Investitionen in Technik und vor allem Zeit zu minimieren. Diese Simulationen haben auch den Vorteil, dass zum Beispiel die Entwickler von Datenbanksystemen die Auswirkungen auf Performance und Energieeffizienz bei der Änderungen an der Architektur simulieren können anstatt sie durch langwierige Regressionstests evaluieren zu müssen. Damit solche Simulationen eine praktische Relevanz erlangen können, muss natürlich die Differenz zwischen den simulierten und den real gewonnenen Vergleichsmetriken möglichst klein sein. Zudem muss eine geeignete Simulation eine möglichst große Anzahl an Datenbanksystemen und technischen Komponenten nachstellen können.
Die vorliegende Dissertation zeigt, dass eine solche Simulation realistisch ist. Dafür wurde in einem ersten Schritt die Einflussaktoren auf Performance, Energieverbrauch und Energieeffizienz eines Datenbanksystems ermittelt und deren Wirkung anhand von experimentellen Ergebnissen bestimmt. Zusätzlich wurden auch geeignete Metriken und generelle Eigenschaften von Datenbanksystemen und von Benchmarks evaluiert. In einem zweiten Schritt wurde dann ein geeignetes Simulationsmodell erarbeitet und sukzessiv weiterentwickelt. Bei jedem Entwicklungsschritt wurden dann reale Experimente in Form von Benchmarkausführungen für verschiedenste Datenbanksysteme und technische Plattformen durchgeführt. Diese Experimente wurden mittels des Simulationsmodells nachvollzogen, um die Differenz zwischen realen und simulierten Benchmarkergebnissen zu berechnen. Die Ergebnisse des letzten Entwicklungsschrittes zeigen, dass diese Differenz unter acht Prozent liegt. Die vorliegende Dissertation zeigt auch, dass das Simulationsmodell nicht nur dazu geeignet ist, anerkannte Benchmarks zu simulieren, sondern sich im allgemeinen auch dafür eignet, ein Datenbanksystem und die technische Plattform, auf der es ausgeführt wird, generell zu simulieren. Das ermöglicht auch die Simulation anderer Anwendungsfälle, zum Beispiel Regressionstests.
"Wellenformen" : die Leistung mathematischer Modellbildung für Akustik, Physiologie und Musiktheorie
(2016)
Im Jahr 1857 hält Hermann von Helmholtz einen Vortrag 'Ueber die physiologischen Ursachen der musikalischen Harmonien', in dem er erstmals Ergebnisse seiner akustischen und hörphysiologischen Forschungen einer akademischen Öffentlichkeit vorstellt. Dabei bilden die Untersuchungen und Experimente, die Helmholtz im Rahmen seiner Tätigkeit als Professor für Anatomie und Physiologie an der Universität Bonn durchgeführt hat, Grundlage und Ausgangspunkt einer umfassenden Neukonstitution von Wissenszusammenhängen, in deren Zuge ältere Wissensbestände arrondiert, im Lichte neuer Erkenntnisse bewertet, erweitert, neu gefasst und in ausgearbeiteter Form sechs Jahre später unter dem Titel 'Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen' veröffentlicht werden. In den einleitenden Worten seines Vortrages aus dem Jahr 1857 verweist Helmholtz in diesem Kontext auf einen Aspekt, der ihm offenkundig von großer Signifikanz zu sein scheint:
"Es hat mich immer als ein wunderbares und besonders interessantes Geheimnis angezogen, dass gerade in der Lehre von den Tönen, in den physikalischen und technischen Fundamenten der Musik, die unter allen Künsten in ihrer Wirkung auf das Gemüth als die stoffloseste, flüchtigste und zarteste Urheberin unberechenbarer und unbeschreiblicher Stimmungen erscheint, die Wissenschaft des reinsten und consequentesten Denkens, die Mathematik, sich so fruchtbar erwies."
Bemerkenswert an dieser Aussage ist nicht, dass Musik und Mathematik in eine enge Beziehung zueinander gesetzt werden - hier kann Helmholtz auf eine über zweitausendjährige Tradition der wechselseitigen Elaboration beider Bereiche verweisen -, sondern dass Darlegungen, die auf die systematische Durchdringung der Zusammenhänge zwischen akustischen, physiologischen, psychischen, musiktheoretischen und ästhetischen Phänomenbereichen zielen, ihren Ausgangspunkt in der Mathematik nehmen. Diesen Leistungen, die mathematisches Denken für die Untersuchung und Explikation dieser Zusammenhänge erbringt, möchte der folgende Beitrag nachgehen. Es wird sich zeigen, dass eine spezifische mathematische Operation für das Verständnis von akustischen und physiologischen Prozessen modellbildend wirkt und über verschiedene Applikationswege hinweg neue Impulse der Systematisierung von Wissensbeständen setzt.
Klima wird in der industriellen Moderne zum Problem des Wissens. Anders als das Wetter ist das Klima der direkten Wahrnehmung entzogen; ein Umstand, der paradoxerweise immer problematischer zu werden scheint, je mehr Wissen über die komplexen Zusammenhänge von lokalen Wetterereignissen und globalem Klima existiert. Das moderne Klima ist ein wandelbares, globales Phänomen, dessen Erkenntnis doppelt vermittelt ist, insofern es weder sinnlich erfahrbar noch verstandesmäßig erfassbar und somit auf Modellierung angewiesen ist. Diese findet jedoch nicht allein im wissenschaftlichen Kontext statt. Vielmehr ist die Herstellung von Klima als Bedingung von (Lebens-)Wirklichkeit und Zukunft trotz ihres unterschiedlichen epistemischen Status das Ergebnis wechselseitiger Einflussnahme wissenschaftlicher und nicht-wissenschaftlicher Modelle.
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Entwicklung von neuen, experimentellen Ansätzen zur Thematisierung von Siliciumverbindungen im Chemieunterricht, die einen deutlichen lebensweltlichen Bezug aufweisen und moderne Entwicklungen berücksichtigen.
Die Bandbreite der Siliciumverbindungen reicht von den Silicaten im Bereich der Anorganik über elementares Silicium bis hin zu den polymeren Siliconen im Grenzbereich zu der Organik. Diese
große Vielfalt an Verbindungen hat eine Vielzahl von Anwendungen in tagtäglichen Produkten zur Folge. Dies sind einerseits relativ bekannte anorganische Baustoffe, wie Zement oder Sand, die schon seit der Antike von der Menschheit genutzt werden. Andererseits werden kontinuierlich neue Anwendungsmöglichkeiten in Alltag und Industrie für Siliciumverbindungen entwickelt, die in der modernen Lebenswelt der SchülerInnen einen festen Platz haben.
Oft ist das Vorhandensein der Siliciumverbindung gar nicht auf den ersten Blick erkennbar, obwohl sie die Eigenschaften eines Alltagsprodukts maßgeblich beeinflussen kann. Dies ist beispielsweise bei Silica-Verbindungen in der Zahncreme der Fall.
Im Chemieunterricht werden, wenn überhaupt, die „traditionellen“ Verwendungszwecke, wie in der Baustoffchemie, thematisiert, weniger dagegen die Funktion von Siliciumverbindungen in innovativen Produkten neueren Datums. Nur zögerlich werden Ansätze zur Thematisierung von Verbindungen, wie Siliconen, im Chemieunterricht etabliert.
Im Rahmen dieser Forschungsarbeit wurden daher auf der Grundlage einer fachdidaktischen Analyse und Diskussion Experimente zu ausgewählten Siliciumverbindungen entwickelt. Dies sind die Silicone, die Silica-Verbindungen und elementares Silicium. Die Experimente lassen sich größtenteils in der Sekundarstufe II in Anlehnung an verbindlich im Lehrplan thematisierte Inhalte in den Unterricht einbinden. Einige Experimente können nach einer angemessenen didaktischen Reduktion auch bereits in der Sekundarstufe I eingesetzt werden.
Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entwickelten Experimente wurden von LehrerInnen und SchülerInnen gleichermaßen erprobt. Es wurden Rückmeldungen zur Versuchen und Versuchsvorschriften eingeholt. Die Ergebnisse der Auswertung wurden zur Optimierung herangezogen.
In this paper we propose a way forward towards increased financial resilience in times of growing disagreement concerning open borders, free trade and global regulatory standards. In light of these concerns, financial resilience remains a highly valued policy objective. We wish to contribute by suggesting an agenda of concrete, do-able steps supporting an enhanced level of resilience, combined with a deeper understanding of its relevance in the public domain.
First, remove inconsistencies across regulatory rules and territorial regimes, and ensure their credibility concerning implementation. Second, discourage the use of financial regulatory standards as means of international competition. Third, give more weight to pedagogically explaining the established regulatory standards in public, to strengthen their societal backing.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der vergleichenden funktionalen Charakterisierung der E.coli Transporter LacY, FucP und XylE und des Glucose-Transporters GlcP aus Staphylococcus epidermidis sowie funktionsrelevanter Mutanten. Sie katalysieren in vivo den PMF-gekoppelten Zuckertransport und repräsentieren die major facilitator superfamily (MFS), einer der größten Transporter-Familien überhaupt. Die Studien wurden mithilfe einer elektrophysiologischen Methode auf Basis Festkörper-unterstützter Membranen (SSM) durchgeführt. Komplementär dazu wurden radioaktive Transportassays, fluorometrische Messungen, kinetische Simulationen und theoretische Berechnungen auf Basis der 3D-Strukturen durchgeführt. Experimentell bestimmte Zucker- und pH-Abhängigkeiten elektrogener steady-state und pre steady-state Reaktionen wurden verwendet, um ein allgemeingültiges kinetisches Modell aufzustellen.
Insgesamt konnten bei allen Transportern zwei elementare elektrogene Reaktionen identifiziert werden. Eine schnelle Zucker-induzierte Konformationsänderung wurde dem induced fit des Zuckermoleküls zugeordnet. Die Elektrogenität im steady-state wird dagegen durch den langsamen Transfer der negativ geladenen Protonenbindestelle bestimmt. Die für den Symport ratenlimitierende Reaktion ist abhängig von den äußeren Bedingungen wie pH-Werten, Zuckerkonzentrationen, Substrat-Spezies und Membranpotential meist die Konformationsänderung des leeren (P) oder des beladenen (PSH) Carriers, welche die Substratbindestellen im Zuge des Alternating Access über die Membran transferieren. Ein Wechsel zwischen hohen Protonenbindungs-pK-Werten und niedrigen Protonenfreisetzungs-pK-Werten durch weitere lokale Konformationsänderungen ist zentraler Bestandteil des Transportmechanismus. Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt ist die Kopplung zwischen Zucker- und Protonen-Translokation, die sich zwischen E.coli Transportern und GlcP strikt unterscheidet. In E.coli Transportern erfolgt eine kooperative Bindung von Zucker und Proton. Zudem erfolgt keine Konformationsänderung im Zucker-gebundenen, unprotonierten Carrier (PS). In GlcP ist die Kopplung erheblich reduziert. Der Transport-Modus selbst ist abhängig von den äußeren Bedingungen. So katalysiert GlcP abhängig vom pH-Gradienten Uniport, Symport oder Antiport.
Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen wichtigen Beitrag zum Verständnis des PMF-gekoppelten Zuckertransports und zeigt die Grenzen des für LacY formulierten 6-Zustands-Modells mit nur zwei Konformationsänderungen auf. Ein erweitertes 8-Zustands-Modell mit vier Konformationsänderungen, die unterschiedliche Ratenkonstanten aufweisen können, erklärt sowohl Symport, Antiport als auch Uniport und berücksichtigt zudem die zahlreichen Ergebnisse für LacY aus der Literatur.